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1|
278
i
I
I 272 The Conceptof Shear Stresses 213
I
I
II
l
I
I ti=t-l+,c+
(tce_ {-
=;
p' /-,,^".
f Al
<t
I
I
I -J'._tr,
->
,
I+
<l i
V E
_.;f_
u 'A ; ,t___f f i__
F#.,=v4,J b
"lll
I <-
ffi:r,FLW,,.- -
I
T Fig.7.2. Trajectories of principal stressesin a homogeneous isotropic beam.
F<-.r'xl
I Section Beam Flexur al Shear Shear
trajectoriesintersect the neutral axis at 45". When the principal tensile
It elemen stresses flow stresses
Fig. 7.1. Shear force, shear flow, and shear stressesin a homogeneousisotropic elastic beam.
stressesbecomeexcessive, cracks develop approximately at right anglesto
,lI
theseprincipal tensile stresstrajectories.
These traditional concepts were extended by pioneersTs of reinforced
where z is the internal lever arm, and this is normally the location of the concretetheory to the idealizedsection of a cracked reinforced concrete
maximum shearstressif the width b at that fiber is small enough(seeFig. 7.1). beam. As Fig. 7.3 shows,the horizontal force to be transferredacross the
t ')
q
The shear stressesso generatedcan then be combined with the flexural
stresses
at any fiber.Again by consideringthe equilibrium of an infinitesimal
crackedzone of the sectionremains constant; hence the shear flow in the
tension zone is constant. Using the concepts of Fig. 7.l, the incremental
element,the magnitude I and f, and the inclination E of the principal tension force is dT : ub*dx, and hence we have
'tI stresses,
resultingfrom the simultaneousapplicationof a tensilestress/ and
a shearstressu illustratedin Fig. 7.2, can be obtainedas follows:
principal tension
,
principalcompression fz : I
I
I : U+J+4F)
(f-
(7.3a)
'l):-
-
I dT
b* dx
dM I
dx b*jd
V
b-jd
(7.4)
! ,
(7.3b)
The inclination of the principal stressesis illustrated for the case of a Beam seclion Fl e x u ra l s t re s s e s Shear flow Shear stresses
{ uniformly loaded simply supported rectangular beam in Fig. 7.2.The stress Fig. 7.3. Shear stressesacrossan idealized cracked reinforced concrete section.
I I
J
274 Strength and Deformationof Members with Shear
I/
v
q-- ('1.4a)
la
b*d
(7.5) I
where
M" : M - N r" (7.6a\
The externalshearis reducedonly if the depth of the member increasesin the
same direction in which the bending moments increase.When the opposite
is the case,the value of 0' in Eq. 7.6 must be taken as negative.Three typical
casesof the distribution of external and effectiveshear for haunched beams,
carrying uniformly distributed loads,are qualitatively depicted in Fig. 7.5. Fig.7.5. The effectiveshear in haunched beams
27s
276 Strength and Deformation of Memben with Shear Shear Rcsistancein ReinforcedConcreteBeams Without Web Reinforcement
I r 11
7.3 THE MECHANISM OF SHEAR RESISTANCEIN
REINFORCEDCONCRETEBEAMS WITHOUT WEB
REINFORCEMENT
I for the initiation of flexural cracks perpendicular to the axis of the member.
In the region of high shear force, significant principal tensile stresses,also
referred to as diagonal tension, may be generated at approximately 45'
to the axis of the member. These may result in inclined (diagonal tension)
l-.------
t-
\21
II
Fi g. 7.6. E q ui l i bri um requi rc mc ntsi n the s hear s pan of' a bei tm.
beam.
The diagonal cracking load originating from flexure and shear is usually
much smaller than would be expectedfrom principal stressanalysisand the
tensile strength of concrete.This condition is largely due to the presenceof ft may be seenthat the total external transverselorce V, is resistedby the
shrinkage stresses, the redistribution of shear stresses between flexural combinationof
1
cracks,and the locai weakeningofa crosssectionby transversereinforcement, l. A shearforce acrossthe compressionzone V,.
which causesa regular pattern of discontinuities along a beam. 2. A dowel force transmitted across the crack by the flexural reinforce-
In the early stages of reinforced concrete design, diagonal cracking was menl Vu.
considered to be undesirable. However, it is now recognized that diagonal
I
3. The vertical componentsof inclined shearing stressesDatransmitted
cracking under serviceload conditions is acceptable,provided crack widths acrossthe inclinedcrack by meansof interlocking of the aggregateparticles.
remain within the same limits acceptedfor flexure.
To simplify the equilibrium statement, we assume that shear stresses
II
transmitted by aggregateinterlock can be lumped into a single force G,
7.3"2 Equilibrium in the Shear Span of I Beam whose line of action passesthrough two distinct points of the section (see
Fig. 7.6h).With this simplificationthe lorce polygon in Fig. 7.6<'represenrs
Figure 7.6c shows part of a simply supported beam over which the shear the equi l i br iumof t he f r eebody.This condit ioncan alsobe st at edin t he f or m
force is constant.The internal and external forcesthat maintain equilibrium
for this freebody, bounded on one side by a diagonal crack, can be identified. V:V,+V,+V,l (1.11
I
I
I
Strength and Deformation of Mernberswith Shear Without Web Reinforcemenl 219
278 Shear Resistancein ReinforcedConcreteBeams
the level of the flexural
representingthe contribution of the compressionzone,aggregateinterlock, length of the member at and immediately above
and dowel action to shearresistancein a beam without web reinforcemenr. wastermedthe shearflow' It is evidentthat suchsimplification
reinforcement,
The moment of resistance flow or bond force can be efficiently
of the beam is c;ipressecl
by of behavioris possibleonly if the shear
and the concretesurrounding
M : rV : j,l(T * /, cot a) (78) transferredbetweenthe flexuralreinforcement
of bond' exam ined in t he next chapt er '
If the contribution of the dowel force toward flexural resistanceis ignored i t. It gi vesri se t o t he phenom enon
it has been commonly believed that in the
(ajustifiablestepfor designpurposes,particularlyin the absenceofsrirrups;, For more than half a century
by "beam action" in this
the moment of resistance absenceof web reinforcemeni.shearwas resisted
simolifiesto
manner.
