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Dipartimento Energia
Dipartimento Energia
Politecnico di Torino
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 1 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Outline
Sonic velocity and Mach number
Stagnation properties
Steady 1-D isentropic compressible flows in a
duct
Design of nozzles: convergent nozzles and
convergent-divergent (De Laval) nozzles
Design of diffusers: divergent diffuser
Off-design performance of convergent nozzles
Off-design performance of convergent-divergent
nozzles
Effects of viscous dissipations
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 2 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Outline
Sonic velocity and Mach number
Stagnation properties
Steady 1-D isentropic compressible flows in a
duct
Design of nozzles: convergent nozzles and
convergent-divergent (De Laval) nozzles
Design of diffusers: divergent diffuser
Off-design performance of convergent nozzles
Off-design performance of convergent-divergent
nozzles
Effects of viscous dissipations
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 3 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
It is worthwhile recalling that p, and T are the local values of pressure, density
and temperature of the gas, i.e. cs and Ma are local quantities.
In all processes related to the propagation of pressure waves, the changes take
place so rapidly that there is virtually no time for any heat transfer between
adjacent layers of fluid; the processes can be considered therefore adiabatic.
Also, when the amplitude of the pressure wave is small and there is no material
alteration in the pressure and temperature of the gas, as is true of an ordinary
sound wave, there is no increase of entropy. Therefore, the process can also be
considered isentropic.
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 5 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Outline
Sonic velocity and Mach number
Stagnation properties
Steady 1-D isentropic compressible flows in a
duct
Design of nozzles: convergent nozzles and
convergent-divergent (De Laval) nozzles
Design of diffusers: divergent diffuser
Off-design performance of convergent nozzles
Off-design performance of convergent-divergent
nozzles
Effects of viscous dissipations
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 6 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Stagnation properties
Stagnation (or total) properties are the properties which a gas stream of
enthalpy h and velocity c would possess when brought to rest isentropically and
without work transfer in an horizontal duct under steady-state conditions. From
the energy conservation for open systems, applied between a generic point P
and the stagnation point P, we obtain that:
2 2
c c
Q +Li = h0 - h 0 - h0 = h +
2 2
where h0 indicates the total (or stagnation) enthalpy.
For an ideal gas:
k
c2 T 0 k-1
0
T =T+ p0 = p
2Cp T
0 c 2 c s2 kRT k -1
T =T+ 2 = T +Ma 2 = T 1+Ma 2
c s 2Cp k 2
2 R
k -1
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 7 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
TA0 A0
pA h0A A0 t 0A
c 2A pA
c 2A
2Cp tA
A 2
TA A
hA
S
1 k S
p k c2 T0 k-1
0
v = v 0 T =T+0 p0 = p
p 2Cp T
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 8 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
k
T 0 k -1
h0A p0 = p
A0 t 0A T
pA
c 2A 1
2 tA 0 p k
A V = V 0
hA p
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 9 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Stagnation properties
Based on the definition of h0, the first law of thermodynamics can be rewritten
as:
2 2
c -c
Q +Li = h2 - h1 + 2 1 + gz +...
2
2 2 Q +Li = h0 + gz +...
c2 c1
Q +Li = h2 + - h1 - + gz +...
