EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON CONCRETE BY PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT BY GGBS

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL:

Concrete has basic naturally, cheaply and easily available ingredients as

cement, sand, aggregate and water. After the water, cement is second most used material in the
world. But this rapid production of cement creates two big environmental problems for which
we have to find out civil engineering solutions. First environmental problem is emission of
CO2 in the production process of the cement. We know that CO2 emission is very harmful
which creates lots of environmental changes. 1 tone of carbon dioxide is estimated to be
released to the atmosphere when 1tone of ordinary Portland cement is manufactured. Peoples
working in the environmental field creates awareness in the public about the energy sources
like petrol, diesel are limited in earth crest and for future generation we have to save it or we
have to find alternative energy sources. But the peoples working in the construction field are
having the same awareness about the lime consumption? This is second environmental problem
related to consumption of lime. As there is no alternative binding material which totally replace
the cement so the utilization of partial replacement of cement is well accepted for concrete
composites.

Portland cement is a key ingredient in concrete, with a worldwide

production of 1.4 billion tonnes a year. However, it is regarded as a high-emissions product:
its manufacture involves burning limestone and clay together at temperatures of between
1,400C and 1,600C.The use of cement replacements provides opportunities for significant
reductions in energy use and carbon dioxide emissions. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
(GGBS), manufactured from a by-product of the ironmaking industry, is one of the most
common, and most sustainable, substitutes. The cementitious properties of blast-furnace slag
were discovered in the late 19th century and it has been widely used in concrete manufacture
for over 100 years

Using GGBS as an additive in concrete mixes can reduce embodied carbon and
improve resistance to chemical attacks.

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HOW GGBS IS MADE

Blast furnaces operate at temperatures of up to 2,000C and are fed with a

carefully controlled mixture of iron ore, coke and limestone. The iron ore converts to iron,
which sinks to the bottom of the furnace. The remaining materials form a slag that floats on
top of the iron. The molten iron and slag are drawn off at regular intervals from the furnace.
As the slag is drawn off, its chemistry is monitored as a check on the performance of the
furnace. This ensures that the chemical composition of the slag is very consistent.
After being tapped from the furnace and separated from the iron, the slag is
rapidly quenched in water. This process is known as granulation because it produces glassy
granules, similar in appearance to coarse sand.

HOW GGBS WORKS :

Cement acts as a binder in concrete, adhering the various ingredients and causing
the mix to harden. This occurs due to a chemical reaction between cement and water, known
as hydration, which produces calcium hydroxide as discrete crystals surrounded by large pores.
GGBS can be used as a replacement for cement because it contains the same oxides (see table
1) and undergoes the same hydration process. Additionally, the GGBS reacts with the excess
calcium hydroxide to form calcium silicate and calcium aluminate hydrates which contribute
to filling and blocking the pores within the crystalline structure. The result is a hardened cement
paste, which contains greatly reduced calcium hydroxide and a refined pore structure that is
less permeable.

Calcium oxide Silicondi oxide Aluminium Magnesium oxide Iron oxide

oxide
GGBS 40% 35% 12% 10% 0.20%

Cement 65% 20% 5% 1% 2%

Table oxides contents in GGBS and cement

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APPEARANCE :
GGBS provides a lighter-coloured finish than concrete made using Portland
cement-only mixes. It has greater reflectivity, providing better visibility and therefore safety in
dark environments, and reduced efflorescence. Because of the near-white colour, GGBS can
be used as a replacement for white cement, with only a minimal difference in whiteness.
However, for architectural applications where brightness is a critical factor, the use of white
cement is recommended wherever practical.

SUSTAINABILITY :
There are environmental benefits to be gained from the use of GGBS
as a cement substitute, both in the production process and throughout the life of the structure.
Because it is a by-product of iron-making and the slag would be created regardless of whether
or not it can be used, GGBS generates very low CO2 emissions. Table 2 shows a comparison
between the emissions from GGBS and Portland cement.

Producing 100m3 of concrete uses 32 tonnes of cement. Replacing 50% of that cement with
GGBS saves 12.96 tonnes of CO2 equal to taking 42 cars off the road for a year, or 41 years
of electricity use in an average home.

Other sustainability benefits of GGBS include the fact that it produces very low emissions of
the harmful gases sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, and that it requires virtually no
quarrying or mineral extraction.

The increased durability of concrete manufactured using GGBS further improves a projects
environmental performance by reducing the amount of repair and maintenance required and
extending the service life of the concrete structures.

