Contents

Chapter 1....................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Types of lost circulation........................................................................................................................................ 4
1.3 Lost circulation in different formations................................................................................................................. 5
1.4 Losses related to lost circulation........................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Objectives of study............................................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2....................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Literature Review........................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Drilling problems in depleted zones.................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Wellbore stability................................................................................................................................................ 10
2.3 Lost circulation in fractures................................................................................................................................. 10
2.4 Formation damage due to lost circulation........................................................................................................... 11
2.5 Loss Circulation Preventive methods.................................................................................................................. 13
Chapter 3..................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Methodology................................................................................................................................................................ 19
3.1 Locating the Fractured zones.............................................................................................................................. 19
3.1.1 Models on identification of natural fractures................................................................................................ 19
3.1.1.1 Sanfillipos Model....................................................................................................................................... 19
3.1.1.2 Majidis Model on fractured formation....................................................................................................... 22
3.1.1.2.1 Assumptions of Majidis model............................................................................................................... 24
 3.1.1.2.2 Effect of drilling fluid properties on lost circulation.................................................................................24
3.1.1.2.3 Limitations of majidis model.................................................................................................................. 27
3.1.2 Other Methods for locating the fractured zones:.......................................................................................... 28
3.1.2.1 Spinner survey........................................................................................................................................... 28
3.1.2.2 Temperature Survey.................................................................................................................................. 28
3.1.2.3 Radioactive tracer survey.......................................................................................................................... 28
3.1.2.4 Hot wire survey.......................................................................................................................................... 28
3.2 Loss circulation Controlling Methods................................................................................................................... 28
3.2.1 Sealing of the permeable or porous medium................................................................................................ 29
3.2.1.1 Loss Circulation Squeeze System.............................................................................................................. 29
3.2.1.2 Advantages of LCMSS................................................................................................................................ 30
3.2.1.3 Procedure of implementing the LCMSS technique..................................................................................... 31
3.2.1.4 High filter loss slurry squeeze:................................................................................................................... 32
3.2.2 Loss circulation squeeze pills........................................................................................................................ 33
3.2.3 Stress Caging................................................................................................................................................ 33
3.2.3.1 Advantages of Stress caging..................................................................................................................... 34
3.2.3.2 Implementation of Stress Caging............................................................................................................... 35
Chapter 4..................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Case studies................................................................................................................................................................. 35
4.1 Sealing................................................................................................................................................................ 35
4.1.1 Case study 1................................................................................................................................................. 35
4.1.2 Case study2.................................................................................................................................................. 36
 4.2Stress caging....................................................................................................................................................... 36
4.2.1 Case study.................................................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 5..................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Conclusion................................................................................................................................................................... 36

Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Introduction
Lost circulation is the most costly and main problem encountered while drilling. The estimated cost resulted in lost circulation is more
than one billion dollars annually. It results in rig time loss, material loss, non-productive time, costly drilling fluid loss. Therefore its
prevention is more important so that it may not occur, but once lost circulation occurs, its cure is to be done timely.

Lost circulation is the invasion of drilling fluid or cement from the wellbore in the formation due to presence of permeable channels
for the drilling fluid. Moore (1986), defined lost circulation as the reduction or total loss of drilling fluid flowing up the annulus when
the drilling fluid is being pumped down the casing or drill pipe. There are two main conditions with which lost circulation can occur,

The hydrostatic pressure exhibited by the drilling fluid exceeds the pore pressure of the formation.
A flow pathway for the fluids.
While drilling a well in search of oil or gas, different formations are being drilled, some of which are porous, unconsolidated,
fractured, permeable formations, cavernous formations. These different formations exhibit different properties when they come in
contact with the drilling fluid that is being injected. For example, let us assume a fractured formation having fractures of different
dimensions, fractures usually have large permeability channels. While drilling if a fractured formation is encountered, the drilling fluid
will start to flow from the bore hole into the permeability channels formed by fractures, total or severe drilling fluid losses may result
in this case.

1.2 Types of lost circulation

Lost circulation has different values in different types of formations, such as:

Seepage loss = Upto 10 barrels per hour of drilling fluid loss

Partial loss = 10 to 50 barrels per hour of drilling fluid loss
Severe loss = more than 50 barrels per hour of drilling fluid loss
 Total loss = 100 % loss of drilling fluid (no return)

1.3 Lost circulation in different formations

Lost circulation occurs in a formation which provides a path for the flow of drilling fluid, such type of formations should have
considerable amount of porosity, permeability. Lost circulation in unconsolidated formations result in cave in. shale formations tend to
swell when drilled with water based drilling fluid.