2 2
It can be derived that for an adiabatic steady flow in a fixed horizontal duct:
h0 = 0 h0 = const
T0 = 0 T0 = const
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 10 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Stagnation properties
In Lecture No. 2 it was shown that for any process involving an ideal gas:
T p
S - S A = Cpln - Rln
TA pA
0 T0 p0
S - S0A = Cpln 0 - Rln 0
TA pA
0
p0A
For an adiabatic process S - S0A
= Rln 0 . If the process is also isentropic
p
one has S=SA, i.e. S0= S0A for definition of stagnation properties, therefore:
p0A p0A 0
Rln 0
p = 0 0
= 1 p = const
p A1
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 11 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Outline
Sonic velocity and Mach number
Stagnation properties
Steady 1-D isentropic compressible flows in a
duct
Design of nozzles: convergent nozzles and
convergent-divergent (De Laval) nozzles
Design of diffusers: divergent diffuser
Off-design performance of convergent nozzles
Off-design performance of convergent-divergent
nozzles
Effects of viscous dissipations
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 12 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
dp
TdS = dh - Vdp dh - =0 (3) Isentropic process
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 13 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
dA dp 1- Ma2
dA dc
A
=
c
Ma2 -1 (6)
dc
c
=-
dp 1
p kMa2
(7)
A
=
p kMa2
(8)
If one considers a continuous expansion (dp< 0, i.e. dc>0 for eq. 7), the
changes in flow area of the nozzle must be as follows:
Subsonic flow (Ma<1) dA<0 convergent duct
Supersonic flow (Ma>1) dA>0 divergent duct
Ma = 1 dA = 0 i.e., it can occur in the throat duct only
Aout
Ma < 1 Ma>1
A t Ma = 1
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 14 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power Ain
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
If one considers a continuous compression (dp>0, i.e. dc<0 for eq. 7), the
changes in flow area of the diffuser must be as follows:
Supersonic flow (Ma>1) dA<0 convergent duct
Subsonic flow (Ma<1) dA>0 divergent duct
Ma = 1 dA = 0 i.e., it can occur in the throat duct only
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 15 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
identify how area should vary along the nozzle axis in order to obtain a
continuous isentropic expansion from Ma<1 to Ma>1;
calculate the pressure ratio that produces chocking in the nozzle throat.
fixed m
m = Ac A = m A
1
c c
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 16 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Notation
tank Upstream environment
poo , oo ,Too
conditions: Ain A out
c0 0 p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
Downstream
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1 Stagnation (total) conditions: environment
p2
nozzle p1o , 1o ,T1o
which are equal to:
cin c out
p2
poo , oo ,Too
k-1
* See slide 90
k pO p
0 k
c= 2 0
1- 0 (9)
k -1 O pO c
Nozzle outlet section
Downstream p1
conditions
p0O Nozzle inlet section
p2 p2 p Upstream
p0O p0O conditions
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
cout c cin=c1 Upstream total
conditions
p1o , 1o ,T1o p2 p1 p
A out At 0 1
po
=
2 k+1
k 0 0 p k p k
c = 2 pO O 0
- 0 (10)
k -1 pO pO
m
m 1
A (11)
c 2 k+1 c
k 0 0 p k p k
2 pO O 0 - 0
k -1
pO pO
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 19 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
c
Downstream p1
conditions Aout
p2 p2 p p0O
Upstream At
p0O p0O conditions
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
cout c cin=c1 1
Upstream total
conditions
0 p2 p1
p
p 0o
p1o , 1o ,T1o poo poo
A out At =
po , oo ,Too
o
Ain
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 20 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
k
d c p 2 k-1
= 0 0 = (12)
d p p0O p
O c k +1
For a nozzle expanding from Ma<1 to Ma>1 the flow velocity c equals the local
velocity of sound cs in the throat area, therefore Eq. (12) gives the pressure
ratio that produces chocking (called critical pressure ratio).