M : Tj(l (1.e) W henl oran yr easont hebondbet weenSt eelandconcr et eisdest r oyed
force T cannot change,
It is important to note that the moment and the tensionforce,relatedto over the entireiength of the shearspan, the tensile
ext er nal shear can be
eac hot her in F i g .7 .6 h a n d E q .7 .9 ,d o n o t o ccur at the samecrosssecti on hence ri T/ri .t: 0. Under such cir cum st ancest he
extreme casemay be
of t hebeam .I t i s s e e nth a t th e te n s i o ni n th e fi e xuralrci nforcementat cl i stance resisteclonly by inchned internal compression'This
by t he secondt er m
(x - .idcot a) from the support is governedby the moment at a distance termed..archact ion" lt s shearr esist anceis expr essed
-x
from the support of the beam. The increasein the steel stressesclcarly on the rieht-handside of Eq' 7'10,namely'
dependson t h e s l o p eo f th e i d e a l i z e dd i a g o nalcrack.w hen a i s a l i ttl e l css
t han45' ,jd c o t fl r/.T h i s m u s t b e ta k e n i n to accountw hen the curtai l mcnt v : r 4dx4 : c 4Qx! (7.t2)
-
of the flexural reinforcement is determineiJ.This shift in the tension forcc
compressionforce C'
dis t r ibut ionis e x a mi n e dmo rec l o s e l yi n S e c ti on7.5.l ,w hen the contri buti on Here the internaltension f is replacedby the internal
a compression force' with
of the web reinforcementis also considerecl. to signity that ir is the vertical component of
shear force'
consnt slope,which balancesthe external
(owing to slip' cracking'
7.3.3 The Principal Mechanismsof Shear Resistance In a normal reinforcedconcretebeam in which
q required for beam action cannot be
when t he r ela ti o n s h i p and other causes)the full bond force
b e tw e e nth ee x te rn a m
l omentand the i nternalmomenr as expressed by Eq' 7 10' will offer a com-
of r es is t ancgei v e nb y Eq . 7 .9a rec o mb i n e dw i th the w el l -know nrel ati onshi p developed.the two mechanisms,
agalnstshear forces' The extent to which each mechanism
betweenshearand the rate of changeof bendingmoment along a beam,the bined reststance
at various levelso[ externalload intensitywill
followingmodesof internalshearresistanceresult: contributesto shearresistance
with theseactions'
dependon the compatibility of deformationsassociated
, :#: *,r'^:jof * r y (7.10)
Beam Action in the Shear SPan
divide the tenstonzone
The term .il@rldx) expressesthe behavior o[ a true prismatic flexural Cracks inducedby load on a simply supportedbeam
m em berin wh i c h th e i n te rn a lte n s i l efo rc e ? "acti ngon a constantl everarm i.e,,t.ach of theseblocks may be considered
into a numberof blocks(seenig.
id c hanges f r om p o i n t to p o i n t a l o n gth e b e a m,to bal anccexactl ytheexternal its base at the compression zone of the concrete
to act as a cantileverwth
m om entint en s i tyT. h e te rm tl T l tl r. th e ra te o f changcor the i nternaltensi on andi tsfreeendjust beyondt hef lexur aI t ensionr einf or cem ent . Becauseof t he
force,is termed the bond orce,q, applied to the flexural reinforcemenrper analogy,the blcks *tt U" referredto as "concrete cantilevers'"
t o t ake place't he
unit lengt hof b e a m .(Se ea l s o F i g . 7 .3 .)S h o u ldthe i nternal l everarm remai n It w as sho wn in Eq. 7'll t hat f or per f ectbeam act ion
to be seenhow the
c ons t ant( a no rma l l y a c c e p te da s s u mp ti o no f the el asti ctheory anal ysi sof full bond force r1*uri b. effectivelyiesisted'It remains
pr is m at icf lex u ra l m e m b e rs )s o th a t d (k t)l d x: 0, thc equati on of perfect The resistance may be
concretecantileverscan fulfill ,uti'' u requirement'
" beam ac t ion " i s o b ta i n e dth u s to which a typical
examinedin more detail if we first identify all the actions
action (seeFig' 7'7)'
cantileveris subjected.The componentsof the cantilever
v : jd#: n, (t . tt ) are as follows:
l .Thei ncreaseof t het ensilef or ceint hef lexur alr einf or cem ent bet ween
T he s am er es u l tw a s o b ta i n e di n Eq . 7 .4 a ,w h ereq, thc bon< jforceper unrt : Tr ' Tz'
adjacentcracksproducesa bond force,AT
Strength and Deformation of Members
vith Shear
Shear Resistancein ReinforcedConcreteBeams Without Web Reinforcement 28t
sc
P
I
--t
resistanceof the concrete depends largely on the tensile strength of the
concrete.the stresspattern resultingfrom the actions o P, Vn,and M, (see
\*i Fig. 7.7),and the depth s. of the critical cantileversection.The depth .s,is often
-T l quite small,particularly at advancedstagesof cracking. Beam 5 in Fig. 7.8,
which showsa seriesof beamstestedby Leonhardt and Walther,?' is a good
--= .v li v
by flexureat the "built-in end" of the concretecantilevers.
When sheardisplacementalong an inclinedcrack occurs,a certainamount
of shear will be transferredby means of the dowel action of the flexural
reinforcement.Where the bars bear against the cover concrete,the dowel
capacity will be limited by the tensile strength of the concrete.Once a
splitting crack occurs, the stiffness,hence the effectiveness, of the dowel
action is greatly reduced.This splitting also adversely affects the bond
performanceof the bars. The splitting strength of the concretein turn will
dependon the effectiveconcreteareabetweenbarsofa layer acrosswhich the
tension is to be resisted.Of particular importance is the relative position
of a bar at the time the concreteis cast.Becauseof increasedsedimentation
and water gain under top-castbars, they require considerablylarger shear
displacementsthan bottom-cast bars of a beam to offer the samedowel
resrstance.
TestsindicatedT' ? 8 that in beamswithout web reinlbrcementthe contri-
bution ofdowel action doesnot exceed25)iothe total cantileverresistance.