Some types of formations in which lost circulation can occur are as follows:

High permeability unconsolidated sand and gravel

Cavernous or Vugular zones

 Induced fractures from excessive pressure

1.4 Losses related to lost circulation

Lost circulation itself seems a small problem, but the outcomes can be disastrous. Such as,
 If lost circulation occurs in a productive zone, there will be danger of blowout or kick.
Lost circulation in productive zone can reduce the productivity of the formation by blocking the permeability channels.
Cave in can occur due to lost circulation in unconsolidated formations.
Drilling without drilling fluid can damage the formation and drill bit, this phenomenon is known as dry drilling.
Pipe sticking problem can also arise due to lost circulation.
In severe cases, abandonment of well.

Lost circulation is a huge impact on the economy of drilling a well. The amount of drilling fluid is around 25 to 40% of the total
drilling cost. The regular drilling fluid and additives to control lost circulation are often expensive, losing drilling fluid has a direct
impact on the economy of project. In case of oil based drilling fluid loss, it is more expensive than water based drilling fluid, hence the
cost issue is more significant.

1.5 Objectives of study

Drilling industry suffers a lot of loss because of lost circulation. A well having lost circulation will have drilling fluid cost from around
8000 to 50000 dollars, lost circulation itself seems a small problem but the outcomes are very dangerous. There are four main types of
formation in which lost circulation occurs.

Porous formations
Unconsolidated formations
Naturally fractured formations
Drilling induced fractures
 In our study we will be focusing on lost circulation and control of lost circulation in fractured formations. Objectives included in this
study are as follows:

To review some of the best lost circulation control methods that have been applied in the drilling industry to control lost circulation in
fractured formations.
To review the models in determining the Fluid behavior of the drilling fluid in the formation.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

Drilling well is a complicated job due to many heterogeneities found in different formations. Some of the formations encountered in
drilling are unconsolidated, consolidated, naturally fractured, porous etc. some main problems while drilling a well are:

Formation overburden pressure

Drill cuttings
Bit heat up
Borehole stability

The issue of drilling new wells in depleted zone is increasing as more wells are being drilled in old fields which are depleted. Drilling
through depleted zones is very difficult because of the fractures present in it. Nearly all the hydrocarbon reservoirs are fractured. If a
reservoir has an underlying formation which also contains hydrocarbons, after the depletion of upper bed we will have to drill to the
lower bed for recovering more hydrocarbons. The zone which is depleted will cause problems while drilling, such as lost circulation.

Lost circulation must be controlled in these zones otherwise a blowout may occur. Some of the drilling problems occurring in this type
of formation are as follows:

Stability of wellbore
Lost circulation in preexisting fractured formation
Fluid loss in production zone, which will eventually decrease the production.

Mostly fractures are related with carbonate formations, carbonate reservoirs contain a large amount of hydrocarbons in the world. But
drilling through carbonate formation can be troublesome and it has proven to be quite a struggle. Properties of carbonate formations
vary abruptly, fractures and vugs are present in this formation. Many wells drilled through carbonate formation have shown total loss
of drilling fluid, controlling lost circulation in these formations is of top priority, otherwise the lost circulation can quickly escalade
into a kick or blowout.

To drill a well successfully in depleted zone requires certain considerations such as:

The mud weight should be sufficient to prevent the formation fluids to enter into the bore hole and it should not exceed the fracture
gradient of the formation.
Preventing lost circulation techniques should be adopted, rather than curing lost circulation.
Optimization of drilling procedures.
Designing an appropriate drilling fluid.
Decreasing wellbore inclination.
2.1 Drilling problems in depleted zones
Drilling problems in depleted zones can be categorized in three main areas:

1. Wellbore stability
2. Lost circulation in fractures
3. Formation damage due to lost circulation.

2.2 Wellbore stability

Usually two different hydrocarbon bearing formations are separated by a shale formation, because of the presence of shale, high
mud weight is used to stop the formation from collapsing.
Shale formation tend to swell when drilled by water based mud, this can result in pipe sticking. To overcome this problem, the
mud weight should be high or oil based drilling fluid should be used.
By depletion process, the reservoir rock becomes weak. So it should also be considered while making the drilling profile.
In case of drilling through salt structures, it is difficult to reduce the mud weight even for the depleted zone.