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 21 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
cs
c
Downstream p1
conditions Aout
p2 p p0O cin
p2 Upstream At
p0O p0O conditions
p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1
cout c cin=c1 1
Upstream total 0 p2 p 2
k
p1
p
conditions k-1 p 0o
0 =
p1o , 1o ,T1o poo pO c k +1 poo
A out At =
po , oo ,Too
o
Ain
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 22 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
k-1 k-1
0
k k
p k
k p0O k pO 2 k-1 k p0O
cc = 2 1- 0 = 2 1-
0 = 2
k -1 O0 pO c k -1 O k +1 k +1 O0
k p0O
cc = 2 (13)
k +1 O0
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 23 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
k+1
2 k-1
c c = p0O O0 k (14)
k +1
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 24 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
cs
p2 p p1 c c out
0
Downstream 0
pO pO c p0O Upstream
conditions conditions Aout
p2 p1 , 1 ,T1 , c1 Aout cin
At
Upstream total
cout cin=c1 conditions
p1o , 1o ,T1o 0 k
1 p
pp2 2 k-1 p2 p1
=
0 o = p 0o
A out po , oo ,Too
o
pp
Ooc
k +1 p0o poo
Ain
NB: In this case the nozzle is not chocked
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 26 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Outline
Sonic velocity and Mach number
Stagnation properties
Steady 1-D isentropic compressible flows in a
duct
Design of nozzles: convergent nozzles and
convergent-divergent (De Laval) nozzles
Design of diffusers: divergent diffuser
Off-design performance of convergent nozzles
Off-design performance of convergent-divergent
nozzles
Effects of viscous dissipations
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 27 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Design of nozzles
Design data:
mass flow rate:
m
0
fluid properties in the nozzle upstream environment : p1 , 1 , c1 p1 , 1
0
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 28 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the inlet port:
m 1 10
A in = c1 0
1c1 A in
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 29 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the outlet port
p2
* Three cases are possible, depending on the ratio
p10
k Convergent nozzle
p2 p 2 k-1
Case 1a: 0 = p1o , 1o
c1 c out (not chocked)
0
p1 pO c k +1 =
p0o , 0o
p1 , 1 , c1
p2
p2
c out A out
k A in
k De-Laval nozzle
p2 p 2 k-1 (chocked)
p2
Case 2: 0
0 = p1o , 1o
p1 , 1 , c 1 c1 c outp 2
p1 pO c k +1 =
p0o , 0o
A in At A out
* NB: in the following slides, the pressure ratio
p2 p2 p2
will be expressed as p0 . It is obvious that 0 0 , being p1 p0
0 0
1 p1 p0
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 30 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the outlet port (method 1):
Convergent nozzle is adopted
k
p2 p 2 k-1 p1o , 1o
c1 c out
Case 1a: 0 = = p1 , 1 , c1
p2
p1 pO
0
c k +1 p0o , 0o
c out A out
p2
m
m
A in
A out
out c out 2 k+1
k 0 0 p2 k p2k (17)
2 p1 1 0 - 0
k -1 p1 p1
NB: in design conditions:
pout = p2
k-1
k p10 p2 k
0
c out = 2 1- 0 (18)
k -1 1 p1
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 31 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the outlet port (method 2):
Convergent nozzle is adopted
m p1o , 1o
c1 c out
Case 1a: A out = p1 , 1 , c1
p2
out c out p0o , 0o p2
c out A out
A in
1 law (in-out) Q + Li = h + Ek + Eg + E h + Ek = 0
2 2
cin c out 2
c out cin + 2 hin hout
hin + hout +
2 2
Ideal gas: dh = c p dT
2
c out cin + 2Cp Tin Tout c12 + 2Cp T1 Tout
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 32 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the outlet port (method 1):
Convergent nozzle is adopted
k
p2 p 2 k-1 p1o , 1o
c1 c out
Case 1b: 0 = = p1 , 1 , c1
p2
p1 pO
0
c k +1 p0o , 0o
c out A out
p2
A in
m
m
A out Ac
c c c k+1 (19)
2 k-1
p10 10 k
k +1
NB: in design conditions:
pout = p2 k p10
c out = cc = 2
k +1 10 (20)
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 33 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the outlet port (method 2):
Convergent nozzle is adopted
m m p1o , 1o
c1 c out
Case 1b: A out Ac = p1 , 1 , c1
p2
out c out c cc p0o , 0o
c out A out
p2
A in
k
2 k-1
pout p2 = p10
pout k +1
(ideal gas out 2
law) RTout Tout Tc T1o
k 1
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 34 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the outlet port + throat (method 1):