However,dowel action is more significantwhen stirrup reinforcementis used
becausea flexural bar can more effectivelybear against a stirrup that is
tightly bent around it. Neverthelss,cracks will develop approximately
Fig.7.7. Actions on a concrete parallelto the flexural bars beforethe stirrups contribute to carrying dowel
cantilever jn the shear span of a
beam.
forces.The stiffnessof the dowel mechanismdependsgreatly on the position
of a crack relativeto the adjacentstirrupswhich would be capableof sustain-
ltJ
- =.T'*f$ffi
Span
Mark a
lt
(3?Omm) ( 270 m m ) 57.0 1.4 5 2.O
4 66.9 1.7 0 2.5
5 76.7
6 92.5 2.35 4.0
l"'l 7t1
8/1
1 12.1
14r .9
3.to
3.60
5.0
6.0
10/r 185.2 4,70 8.0
l*r..,".*l
{19Om m )
911 22A,2 5.80 7,O
likely to be the most important. Surprisingly,a very considerableforce can be Arch Action in the Shear Span
transmittedthis way. In fact,aggregateinterlock failure could not be obtained
in one series of laboratory specimensT'6because other causes,such as The secondterm of Eq. 7.10signifiesthat shear can be sustainedby inclined
diagonal tensionaway from the observedcrack, terminated the load carrying compressionin a beam, as illustrated in Fig.7.l0. Arch action requires a
capacity. When such failures were suppressedand the crack width was
maintainedconstant,it has beenpossibleto obtain aggregateinterlock shear
stresses in excessof 1000psi (69 N/mm2)7'rt (seeFig.7.28).Measurements on
test beamsT' 7'r 3 without web reinforcementindicated that 50 to 70], of the
bond force,acting on the concretecantilevershown in Fig. 7.7,was resistedby
the aggregateinterlock mechanism.FenwickT'6demonstrated this convinc-
ingly by comparisonwith a beam in which the aggregateinterlock mechanism
*T
d
acrosssmooth preformed cracks was eliminated.
r1, The maximum capacitiesof the three mechanismsof beam action (dowel
action, aggregateinterlock, and the flexural strength of the fixed end of the
cantilever) are not necessarily additive when failure is imminent. The
-*I
lli advanceof inclined cracks toward the compressionzone reducesthe "fixed
ti end" of the cantileverconsiderably.This resultsin large rotations,particularly
at the "lree end" of the cantilevers,which means that the dowel capacity
llli can be exhausted.The formation of dowel cracks and secondarydiagonal
rlt
i.l
286 Strength and Deformation of Members with Shear Shear Resistancein ReinforcedConcreteBeamsWithout Web Reinforcernent 287
substantialhorizontal reactionat the support, which in simply supported in terms of the moment and the shearas follows
expressed
beamsis provided by the flexural reinlorcement.This imposesheavydemands
on the anchorages,and indeed it accounts for the most common type of aVuM
(7.l 3)
!
arch failure. In the idealized beam of Fig. 7.10,full anchorage is assumed, dVdVd
thus a constant tensile force can develop in the bottom reinforcementover
ExclLrdinglossof anchorage,arch failuresmay be placeh in three groups.
the full length as required. The shaded area indicates the extent of the
compressedconcrete outside which cracks can form. By considering the l. After the failure of the beam action, the propagation of an inclined
requirementsof strain compatibility, and by assuminglinear strain distribu- crack reducesthe compressionzone excessively.A slope is reachedwhen
tion acrossthe full concretesection,a unique position of the line of thrust the availablearea of concretein the vicinity of the load point becomestoo
may be determined. The total extension of the reinforcement between small to resist the compressionforce and it crushes.This is known as a
anchoragesmust equal the total elongation of the concrete fiber situated " shearcompression " failure.Beams4, 5, and 6 of Fig. 7.8 are good examples
I
at the samelevel.where the concreteis cracked,the elongationcan be derived of such a failure.
lr from linear extrapolationof the strains in the compressionzone. Having
satisfiedthesecriteria, the translation displacementof the steelrelative to its
2. The line of thrust may be so eccentricthat a flexural tension failure
occursin the "compressionzone."An exampleof such behavior is beam 7/l
surroundingconcrete(i.e.,the slip),can be determined.A typical slip distribu- in Fig. 7.8.The failure is very sudden.
jjii
This was the casefor all the test beams in Fig. 7.8.The load situa)tionmay be
axis, riseswell above the position predicted by standard flexural theory.
more seriouswhen a girder supports secondary beams near its boitorn edge.
It is evident that effectivearch action cannot develop in a beam whrr+hg
In real beams,particularly when deformed bars are used,no appreciable
external shear force is transmitted to the tension zone. Precautionary
rl
slip can take placebetweensteeland concrete.The translational displacement
measuresfor such situations are discussed in Chapter 13. The foregoing
occurs mainly as a result of the flexural deformation or the failure of the
material has clearly indicatedthat arch action must be the dominant mode
concretecantileverslormed betweendiagonal cracks and the bending of the
of shearresistance in deep beamsloaded in the compressionzone.
compressionzone above the top of these cracks. Also in a real beam, the
transition from beam action to arch action is gradual, and this can be deter-
mined if the developmentof the tension lorce along the reinforcement,hence 7.3.4 Size Effects
the variation of the internal lever arm in test beams, is observed.The full For obvious reasonsmost shear tests have been carried out on relatively
strengthof arch and beam actions cannot be combined becauseof the gross small beams.Recently it has been found that the results of such laboratory
incompatibilityof the deformationsassociatedwith the two mechanisms. tests cannot be directly applied to full size beams.The shear strength of
The available strength from arch action is largely dependent on whether beamswithout web reinforcementappears to decreaseas the effectivedepth
the resulting diagonal compression stressescan be accommodated. For a increases.Kani, in his experiments,hasdernonstratedthis very effectively.?'ra
given steelforce and beam width, the intensity of the diagonal compression If proper scaling of all properties is taken into account, the effect of the
stresses dependson the inclination of the line of thrust. The shearspan to absolutesizeof a beam on its shearstrength is not so large.T'rsDowel and
depth ratio (ald in Fig. 7.10)is a measureof this inclination. Ir can arso be aggregate interlock actions in particular can be considerably reduced in
288 Strength and Deformation of Members with Shear (]+)
Figure 7.ll revealsthat when 1.5 < ald < 7, the flexural capacityo[the @
beamsis not attained.Hencesheargovernsthe design. o
xNXI
becomes :d
= 6;
M : jdT^^, : jd L e^u* LX = Q^u*jdx (7.14\
p
!
f
o
\fr
^u* 0
where rJ."" is the maximum bond force per unit length of beam, Ax is the
--
ix
!
K S o!