2.3 Lost circulation in fractures

Induced fractures can occur in weak depleted zones while using high mud weight.
Well control problems may arise due to loss of drilling fluid into the fractures.
Lost circulation in productive zone can block the channels through which hydrocarbons reach the wellbore. This could result in
loss of productivity.
Wellbore stability problems can arise due to fractures.

2.4 Formation damage due to lost circulation

Formation damage can result from lost circulation of drilling fluid.
Due to lost circulation, other treatments are used as remedial solutions to decrease the severity of damage. For example acidizing,
fracturing etc.
 Growth of filter cake around the wall of well can increase the danger for pipe sticking.

To overcome these problems drilling fluid is pumped in the wellbore, which is circulated through the drill pipe and then it comes up
the annulus, this drilling fluid maintains a proper balance of pressure inside the borehole, remove the drill cuttings, cools the drill bit,
and maintains hydrostatic pressure.

This drilling fluid sometimes is being lost in the formations, this phenomenon is called lost circulation. It is the most costly and main
problem encountered during drilling. It has been observed that it costs more than 1 billion dollars annually to the petroleum industry. It
includes rig time, materials, and financial resources. It also results in the wastage of costly drilling muds. Therefore it is important to
take measures to control this loss of drilling fluid.

Lost circulation occurs in porous formations, fractured formations, formations with thief zones, induced fractures, cavernous
formations and unconsolidated or loosely held formations.

Due to continuous lost circulation in a wellbore will reduce the hydrostatic pressure and therefore can cause a kick, if kick is not
controlled timely, it may result in a blowout. Due to absorption of mud it makes the formation unconsolidated and as a result the
formation can collapse (cave in) in the borehole, resulting in pipe sticking. If lost circulation occurs in shale formation while drilling
with water based mud, the shale formation starts to swell, and as a result the borehole diameter will be reduced.

Intensity of lost circulation is measured by calculating the amount of drilling fluid being lost, because it indicates the type of formation
and its properties in which drilling fluid invades from the borehole. By knowing the properties of formation, we can use certain
materials or techniques to control loss of circulation. Different formations show different behavior against injected fluids. After lost
circulation occurs the first priority of a drilling engineer is to overcome this problem and continue drilling without any problem, for
this purpose the drilling mud is redesigned by adding LCMs (lost circulation material) as additives, it block fractures and make a seal
between formation and drilling fluid. This seal could be temporary or permanent.

Drilling mud must be designed according to the formation, for example if the drilling fluid exhibit more hydrostatic pressure on the
formation than its pore pressure, fractures will be generated in the formation, which will result in drilling fluid loss. In early times,
combating with drilling fluid was to increase the viscosity of the drilling mud.

Loss of drilling fluid in a formation can be less or total loss can also occur. Total loss is usually a result of fractured formation.

Loss of circulation can be categorized according to the drill fluid being lost in the formation, it is necessary to note down the amount
of lost circulation occurring. By knowing the loss it becomes easy to combat with the loss.

2.5 Loss Circulation Preventive methods

Lost circulation is a major problem for petroleum industry, it is a vast subject, several studies and ideas have been introduced to
combat lost circulation.

Moore (1986) researched that in unconsolidated shallow formations in which drilling fluid can easily invade in the formation due to
unconsolidated sand and gravels, in which porosity is high. This condition is favorable for the loss of drilling fluid. The most common
technique to cure lost circulation is to increase the viscosity of drilling fluid. It can be done by adding lime or cement in fresh water
mud. He also proposed an idea to control loss of circulation in fractured formation by drilling without fluid return from the wellbore to
the surface. Its main purpose is to deposit the drill cutting in the fractured formation or in thief zones. This practice is not very
practical because it requires large volume of water, due to accommodation of drill cuttings on the drill bit, high drill string torque and
drag can be encountered.

Recent research on the control of lost circulation is to use lost circulation materials (LCMs). Lost circulation materials are additives
added to drilling fluid to increase its efficiency against lost circulation. LCMs has proven to be effective in controlling lost circulation
economically. Hamburger et al. (1983), worked on shear thickening fluid (STF), it was applied on 10 different wells having lost
circulation, STF proved to be successful in controlling lost circulation. An STF is a multi component system made of water swellable
material, mixed with oil emulsion. When this is mixed with drilling fluid, the drill fluid remains low viscous, pumpable liquid. When
it leave from the drill bit nozzle, high shear rates cause the drill fluid to thicken into high strength viscous paste.