DURABILITY :

Resistance to deleterious reactions

Sulphates occur naturally in the ground and can sometimes have a harmful
effect on concrete, causing it to crack and disintegrate. The main reactions are known as
ettringite and thaumasite. The use of GGBS greatly increases resistance to sulphate attack due
to its chemical make-up and reduced porosity. This is recognised by codes and standards: in

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 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON CONCRETE BY PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT BY GGBS

the British standard for concrete, BS 8500, the only option recommended for the most severe
sulphate exposure is a concrete with a cement replacement of at least 66% GGBS.

Ettringite :The primary sulphate reaction that causes disruption of hardened concrete is
associated with one of the minor compounds in Portland cement, tricalcium aluminate. This
can combine with sulphate ions that have penetrated the concrete and form a new hydrate
(ettringite), which occupies a volume greater than the original constituents. This generates high
internal stresses in the concrete that can cause it to crack and disintegrate.
Thaumasite : Another form of sulphate attack, called thaumasite, has been recognised as a
problem after the discovery of its effects on some bridges over the M5. Thaumasite is a product
that forms at temperatures below 15C through a reaction between cement paste hydrates,
carbonate and sulphate ions. Its formation reduces the cement paste to a soft mulch,
undermining the concretes durability and stability.

Chloride attack :
Concrete can be attacked by the chloride ions found in de-icing salts, marine
environments or contaminated raw materials. These damage concrete by breaking down the
passive iron oxide layer that protects the steel reinforcement from humidity and oxygen. This
layer is formed on the surface of the steel as a result of the high alkaline environment
produced by hydrating cement.

Certain types of concrete are more vulnerable to attack because it is easier for the
chloride ions to reach the steel reinforcement. When CEM I Portland cement hydrates, the
resultant pores are relatively large and can easily allow chloride ions to penetrate to the heart
of the concrete and attack the metal. The result is rapid corrosion of the steel, in the form of
localised pitting or general corrosion.

To prevent the penetration of chloride ions, a dense concrete of very low permeability
needs to be produced and this can be achieved by incorporating GGBS. Where structures are
subject to attack from chlorides from an external source, a minimum of 50% GGBS should be
used, with a higher proportion used in areas where high levels of chlorides will be encountered.

Heat of hydration :
The hydration of cement is an exothermic reaction, which means it releases

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 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON CONCRETE BY PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT BY GGBS

heat. The use of GGBS reduces the heat of hydration. This is significant because high
temperatures in concrete can generate stresses that can result in early-age thermal cracking.

Minimising heat of hydration to reduce thermal cracking is of particular importance

in mass concrete pours. GGBS was used successfully in the construction of The Shard in
London, one of the UKs largest concrete pours, at 80% replacement level.

The percentage of GGBS used directly affects the heat of hydration: a typical
replacement level of 70% is recommended for large pours, according to Concrete Society
Advice Note 25. A temperature reduction of up to 40% can be achieved with a 70%
replacement level.

Alkali-silica reaction:
ASR is a reaction between the hydroxyl ions in the water within the concrete pores and
certain forms of silica that are present in some aggregates. This produces a gel that absorbs
pore fluid and expands, inducing internal stress of such magnitude that it causes extensive
cracking of the concrete, known as map cracking. The damage occurs in parts of the concrete
structure exposed to moisture. GGBS significantly reduces the risk of ASR because of its
refined pore structure and because there are fewer available alkali to accelerate the reaction.

Setting times:
Concrete produced with a proportion of GGBS has a slightly longer setting time
than cement-only concrete. In practice, these extended setting times tend to give greater
opportunity for working the concrete, and provide more flexibility on site to compensate for
any delivery delays or adverse working conditions.

Concrete with a cement content containing 50% GGBS will have a setting time of
approximately half an hour longer than cement-only concrete, at the same water-cement ratio
and ambient temperature. Tests are recommended to ensure the correct mix ratios.

Formwork removal for sections 0.5m thick is not generally delayed by using GGBS. It is
possible to shorten the time before striking formwork by insulating or heating or by determining
the strength of the concrete in the element using temperature-matched curing.

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STANDARDS:
Key standards governing the use of GGBS in concrete include:
1. BS EN 197-1:2011 Cement. Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for
common cements
2. BS EN 15167-2:2006 Ground granulated blast furnace slag for use in concrete, mortar
and grout.
Conformity evaluation
1. BS EN 206:2013 Concrete. Specification, performance, production and conformity
2. BS 8500-1:2015. Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206. Method of
specifying and
3. guidance for the specifier.
BS 8500 provides notations for within mixer combinations containing GGBS:
1. CIIS: 6-35% of GGBS
2. CIIIA: 36-65% of GGBS
3. CIIIB: 66-80% of GGBS.

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