=
-6
P
E
distance between cracks and x is the distance of the maximum momenr ,*< o
289
290 Shear Resistancein Reinforced concrete Beams without web Reinforcement 291
Strength and Deformation of Members with Shear
shear strength,limited by q^u*, which is independentof the shear span to smaller steel percentageit will be shallower. Kani has demonstratedthis
r7
depth ratio a/r/. changewith flexural steelcontent in testson a large number of beams'7
The flexural and shear capacitiesof "beam action" are designatedby A high steel content in the shear span, however, will mean narrower
dashed lines in Fig.7. ll. When compared with observedultimate values, flexuralcracksat a given load, and this will enableaggregateinterlock and
they demonstratethat beam action governs the behavior when ald is larger dowel actionsto carry largerloaC.The increasedstrengthofthe beamaction,
than 3. When uld is larger than 7, the shear strengthexceededthe flexural resultingfrom larger flexural steelcontent, has been demonstratedalso by
?
strengthof thesebeams;henceflexuregovernedtheir strength.The discrep- testsTl (seeFig. 7. 12) .
ancy betweenthe theoreticalflexural capacity and the observedshearstrength
of thesebeamsis indicatedby the shadedarea in Fig. 7.1l. 7.3.6 The Design for Shear of Beams Without Web Reinforcement
The flexuralsteelcontentfor the beamsrepresentedin Fig.7.ll was2'/".
For higher steelcontent the "valley" at ald x 2.5 will be deeperand for a The previouspageshave discussedthe nature of shear resistancein simply
supported beams without web reinforcement subject to concentrated
loadings.It was seenthat the shearfailure mechanism,particularly of beams
with 2.5 < ald < 7, dependsgreatly on the tensilestrength of the concrete.
Thus it is not surprising that there is a great scatter of test dat4 from appar-
ently similar members. For beams subjected to uniformly distributed load
along the compressionedges,slightly more favorable results are obtained.
t4
L$,"
In continuous beams,on the other hand, the ald ratio does not represent
the same situation encounteredin simply supported beams becausethe
sectionsdo not coincide with the supports at which reactionsare applied.
For this reasona relativelysimple semiempiricaldesignequation has been
bu
adopted by the ACI, based on the results of numerous tests. This conserv-
A r
ru
h.d
atively predicts the shear strength of beams in most siluations.? It also
takesinto accountthe major factorsinfluencingshearresistance, such as the
v,
Ultimate shear stress:
' b.d
tensile strength of the concrete,as measured by the parameter J .f ',, crack
control as expressedby p* : AJb*d, and the shear span to depth ratio
Mlvd, in this form
= 3800 psi (262 N/mm2
4
, = 6.0 i n (154mm) V,
^ 500
d = 1O.7i n (272mm) u,: b*d: 1.g,,/7, r.tfi,
* 25AOP*'ff (7.1s)
E c = 36.0i n (915 mm) "
= 4oo where all quantitiesare in pound and inch units and (VdlM,,) ( 1.0at any
o section.
P, = O.SOYo " Often the useof the secondterm of Eq. 7.15is not warranted(seethe shaded
0.80%
area of Fig. 1.12),andequally satisfactorydesign may be achievedby using
1.88%
the simpler and slightly more conservativeexpression
2.80%
following equation
5 .0 ,
u.:Eq. (1.17a)
"(+)
to accountfor arch action.T'22
_ 4.0
l"'
.t\ "
7.4 TTIE MECHANISM OF SHEAR RESISTANCEIN
| \- r.u
' REINFORCEDCONCRETEBEAMS WITH WEB
25ooD:..vd'
-;= 1.9+ ----- < 3.5 RETNFORCEMENT
l\ ,/l; MJ|
1 .0
The inclusion of web reinforcement such as stirrups does not change
fundamentally the previously described mechanism of shear resistance.The
concretecantilevers,which are the principal elementsof the beam mechanism,
will act as tied cantilevers.In addition to the bond force AT, resistedby the
combination of aggregateinterlock, dowel, and flexural action of the canti-
10 p.Vd
levers, another bond force AT' can be sustained by what is traditionally
MJT
termed "truss action." In this truss the cantileversact as diagonal compres-
F i g . 7 .1 3 . Co m p a r iso no f Eq s. 7 .1 5 a n d 7 .1w i th experi mentalresul ts.?.1 sion members(seeFig. 7.14).
The presenceof stirrups is beneficial to beam action in a number of other
aspects,as well. Stirrups contribute to the strength of the shear mechanisms
by the following means:
tests(Fig. 7.l2), there is other evidence7 r 8 that Eq. 7.I 5 might not be conserv-
ative when the flexural steelcontent is small. Also, unforeseenaxial tension in l. Improving the contribution of the dowel action. A stirrup can effectively
a membercould reduce0c. support a longitudinal bar that is being crossed by a flexural shear crack
Inevitably, a general expressionsuch as Eq.7.15, which attempts to close to a stirrup.
predict the strength of two mechanisms so different as beam action and 2. Suppressingflexural tensile stressesin the cantilever blocks by means
arch action, will have shortcomings. Thus far, however, it has not been of the diagonal compressionforce Cr, resulting from truss action.
possibleto rationally allow for all factors affecting each of the components
of the shear resisting mechanisms and their interaction. one of the best
correlations between the shear strength of different experimental slender
beams(ald > 2.5)and the three most important parametersgoverning shear
(diagonal cracking) strength
",: -Loro*
traditionally ignored. becomesprogressivelyless significant as ultimate (1.221
( i. e. plas
. t ic c) o n d i ti o n sa re a p p ro a c h e d . #
The analogoustrussappearingin Fig. 7.15depictsthe generalcaseof web
B y cornbi ningEqs. 7. 20and1. 22,t he r equir edar ea of web r einf or cem ent
at
reinforcernent inclinedat an angleB to the horizontal.It will serveo illustrate
ideal strength,when f,: f, becomes
the rclation betweenthe externalshearforce (, to be resistedby the truss,
and t he v a ri o u si n te rn a lfo rc e s T . h e d i a g onalcompressi onstruts.resi sti ng us 's*
^- (1.23\
a f or c eCr , a re i n c l i n e da t a n a n g l ea to th e hori zontal .From the equi l i bri um sin f tcot d. + cot []l Jl
f or c epoly g o nd ra w n fo r j o i n t X i n F i g . 7 . 15i t i s evi dentthat
The diagonalcompressionforceC, is assumedto generateuniorm stresses
V":Cosina:Isinf (7.r8) in the strutsof the truss.The struts have an effectivedepth of s' : .ssin a :
where { is the resultant of all stirrup forces across the diagonal crack. j dsi na (cot a * cot f ) . Thus t he diagonal com pr essionst r esses
due t o t he
The web steelforce per unit lengthof beam is f/s, where from the geometry truss mechanismcan be approximatedby
of the analogoustruss,the spacingbetweenstirrups is
t Co V lr.