Nayberg (1987) tested in laboratory and compared the performance of regularly used LCMs in field such as fibrous materials,
granules, flakes etc. with a new high discharge material which was made of thermoset rubber. He tested this material in laboratory
with simulated fractured formation using water and oil based mud. Thermoset rubber was also used in field for controlling loss
circulation, it proved to be very good in controlling severe drilling fluid loss in fractured formations.

Gockel et al. (1987) did a research on expanded aggregates (AEs) to use in controlling lost circulation. Aes are concentrated mineral
based materials which are composed of several types of clay (bearing soil). Theses expanded aggregates were than used in six
different field applications, studies showed that these were capable of controlling different types of lost circulation as compared to
conventional lost circulation materials. Expanded aggregates have some good properties such as:

They have high compressive strength (durability)

Mud rheological properties are not altered by the use of Aes.
 The action of Aes is rapid in controlling lost circulation.

Vidick et al. (1988) also did a research of using internally activated silicate solution. Its test in laboratory showed that the solution had
low viscosity at the beginning but after some time, its viscosity increased gradually to form a gel. This increase in viscosity and gel
forming capability depends on its design and temperature given to it. The plugging capability of this gel is very high. This gel was
used to plug some cores having different permeabilties, the gel formed by the solution could bear a pressure of more than 1500 psi/ft.

Sweatman et al. (1997) studied the benefits of using lost circulation material squeeze system (LCMSS) where other conventional
methods failed to cure lost circulation. The lost circulation material squeeze system was applied in different wells, in which by using
conventional method lost circulation could not be stopped, by the usage of LCMSS the lost circulation was successfully controlled. By
studying field data of LCMSS usage, it showed that it can control lost circulation in highly fractured zones, vugular zones, weak zones
which can easily be fractured.

Bruton et al. (2001) studied the usage of chemically activated cross linked pills (CACP). These pills are cross linking agents, which
are activated by time and borehole temperature. After setting, CACP becomes a substance which is rubbery, ductile and spongy. CACP
has a setting time which can easily be controlled by accelerator or retarder, the setting time is usually determined by the depth of thief
zone and bottom hole temperature. These pills are not degradable either by chemical reaction or biologically, so there usage near pay
zone is done by caution.
Suyan et al. (2007) studied the use of a novel sealant system. It consists an activator, bridging agent, an elastomer with cross linking
polymers. The bridging agent provides a fast and convenient control of loss returns. The working principle of this sealant is its
capability of forming gel, which is rubbery and stiff. At the time of injection into the wellbore, it is less viscous which allows it to be
placed in the thief zone and then the gel forming capability starts to work and prevent any further loss of drilling fluid. By the use of
accelerators or retarders, its setting time is determined so that it forms gel when it reaches the lost circulation zone. This reduces the
risk of sealant to form gel inside the drill string.

Darugar et al. (2011) researched the use of single sack fibrous pills as lost circulation material. This lost circulation material does not
require any accelerator or retarder, because of no need to calculate its setting time or temperature of borehole. It can be used for
mixing and pumping along with drilling fluid to increase its tendency against lost circulation. In laboratory, certain experiments were
made to demonstrate its ability of rapidly de water and de oil to form sealing plug on ceramic filter disc and also on slotted metal disc.
This product can be used with a wide range of drilling fluids and have the capability of forming seal plug in sand formations.

Fidan et al (2004) suggested the use of cement as a remedy to control lost circulation has been practiced in drilling operations and has
been found successful. It provides permanent solution for lost circulation in many cases. Use of cement to control lost circulation is
generally applied in non-productive zones because of permanent setting it is irreversible in many cases. It is used in high lost
circulation zones and provides a quick and permanent solution.

Vinson et al. (1992) studied the use of removable cement by acid. This type of cementing can be used in productive zones in which
high lost circulation is occurring. This type of cement has thixotropic properties with small size particles which are able to invade in
fractures and voids. Acid removable cement is field tested in productive zones with success.
Aerated mud drilling is used to prevent formation damage because of its less density and hydrostatic pressure applied on the
formation. It is defined as a fluid which is formed by mists, foam, small quantity of water and air. With aerated mud drilling, lost
circulation is controlled in depleted formations. There are some advantages of using aerated mud drilling over conventional drilling
such as:

Minimized lost circulation

Less formation damage
High penetration rate
Less drilling cost

Reid and Santos, (2003) gave the following disadvantages of using aerated drilling fluid:

Formation of aerated mud is costly because it needs special machinery.