5 :j d (c o td + c o t p) (7.te) rr.:--
cd (1.24)
b , , s' b * 1 d si n a (cot a + cot f) srn a (cot a + cot /i)
Shear Resistancein Reinforcedconcrete BeamsWith web Reinforcement 29'7
296 Slrength and Deformation of Members with Shear
For the common casesof web steel arrangements,Eqs. 7.23 and 7.24 and lower concretestrength,the load on the concretewill be relievedat the
2o
s im plif yas fo l l o w s : expenseof larger stirrup participation.7 The slopesof the diagonalcracks
in the vicinity of point loads and a point of contraflexure are displayed
L F :
vEnrtcll srtRRUPS, 90'
i n Fi g. 7.16.
diagonalsat a : 45"
Conrpression Flat diagonalcompressionstruts and steepstirrups imply larger concrete
sA compressionstresses(cf. Eqs. 1.24d and 7.24b).This indicatesthat the web
A",,: u-." ] (1.23a) steelcontentcannotbe increasedindefinitely.Figure 7.16 showsa continuous,
J),
thin-webbedflanged bearn with heavy web reinforcement.In such beams,
'f'a
: 2u' (7.24a) shear failure may be brought about by web crushing causedby diagonal
compression(Eq. 1.2a).when assessingthe compression strength of the
diagonalsat a : 30"
Conrpression
web of beams,it is necessaryto considerthe following additional factors:
sb*'
l " : 0 ' 5 8u' (7.23b)
.f, | . The diagonalstrutsare alsosubjectedto bendingmomentsif they are to
2 ' 3 l u' (7.24b1 participatein beam action (seeFig. 1 .7).Secondarymoments are introduced
f" a :
becauseof the absenceof true "pin joints" in the truss.
2. sLoprNGwEB RETNFoRCEMENT,
P < 90" 2. Stirrups passingthrough transmit tension to thesestruts by meansof
Compressiondiagonalsqt u : 45" bond, so that generallya biaxial state of strains prevails.The compression
capacityof concreteis known to be drastically reducedwhen simultaneous
4,,:
t)
-s 9,.' (7.23c) transversetensilestrainsare imposed(seeFig' 2.8).
(sinB + cos/i) f,,
3. The compressionforcesare introducedat the " joints " of the analogous
9n truss,and theseforcesare far from being evenly distributed acrossthe web.
, (7.24c1
rc tt-- - a -
1 + c o tl Eccentricities and transversetensilestressesmay be present.
4. Somediagonalsmay be inclined at an angle considerablysmaller than
ond s'rutsat 45"
Weh reinfttr<'enrcnt 45'' to the horizontal,and this will result in significantincreasein diagonal
sb compressionstresses (seeEq. 7.24 and Fig- 7.16).
A..: O.7lu. ) (7.23d)
f
Jj' Theseobservationspoint to the needto limit diagonalconcretestresses to a
t - ,, (7.24d1 value well below the crushingstrengthof the concrete. For this reason the
JA --t
298
Strength and Deformation of Memberswith Shear The Interactionof Flexure and Shear 301
superimposethe strengthof the two actionsthus : A,lsb*, is shown by dashedlines' Figure 7'l8a
7,: (u, - u,)lp,, where p,
comparesthe ACI approach with test results from four beams with identical
u: uc + Ds (7.2t)
web reinforcement. only the web width varied in these beams; the flange
A conservativevalue for u., specifiedby the ACI, was given by Eq.7.l5
width to web width ratio variedbetweenI and 6. Accordingly,the contribu-
orEq.7.l6, this quantity being essentiallya function of the tensilestrength
bution of the concrete, Dc, may be expected to increase proportionally
of the concrete.Hence the remaining shear u, : , - u., is to be allocated
to as the web thicknessincreases(seeEq.7.l5). This supposition is borne out
web reinforcementin accordancewith Eq. r.i: using vertical stirrups,
by the tests.Moreover, it will be seenthat the shear prior to the significant
bent-up bars,or the combinationof both. The simple reationshipbetween
rise of stirrup stresses,previously referred to as shear causing diagonal
the total required shear strength u, and the required strength f vertical
cracking, is maintained while the stirrup stressesrise to yield level (i.e., u.
stilrups u"is represented in Fig. i.li.lt must be rememberedthat in the ACI remains almost constant).The same behavior is illustrated by four identical
specification compression struts are assumed to be inclined at a : 45".
T beams?.7in Fig. 7.I 8b, in which the theoretical share of the stirrups in the
An alternativeview is?'2athat the contribution of the concreteu. is negligible
total shear strength, 4 : u,fDu,varied between 21 and93/"'
and the inclination ofthe diagonalconcretestruts is lessthan 4i., threfore, Irrespective of the shear intensity, a minimum web reinforcement, cor-
more stirrupscross_ the potentialcrack.(Seee.g.,Fig. 7.l6.) The broken lines responding with at least u" : 50 psi (0'35 N/mm2), should be provided in
in Fig. 7.17 indicate the correspondingrelationships for various valuesof
a. every beam?'' (Eq. 7.23a\. Also, to ensure that every potential crack is
For most beamsthe shearstrengthpredictedby te two approachesis very effectivelycrossedby stirrups, the spacing, s, should not exceeddl2. Where
similar. plastic hinges may form, the stirrup spacing should not be more than d/4.
The ACI designapproachis compared in Fig. 7.lg with the behavrorof When the flexural steel yields, it is inevitable that diagonal cracks, being a
beamstestedby Leonhardt and walther.t t It is seenthat the contribution continuation of flexural crackS,will also increase.In theseareasthe contribu-
of the concrete at ultimate load, u., is underestimatedby the ACL The tion of the concrete toward shear resistanceucshould be ignored and web
theoreticalrelationship(Eq.7.23a)rewritten to expressthe stirrup stressas reinforcementprovided for the whole of the shear (i.e.,u" : u,).
When moment reversalsare to be expected,as under seismic loading, the
closespacingof closed stirrups (ties) is particularly important. Such stirrups
will provide confinement to the compressed concrete and lateral support
o = 30" 35" 40" to the compressionbars in regions where the flexural strength is developed.
Diagonal web reinforcement is effective only in one direction; therefore,
it should not be used when the loading may be reversedunlessit is provided
TI in both directions.
An example,given at the end of this chapter, illustrates the application of
these principles. Further aspects of shear, as they affect the detailing of
IT
structural members,are discussedin Chapter 13.
q
o
Experiments with normal reinforced concrete beams with adequate web
reinforcementindicate that the shear force has no recognizableinfluence on
Contr ibution of
uc concrete neglected the development of flexural capacity. This enables the designer to ignore
I Contriburionof stirrupsp,./!
interaction and to deal with flexure and shear separately. The previous
discussion shows, however, that an intimate relation does exist between
flexure, shear, bond, and anchorage in the shear span of a beam. This is
evident from an examination of the behavior of the flexural reinforcement
F ig . 7 .1 7 . T h e co n tr ib u tio n o lstir r ups to shearstrength.
along the beam. When large shear forces are to be transmitted across a
Shearstress,Pst
600 7oo
Load P, k i ps "r--
0 100 200 300 400 500
20 30 40 50 L o a d P , k rP s
T- 20 40 60 80 100
500
IP LI 70
.'<-" *, t*-,-t
\a,'
M* I_ I
Yield strength #
--- - -T--
llllllillllil
ffi d/
/) I F- ) I , /v
300
uu to lf psi
{iF
r tl I
t
I
I
l(), -.,
\rl 50
U,
t
,,r,#
/
-c/
t I
it /
E /
o-/ E 300 "vr
IlO _
,;
/ i',
E Y/ I z n
,/,;
E \., ,
I ,; r, i a
trtt .=
q Fct JU:
i o
f
.=
g
v/
.;
ry
c
.: -V ol // ;/
Ei I
P .!
,E .--,-" JUg
.s r 2oo l 6
il/,,,
g 27;
Eir g/ I q
6
t I s.-
/= i!t ,rp
o I
I zv
W,J
100 20 L
#A
tl
d ./
v
I l)
*=,% 100
W
' t0
dl o:
=
/#
4
I
I <-v"E f/
M: '47
,\
t
t
z 500
JO
600
100 200 300 400
\ "\-* V. LoadP, kN
n= 0.38
n=
{
-50 J0 23
120 180 240 300
Shearstress,N/mm2
Load P, k N
la)
{r)
F i g .7 .l 8 . Stir r up
str ess- load r elationship. ( a) Beam s w i r h c ons tanr w eb s teel
c ontent. ( )
B e a ms w i th var iable web steel content.?.?
302 303
304 Strcngth and Drformation of Nfembcrswith Shear The Interactionof Flexure and Shear 305
s ec t iona t u l ti ma te mo me n t,th e d i s tributi onof the rexural
strai nsrn the It is convenientto introducethe factor
concreteand the steelcan be affected.Shearforcesin deep beams
can be so
dominant that they govern the strength of the member by inhibiting V
the n: -: {7.2e)
developmentof the full flexural capacity as derived from the principres ' t/ Du
presentedin earlierchapters.
which expresses the shareof the web reinlorcementin resistingthe total shear
force. Using this factor, the tension force becomes
7.5.1 The Effect of Shear on Flexural Steel Requirements
The tensioninduced in rhe flexural reinforcementby the forces T :Mu
- ujdd" *'t v (7.30)
associated
with the trussmechanismonly can be establishedwith reference
to Fig. 7.15.
Taking moment about the compressionresurtantc'at sectionl-1, gives where
the
iollowing relationship: ni :
- + c ot0)>-o (7.30a)
" ot" \r c " r d
M'r : V,x : M'z + \jd cota : T,jd + iisin p (7.2s)
| I It is evident from Eq. 7.30 that after the formation of diagonal cracks, the
where M', and M', are the bending moments generatedby the externar tension force I in the flexural steel becomesgreater than that required to
forces resistthe externalmoment at that section.The increaseis largelydependent
at sectionsI and 2, respectivery.
By substitutingfor I and.s from Eqs.7.rg
and 7.19.we obtain on the inclination of the cracks (i.e.,the angle, c, of the diagonal struts).
This finding is particularly relevant to the curtailment of the flexural
reinforcement. Figure 7.l9 illustratesa simplebeam and the bendingmoment
,:f + f r c o ta - co tB) (7.26) diagram M associatedwith the given loading. We assumethat it is practical
to curtail at a suitableposition one-third of the flexural reinforcement(say,
Similarly,by consideringbeam action of a beam without web reinforce-
two bars), which is required under the midspan load P, (six bars). At first
ment in which diagonal cracksdevelop at an angre,a, to the axis of
the beam, it seemsthat only two-thirds of the positive flexural reinforcement is required
the moment equilibrium at sections1 and 2 (Fig. 7.6)requiresthar
at its full capacity at section 2. However, becauseof diagonal cracking, the
M', : r"jd : M'i + v"jd cot u (7.21) required moment of resistancehas increasedby euV"thereand over the whole
of the left-handshear span.This is shown by the dashed line envelope.There-
Note that in this casethe shear Iz"is resistedby mechanisms
other than the fore, two-thirds of the flexural reinforcement will be required at full strength
web reinforcement(i.e.,4 : 0 in Fig. '1.15).lt is important to
note that from capacity (f,) at section 3, which is located at distance eo away from section 2,
E q. 1. 27
in the direction of decreasingmoments. If a further two bars of the positive
T' M' M',; flexural bars are to be terminated, thesemust extend by the full development
r : -.-; : -- + ..
V^COLq. (7.27a) length /, beyond section3. (Anchorageand development lengthsare examined
Jd jd
in Chapter 9.) The same (two) bars must also extend at least to section 4
which showsthat the tensionforceat section2,T",isgoverned by becausethe remaining one-third of the positive moment steel is insufficient
the bending
moment at section l. to supply the moment of resistancerequired at section 4 (i.e.,over the length
Let us combinethe two mechanismsin accordancewith 8q.7.21, of the small shaded triangle). The latter requirement does not apply at the
whereby
V " : 4 + V, other end of the bars in question, since their end is well past section 5. By
M": M ' z * M , and
T,: T' + T' ,
similar considerations the curtailed ends of the shortest bars in the span,
Then the total tension force in the flexural reinforcement at shown in Fig. 7.19 in elevation only, were also determined. The curtailment
section 2 is
obtainedthus of the negativereinforcement,over the right-hand support, was determined
on the assumption that eight smaller size bars can be cut off in pairs.