In offshore drilling, it has a disadvantage of covering more space, which is not available.
It is difficult to control the properties of downhole conditions.
Foams are usually compressible, in operating conditions they lose their structure.

Redden et al. (2011) addressed the limitation of using foam as drilling fluid because of development of new class of aerated mud
known as aphrons. Aphron uses micro bubbles that are non-forming and can be re injected in the well.

Another method of drilling against lost circulation conditions is the use of floating mud cap drilling. In this method some of the
drilling fluid remains in the wellbore to hold the formation fluid pressure. In case of no return of drilling fluid, this method is used as
last option. In floating mud cap drilling the principle function is to accommodate the drill cutting in lost circulation zones such as
fractures. The density of drill fluid is high enough to exert hydrostatic pressure in case of emergency and to hold the wall of wells.
Redden et al. (2011) suggested that using floating mudcap drilling can be dangerous and requires safety measures. Controlling
hydrostatic pressure in this method is very difficult, a well is considered in equilibrium when the hydrostatic pressure equals the
formation pressure. If the formation pressure exceeds than the hydrostatic pressure, a kick may occur.

Redden et al. (2011) if lost circulation is very severe and uncontrollable, when floating mudcap drilling fails than blind drilling
method is used. This happens because of large loss zones which are difficult to be sealed off of lost circulation materials. In this
method drilling is continued without any drilling fluid, until firm formation is encountered.
 Chapter 3

Methodology
3.1 Locating the Fractured zones
The first way to encounter the loss circulation is to identify the location of the loss circulation zone or thief zone. It is very difficult to locate the
thief zones, normally it is believed that at the bottom of the bit loss circulation occurs but its not true. Many times loss circulation did not occur at
the bottom of the bit but it occur at the casing shoe of the last casing. And the second importance of locating the zones is that, we can correlate it
with the history of the formation and through this we can determine the type of fracture and sizes.

3.1.1 Models on identification of natural fractures

Modeling work is done to understand fluid properties that control lost circulation into pre-existing fractures. These preexisting factures
can be drilling induced fractures or natural fractures.
3.1.1.1 Sanfillipos Model
In identification of conductive natural fractures, Sanfillipo made a model for the estimation of size of fracture.. Fractures present in
naturally fractures formation provide a path for the flow of oil, gas and other fluids (drilling fluid). Top most priority is to locate and
find the integrity of fractures.

In this model, Sanfillipo described how the drilling fluid fills a fracture in lost circulation. The model showed here is kept simple for
solving equations easily because of the following considerations.

The physical processes involved in drilling are very complex due to non-Newtonian fluid entering the fractures or cracks.
These fractures have irregular surface.
While drilling, the drill bit cannot be stopped as considered in this model, because certain parameters are to be noted down
when drilling proceeds.

The following assumptions are considered for this model;

When drill bit hits a fracture, decrease in mud pit volume occurs, this phenomenon is considered that the drill bit has hit a
fracture.
The fracture is considered plain (having a circular shape and is perpendicular with the well axis) and of uniform size.
The drilling fluid enters the formation radially.
Fractured zone is more conductive than the formation.
At the beginning of lost circulation, the plugging of fractures by plugging agents present in drilling fluid can be considered
negligible.
The fluid shows Newtonian behavior.
The flow of fluid into the fractures is considered laminar.
 Poiseuilles law is valid. According to Poiseuilles law pressure drop in a laminar flow through a long smooth pipe is directly
proportional to the viscosity and length of the fluid with the volume flow rate and inversely proportional to the fourth power of
radius.
The aperture of fracture (h) is linked with fracture permeability (k) by the following equation.
K= h2 /12
The parameters of this model are shown in the figure. It includes core height (H c), core length (Lc), core width (WC), fracture
permeability (k) and fracture size (h). Studies are made on cores taken from formation, these cores help in studying the fractures
closely and comparing results by implementing different experiments.