r" : + qcot + a - cot/) (7.28) The curtailment of the flexural reinforcement may be conveniently
# " +(cor determined from the envelope of the moment of resistanc Tjd, shown by
The Interactionof Flexure and Shear 307
the dashedline in Fig. 7. l9. This is sim ply t he bending m om ent diagr am
displacedhorizontally by a distanceq., whose magnitude dependson the
web reinforcementfactor r and the inclination of the crackss.
f N
4
The value ol e,ld from Eq. 7.30a is given for different values o a, B, and q
I I
.\
lf r
in Table 7.1.lt may be noted that for moderateweb steelcontents,4 < 0.5,
t- j
t
N
@ 1 E
o
45"
38'
90"
90'
0.45
0. 58
0.8
0. 86
0.90
l. l5
N il 30' 90' 0. 78 | . 17 I . 56
l lEr6l+le
t lE l-ls
l-r
ll l.lEl-tq
l-lq \ /\
f i<l
E
I
=
lffi>l<> and a crack inclination a little lessthan 40', the value of e, is approximately
P equal to the effectivedepth d.
\\ t
\
\ To simplify the design procedure, the ACI codel 2 requires that flexural
= bars be extended beyond the point at which they no longer need to resist
-+ E flexure for a distanceequal to the effectivedepth of the member.This implies
E that e,, as shown in Fig.7. 19, is d. The development length /, has to be
provided beyond this point.
I Figure 7.19 demonstratesanother phenomenon, often overlooked. After
I the developmentof diagonal cracks, both the top and bottom reinforcement
N
o o
*i-7 G
will be in tension at the point of contraflexure.(i.e.,at the point of theoretical
zero moment). To equilibrate these tension forces, an equal and opposite
compression force will develop near the middepth of the section. These
; phenomenahave been verified in experiments.
1.5.2 Shear at Plastic Hinges
/ Figure 7.16 illustratesthat at the interior support of a beam the diagonal
e fl = /
c
cracks, instead of being parallel, tend to radiate from the compression zone
G
6 at the load point. When the flexural reinforcement has yielded, these cracks
:' / a
increasein width, and it is prudent to assume that yery little shear can be
F
trl
,I
/, transferred by either aggregate interlock or dowel action. Consequently,
N nearly the whole shearforcewill have to be transferredacrossthe compression
l--
zone of the vertical section adjacent to the support. An idealized situation
;-b at the junction of a beam and the face of a column appears in Fig. 1.20a.
308 Strength and Deformetion of Members with Shear The Interaclionof l-lexure and Shear
beam is reduced when the shear force across the plastic hinge is large.
However, the confinementprovided by stirrup ties and the adjacent tied
column strengthensthe concreteand enablesthe compressionin the beam,
generatedby flexure M, and shear 2,, to be transmitted.Also in common
I
d
situations,under monotonic loading,the transferof flexural compressionis
assistedby the presenceof compression reinforcement in the beam, and
this adverseeffect of shear is not observed.
A free body bounded by one of the diagonal cracks is shown in Fig.7.2Ob.
The stirrups crossing this particular crack are assumed to resist a force
V'": V"xld, where Iz"is the total force resistedby the stirrups crossing a 45"
diagonal, section D-D, in accordance with the previously discussedtruss
analogy.This may or may not be the total shear force, dependingon the
value of 4 (i.e.,0 < 4 < l).From the equilibrium requirementfor the free
bodv shown.we have
M t : \ jd+ !v , (7.311
2'
rl ' 0
wherex < l.5d for the examplein Fig. l.2Oa.Hence Eq. 7.31gives
' 0.2
o
r.: -.:; ,) (7.32)
L\
o.4 ;(*,
o o.6 The corresponding variation of the tension force in the vicinity of the
0. 6
eo
0,8
column face,in terms of the maximum value, is displayed for various relative
web steelcapacities4 in Fig. 7.20c.ln this example it was arbitrarily assumed
(oo \' 1.0
lr
that Ml Vd: 2.
0. 4 -\ If only verticalflexuralcrackshad formed,the tensionforce at any section
c
o
With flexurdl (vetical)
/r\
(c)
- crocks only ---/ would havebeen
(
Tr :+ : - *vu) (7.33)
.lu ,*,
as indicatedby the dashedline in Fig. 7.20c.lt is thus evident that diagonal
cracking, caused by shear,can have a marked effect on the distribution of
steel stressesin the vicinity of a potential plastic hinge, particularly when
Fig.7.20. only a smallfractionof the shearis resistedby stirrups.This meansthat yield-
shear
ing of flexural reinforcement will spread over a considerable length of the
beam,thus increasingsignificantlythe plastic hinge length.This increaseof
Each of the radiating cracks,to a minimum slope of I : 1.5,may be assumed plastic rotational ability enablesthe occurrenceof larger redistribution of
to form the boundary of an inclined strut. Nearly all the diagonal compression moments(seeChapter 6) in continuousreinforcedconcretestructures.T'2s
forces in these struts pass through the compression zone of the eam at In T beams large shear forces cause the diagonal cracks to penetrate up
section 1;thus it isjustifiable to assumethat the total shearforce is transferred to the undersideof the compressionflanges.This implies that in suchcasesa
across the compression zone between the last stirrup and the face of the portion of the web that may be required to carry compressioncannot be
column. It is evident that the capacity of the flexural compressionzone of a utilizedfor this purpose.t2a
Strength and Deformation of Members with Shear l -hr l nteracti onof S hear.F l ex ure,and A x i al f orc es 3ll
310
I
lri
Strcngth and f,)eformationof Membersri th S hcar
Shear Deformations 315
.
t,t, w oi 500psi .Thus *'c have
,i ' ,. 'l
h,,
,,:2(r + o.oo2 ,or',
T').,4.
ns/
( 7. 36)
\
7.7.1 UncrackedMernbers
F i g . 7 . 2 2 . C r a ck p a tte r n in a b e a m with wid e ly spacedsti rrups w hcn the axi i l tensr()nto where E, : 57.000J/i psi is Young's modulus for normal weight concrete
s h e a rf o r c e r a tio wa s 3 .7 r o and,rr i s Poisson'sr at io. which is appr oxim at ely0.l6 t o 0. 30 f or nor m al
weight concrete.
The shearstiffnessKi is the magnitudeof the shearforcethat when applied
to a beamol unit lengt h.will causeunit sheardisplacem ent of one end of t he
beam relative to the other. The cross-sectionalarea of the beam normally
li There is some evidencethat after reversedcyclic loading the potential
diagonalc ra c k ,i n d u c e db y s h e a ra n d a xi al tensi on,may form at an angl e o be consideredwhen determiningthe shearstiffnessis the area of the web
larger than 45'' to the axis of the member.This is becausediagonal cracks only, b,,,ri.
propagatingfrom one face of a member may link up with flexural cracks W i th G :0. 4E, , t he shearst if f nessof an uncr ackedbeam of unit lengt h
that formed during a previouscycle of reversedload at thc opposite face w i l l be
u',:o ouf*o
of t hat m e m b e r.
In somebeamssubjectedto tensionthe diagonalcrackingload fell below
(7.38)
that predicted by the appropriare application of Eq. 7.34. Hence ACtr
Com m it t e e4 2 6 s u g g e s tead s i mp l ea n d conservati ve 3r
Ii neari nterpol ati onT The factor /' allows for the nonunifornr distribution of the shear stresses.
: For rectangularsectionsf : 1.2and for T and I sectionsit may be taken as
between,, 2"/Ti with no tension and u. : 0 for an axial tensilestress
uni ty.
3l Strengthand Deformation of Members with Shear Shear Deformations 3 t7
7.7.2 Shear Deformationsin Cracked Members Similarly from Eq. '7.24a the diagonal concrete compression stressis
In beamsthat are subjectto large shearforcesand are eb reinforcedaccord- obtained
ingly, diagonal cracks must be expectedduring service conditions. These
cracks can increasethe shear deformation of the beam considerably. The f . - ) ,--s - ) - 1
J co
b*d
greaterproportion of the load is likely to be carried by truss action, therefore,
the deformation characteristicso[ this mechanismare of interest. Hencethe shorteningof the diagonalstrut is
Shear distortions, occurring in the web of most conventionally reinforced
concretebeams,may be approximated by using the model of the analogous t,:
' *o ,/1a:?Jlv-
E, " Erbn
' (7.42)
truss presentedin Figure 7.15. For the sake of simplicity, vertical stirrups
and 45' diagonal concrete struts are assumed to form the web members Therefore the shear distortion per unit length of beam becomes
(Fig. 7.23a).For the purpose of determining the web distorrions only, the
o,:- 75:7:\r!(' 4 ',' c2.,[24\ (] a3a)
- . +)
u'
- v' "d \4l+
EE) :..b-5= I)
By making the appropriatesubstitutionfor web steelcontent p, : Aufsb*,
Id
and modular ratio n : E"lE,, it is found that
Td
t' :
#,0(;.' (7.43b)
_t _l_x The shear stiffnessof beam with 45" diagonal cracks, in accordancewith
truss action, is the value of Iz"when 0u : l, and is thus given by
(a) (c)
Ku.+s: E,bnd (7.44)
r*o*-Lo*
Fig.7.23. Shear distortions in the web of a reinforced concrete beam modeled on the web
membersofan analogous truss.
The similarity between Eqs. 7.38 and 7.M is apparent.
Similar expressionscan be derived for other inclinations of compression
struts d and stirrups B. Using the notation of Fig. 7.15 it may be easily shown
for the generalcasethat the stirrup stresswill be
chord membersare assumedto be infinitely rigid; that is, the areaof chord a is
infinity (Fig. 7.23b).The elongation of the stirrups is A" and the shortening f : "s
(7.4s)
Js
of the compression strut is A.. Applying Williot's principles, the shear p,(cot a + cot ) sin2 p
distortion can be found from Figs.7.23b and 7.23cas follows: wherethe stirrup lengthis dlsinfl.
The compression stressesfor the dlsina long strutsare givenby Eq. 7.24.
A,:4,+AR: L,+n/2L* (7.3e)
By combiningtheforegoingrelationships, theshearstiffnesscanbedefined
UsingEqs.7.22 and7.23a,the stirrupstresscan be expressed
as by thefollowingexpression:
V-s V-s y :2 sinaasina( cot c + cot ) 2
J ' : , a 4 = , (7.40) -, (7.46)
@LsD|9a
Hence the elongation of the stirrups becomes where p, : A,lGb* sin B) for the general case.
Dilger has further refined theseexprcssionsby computing the inclination
of the compressionstruts from strain energy considerationsof the analogous
^":r:# (7.41)
truss.T'32His experimentsshow that this approach underestimatessomewhat
318 Strength and Deformation of Memberswith Shear InterfaceS hear 3f9
the sheardistortion in beams.The analysisis basedon the greatly simplified shear and flexuredistortionsare considered.The truss mechanismin such
model of the analogous truss, and deformaticns at the anchoragesof the beams will consist of a seriesof radiating struts rather than parallel 45"
stirrupshavenot beentaken into account.Slips at the endsof stirrups(see members,a nd t his needst o be t aken int o account in t he analysis. 26 t Loss
Section 9.4.2) can considerably increase shear deformations, particularly of stiffnessis significantwhen assessing serviceload distortions in structures
in shallowbeamswhere the anchorageslip representsa greaterfraction of or thei r resp( ) nse
t o dynam icexcit at ion.
the total distortion. The deflect ionsolf our beam s, tt sim ilar t o t hose in Fig. 7. l8a, ar e com -
Comparison of Eqs. 7.38 and 7.44 indicates that the shear stiflnessof a pared in Fig.7.24.All beamscarry the same uniformly distributed load and
diagonallycrackedmember is approximately l0 to 30/" of the shearstiffness contain the same flexural and web reinforcementbut have different web
of the uncrackedmember,depending on the amount of web steel provided. widths. The flexural stiffnessof the thin-webbed T beam GT4 is only a
It is thus evidentthat cracking can have a much larger effecton shearstiffness little lessthan that of beam GTI after flexuralcracking has occurred.The
than on flexural stiffness. differenceol deflectionsas shown in Fig. 7.24is largely becauseof the shear
Analytical and experimental studies have verified that the stiffness of distortions,which becomemore significantas the web area is reduced.
cracked deep beams (e.g.,as in Fig. 12.28),in which shear deformations The contribution of sheardistortionsto the total deflectionof continuous
dominate, is only about l5/" ol the stiffnessin the uncracked state when T beamsbecomesparticularlysignificantwhen a largeproportion of the shear
is resistedby web reinforcement(4 ry 1.0).
ll= wl=24OkN
7.8 I NTERF'ACE
SHEAR