3.1.1.2 Majidis Model on fractured formation

Majidi considered the yield power law model for showing the behavior of drilling fluid, because most drilling fluids show shear
thinning behavior. This model represents water and oil based drilling fluids in the shear rate range. Yield power law is shown by an
equation:

= o + k(y)m

Where:

= shear stress ( Force per unit area required to move a fluid)

o = yield stress ( yield stress is the level of shear stress required to start the flow)
k = consistency ( it is a constant of proportionality which measures the consistency of the substance)
y = shear rate ( it is the change in fluid velocity divided by the gap of the channel through which the flow is occurring)
m = flow behavior index ( it is the degree of fluid shear thickening or shear thinning)

Yield power law model is a generalized form for non-Newtonian fluids, where strain is dependent on stress in non linear way. This is
the reason why Majidi used the yield power law in his model.
Figure: Dimensionless mud loss curve for yield power law fluids is shown in this graph.

Description

This type of graph helps in predicting the size of the fracture. In this figure, m shows the flow behavior index and represents the
degree to which the fluid is shear thinning. A fluid having lower value of m will show greater shear thinning behavior. After getting
field data, it is superimposed on this type of curves and hydraulic width can be known when a field data curve matches the theoretical
curve. This is because the field data shows actual behavior of the fracture as a function of time. After getting an accurate match, the
adjusted width of the fracture shows the actual average hydraulic width.
3.1.1.2.1 Assumptions of Majidis model
Following assumptions are made in this model,

Fracture has constant width and infinite length.

The fracture is non-deformable.
Mud shows yield power law behavior.
Drilling fluid is incompressible.
No drilling fluid leaks off through the walls of fracture.
Plugging of fracture by drilling fluid particles does not occur.
Continuous over balanced drilling.

Invasion of drilling fluid in the fracture stops after some time, this is because of the yield stress provided by the mud. This yield stress
provides more resistance than the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid column. If yield stress is higher initially, no fluid loss will
occur.

3.1.1.2.2 Effect of drilling fluid properties on lost circulation

Majidi studied the effect of yield stress, plastic viscosity and shear thinning of drilling fluid on lost circulation.

Plastic viscosity is the resistance shown by a fluid when it is moved. When a fluid show resistance in flow after yield point is
achieved, it is represented by plastic viscosity.

Laboratory studies are made on drilling fluids which identifies the specific form of drilling fluid needed to plug the fractures and to
control lost circulation effectively.
Effects of yield stress on Drilling fluid
 Effects of yield stress on total volume

Lost circulation occurred at a well owned by BP (British petroleum), the losses were recorded for almost two hours. It was a fractured
well, Majidis model was applied to it. The field record of lost circulation is shown in the figure below:
 The drilling fluid was analyzed in the lab. The width of the fracture was found by comparing the results obtained by field data and
predictions by model. The model resembled with the field data and the outcome for the hydraulic width was calculated to be 880 m.

3.1.1.2.3 Limitations of majidis model

Different assumptions were made in Majidis model. One of the assumptions is that the well is vertical and has been drilled through a
single horizontal fractured formation, having a single horizontal fracture. But in real the orientation of fractures can be different
depending on the stresses acting on the formation.

Heterogeneities are present in the fractured formations and in the presence of these heterogeneities a radial flow cannot occur.
Deformability of fractures has not been considered.
Invasion of drilling fluid from fracture walls into the formation is not considered.
 Drilling fluid properties are different at surface than at subsurface conditions, due to change in pressure and temperature.

3.1.2 Other Methods for locating the fractured zones:

3.1.2.1 Spinner survey
A small spinner attached to the bottom of the wire is suspended into the wellbore and it turns when there is horizontal motion of
the drilling fluid. The Round per minutes (RPMs) of the rotor are recorded in the form of dashes or spaces on a film. The RPM will be increased
when it reaches the loss zone or thief zone.

3.1.2.2 Temperature Survey

A sensitive thermometer is attached to the bottom hole assembly (BHA) and it measures the temperature difference between
the fluid and the formation. Two surveys are conducted, the first one is to determine the temperature of the drilling mud when it is in equilibrium
with the formation. The second one is run after the addition of the cool mud in the well. A sharp difference will be observed at the point of the loss.

3.1.2.3 Radioactive tracer survey

It consist of doing two gamma ray surveys. A base log is run ahead of the radioactive material. A mud slug carrying
radioactive material is run into the down hole and then a fresh log is run. High quantity of radioactive material will be found at the loss circulation
zone. This method gives us accurate data but it is too expensive to conduct.

3.1.2.4 Hot wire survey

It is basically a sensitive calibrated resistance wire which is sensitive to the temperature change. It is run up to the desired point
and the resistance of the formation is noted and the mud is pumped down, if it is at the loss zone the mud will flow it, which changes its resistance.

3.2 Loss circulation Controlling Methods

In drilling operation, loss circulation is a headache for a drilling engineer and it cost time as well as money and exhaust whole crew operating on a
rig. As the conventional reservoir is been depleted and the demand for the more wells is increased, which results in more hostile environment to
drill a well and it prove to be a challenging task for a driller. Therefore, loss of circulation of the drilling fluid become more common. There are
two ways to counter the loss circulation of the drilling fluids. Which are as follows:

Sealing of the permeable or porous medium of the formation.

Maintaining the borehole stability.

3.2.1 Sealing of the permeable or porous medium

It is a method in which a certain amount of solid particles are added into the drilling fluid, which in contact with
the formation plug the pores where the fluid gets leaked from the formation resulting in the loss of circulation. Following are the system used
in the controlling loss circulation in the naturally fractured zone.

3.2.1.1 Loss Circulation Squeeze System

Loss circulation materials are used to seal the formation pore spaces. These are Fibers, Flakes or granular
materials. These are designed as special pills containing loss circulation material which are mixed with drilling fluid. These pills are pumped into
the thief zone. These pills plug the fractures or cracks of the formation and reduce the loss of drilling fluid into the formation. It reduces the loss
circulation by increasing the pore pressure which helps in further drilling of the well at greater depths and prevents underground blowouts.
Characteristics of the Loss Circulation Material Squeeze system pills (LCMSS):

Following characteristics of a LCMSS pills must be met to perform better.

Seal must be strong enough to sustain the overbalance formation which has high pore pressure.
It must last a week, until further drilling a casing section.
It must sustain both swab and surge pressures.

3.2.1.2 Advantages of LCMSS

LCMSS pills make a rubber like structure when added with water and oil based drilling mud and can move through the fluid in
high and weak pressured zones. These systems are cheaper as the materials used in these pills are easily available, which costs less. After the usage
of the LCMSS the formation fracture gradient is increased causing the formation to sustain High equivalent circulating density. It plugs the weak
zones which are closed to the oil and gas formations. Numerous underground blowouts can be controlled in this way. The fracture pressure of a
weak formation is increased.

3.2.1.3 Procedure of implementing the LCMSS technique

Two pumps are used, one pump is used to inject the LCMSS and the second pump is used to inject the drilling fluid. The drill bit is kept
above the thief zone. Before insertion of the pills the drill pipe is kept clean of any excessive materials which can disturb the procedure. The
amount needed to be injected depends on the rigor loss of drilling fluid in the formation. Volume of the spacer preceded by LCMSS depends on the
fluid type and the rate of pumping. LCMSS technique will maintain its purity when the pressure required for squeezing the LCMSS into the thief
zone is higher than the resistance of the fluid and frictional losses.
3.2.1.4 High filter loss slurry squeeze:
Fluids which have high filtration can make best plug around the face of the pores spaces in the formation. Once a slurry is
put on the face of the pores, the liquid filtrates from the slurry and moves into the formation. The left behind solids particles makes a strong bridge
or plug around the wellbore. It serves to withstand high fracture pressure. This approach is used in seepage and partial losses.
3.2.2 Loss circulation squeeze pills
There must be permeability in the formation in order to make a formidable seal around the well bore and a pressure
difference between pore pressure and well-bore pressure. This treatment is not suitable for shale formation as it has lower permeability
considered as impermeable. These technique will work best with water based mud and less effective in oil based mud. It is suitable for the
formation which are highly permeable and depleted.

These pills are viscous and deformable in the presence of pressure increased. As the seal is formed around the pores spaces, the pressure is
increased in the well-bore the seal will increase its aperture as it is viscous and deformable. It can deform and tip of the fracture is not exposed to
the excessive pressure. In order to break it down, it requires high yield stress. The cohesiveness of the seal stops the drilling mud entering into the
formation pores spaces.

3.2.3 Stress Caging

While drilling a well if lost circulation occurs, usually the weight of drilling fluid is increased by adding certain lost circulation
materials. This increase in weight of the drilling fluid exhibits more hydrostatic pressure on the formation which can induce fractures
in the formation. This type of behavior occurs while drilling through depleted fractured formations in which occurrence of lost
circulation is high. To overcome this problem a procedure is used which is known as stress caging.

Stress caging is a procedure which artificially increases the strength of borehole walls by changing its physical properties, it helps in
increasing the fracture gradient of the formation. In stress caging, calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) and graphite are used to fill micro
fractures present in a fractured formation. Sometime these micro fractures are artificially generated by induced fracturing process. By
filling the micro fractures around the wall of well it forms a stress hoop which strengthens the formation so that the propagation of
fractures and loss of fluid in fractures can be stopped.
3.2.3.1 Advantages of Stress caging
Deposition of solids near the fracture opening act as water suspended material and also form a seal between drilling fluid and fractures
of the formation. The formation becomes independent from the pressure of drilling fluid (hydrostatic pressure). In case of permeable
formation, some of the mud filtrate will leak through the bridge formed by stress caging, and eventually the fracture will start to close.
3.2.3.2 Implementation of Stress Caging
First of all the quantity of particles that is needed for stress caging is measured according to the width of fractures. Bridging particles
used are usually composed of solid calcium carbonates. There are different particle size distribution available of calcium carbonate,
these sizes are based on the size of fractures. Particle size distribution helps to calculate the amount and size of bridging particles
needed in order to bridge a fracture. The extension and propagation of a fracture is controlled by bridging agents included in mud. If
the fracture propagation is not stopped timely, then it will become difficult to plug with solid particles.

Large particle size distribution than the size of fracture are useful in case when drilling is propagating and the fractured formation is
drilled, these particles will enter the wall of well and bridge the fracture.

Chapter 4

Case studies
4.1 Sealing
4.1.1 Case study 1
In East Texas oil field, while drilling a well total loss of drilling fluid occurred at a depth of around 2000 meter. This total loss
occurred due to the presence of highly fractured formation. Many conventional lost circulation materials (LCMs) were used to cure
lost circulation but failed. Finally a 50bbl pill of sealing fluid which contained 84 gram per liter of hydrophobic ally having a density
of 1.05 gram per cubic centimeter was pumped in the well through drill string at a uniform rate of 2 barrels per minute. The sealing
fluid started to seal off fractures through which lost circulation was occurring. After 12 to 18 hours, 60 % of drilling was returning
back to the surface. Within 18 to 24 hours, 100% returns were confirmed. Sealing was equipped to control lost circulation in other
wells of same field.
 4.1.2 Case study2
While drilling a well in Krafla field Iceland, lost circulation occurred due to high fractured formation. Fracture aperture being in
centimeters. The targeted depth of the well was to reach 4500 meters but severe problems were occurred during drilling. Drilling fluid
losses increased as increasing depth. Minor mud losses occurred at the depth of 1000 meters.

To control lost circulation, the drilling operator used lost circulation materials (LCMs) as additives along with the drilling fluid and
pumped down the hole through drill pipe. After some time, the lost circulation was cured and circulation regained

4.2Stress caging
4.2.1 Case study
A well operated by BP in Gulf of Mexico, depleted to 3553 psi at a depth of 9250. Particle size distribution for the fracture was
calculated by the FEM model. The quantity of mud particles, its size which was needed to plug and bridge the fracture was determined
and the fracture was plugged. Showing that this method is successful to be employed in field, propagation of fractures and increasing
the formation resistivity. Stress caging employed in field helps in sealing and pugging of fractures.

Chapter 5

Conclusion
Based on the study following conclusion are concluded.

1. Loss circulation cannot be completely controlled, however it can be controlled through different methods to minimize the loss of
fluids.
2. Successful treatment of Loss circulation depends on the following factors:
Borehole temperature
Pressure, depth and size of the thief zone
3. It can be controlled at first place, by careful observation and a backup strategy should be developed in order to control it.
4. Prior knowledge of the formation, depth and types of fracture should be kept in mind in developing a method to control the loss
circulation.
5. After the comparison of the models, the closest approach to real drilling condition is considered by Majidis model. It follows the
Yield Power Law and the fluid follows this model accurately.

Recommendation

1. Effect on the reservoir productivity may be concerned in the selection of LCM.

2. It is a broad subject, studies and research should be conducted on particular formation and types of LCM methods.
3. An engineered based material should be developed to control the loss circulation.