De-Laval (convergent-divergent) nozzle must be adopted
k
p2 p 2 p1o , 1o p2
Case 2: k-1 c1 c outp 2
0 = = p1 , 1 , c 1
0 p0o , 0o
p1 pO c k +1 A in At A out
k-1
m
m k p10 p2 k
A out
0
c out = 2 1- 0
out c out 2 k+1 k -1 1 p1
k 0 0 p2 k
p2 k
2 p1 1 0 - 0
k -1 p1 p1
m
m
A t Ac k p10
c c c k+1 c t = cc = 2
k +1 10
2 k-1
p10 10 k
k +1
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 35 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the outlet port + throat (method 2):
De-Laval (convergent-divergent) nozzle must be adopted
m m p1o , 1o p2
Case 2: At Ac c1 c outp 2
= p1 , 1 , c 1
t ct c cc p0o , 0o
A in At A out
k
2 k-1 k-1
pt = p10 k p10 p2 k
k +1
0
p c out = 2 1- 0
(ideal gas t t 2 k -1 1 p1
law) RTt Tt Tc T1o
k 1
pt Ideal gas
c t c s,t k kRTt
t
1st Law in-t) 2
c t cin + 2Cp Tin Tt c12 + 2Cp T1 Tt
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 36 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Design of nozzles
Cross section of the outlet port + throat (method 2):
De-Laval (convergent-divergent) nozzle must be adopted
p1o , 1o p2
Case 2:
m = p1 , 1 , c 1 c1 c outp 2
A out p0o , 0o
out c out A in At A out
2 2
cin c out 2
c out cin + 2 hin hout
1 law (in-out) hin + hout +
2 2
Ideal gas: dh = c p dT
2
c out cin + 2Cp Tin Tout c12 + 2Cp T1 Tout
A3
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 37 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Outline
Sonic velocity and Mach number
Stagnation properties
Steady 1-D isentropic compressible flows in a
duct
Design of nozzles: convergent nozzles and
convergent-divergent (De Laval) nozzles
Design of diffusers: divergent diffuser
Off-design performance of convergent nozzles
Off-design performance of convergent-divergent
nozzles
Effects of viscous dissipations
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 38 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
m
2 A1
1 c1
m
A2
2 c 2
c 2 c 2h2 h1
2
1
1k
1 p2
2 1
p1
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 39 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
c2
2
c1
A1 1 2 r1 l1 sin1
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 40 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Outline
Sonic velocity and Mach number
Stagnation properties
Steady 1-D isentropic compressible flows in a
duct
Design of nozzles: convergent nozzles and
convergent-divergent (De Laval) nozzles
Design of diffusers: divergent diffuser
Off-design performance of convergent nozzles
Off-design performance of convergent-divergent
nozzles
Effects of viscous dissipations
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 41 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Data:
characteristic nozzle cross sections: A in , A out
0 0 0
fluid properties upstream of nozzle: p1 , 1 , c1 p1 , 1 equal to p0 , 0
0
back pressure (in the environment downstream from nozzle): p2
Quantities to be evaluated:
mass flow rate:
m
fluid velocity at outlet port: c out
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 42 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
p2
0 1
p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 43 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
10 = = const
0 *
2 k+1
1
m0 = A out 2 k p10 10 1 k - 1 k 0
k -1
p2=pout=p1=p0
= = const
0 * k 0 0 p2b
k p k
10 1 b = A out
m 2 p1 1 0 - 2b
0
k -1 p1 p1
k-1
k p10 p2b k
c out,b = 2 1-
k - 1 10 p10
b =m
m *
b
*
m b
*
m b
p
pout,c = p2c p10 0
p2 p pO c
Point C:
p10 p0O c
k-1
p k
0 2
Tout,c = T10 out,c T1 *
p2
1
0
k 1 p p2
p1
k p10 0 0 0
c out,c = c t = c s,out = c c = 2
k +1 10 pO c p1 p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 48 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
*
m b
pcr
p2d *
m b
As a consequence, the mass flow rate remains constant and
equal to the critical mass flow rate even though the pressure
p2 further decreases. In these conditions:
k
0 2 k-1
pout,d pc pO p2d
k +1
p2d
*
In fact, pout cannot be lower than pcr. An expansion wave p2 p2
occurs at the nozzle outlet, from pcr to p2d. 0 0
p
0 0 1
The above equation of mass flow rate is still valid, but the
critical pressure ratio must be used.
pO pO c pO p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 50 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
k +1
d c = = con st
*
10 0
1
pcr
p2d *
m b
k
p = p = p0 2 k-1
out c 1 p2
p2 p k +1
Point d:
p10 p0O c
k-1
p k 2
Tout = Tc = T10 0 = T10
p2d
*
p2 p2
p0 c k +1
k p10
0 0
p
0 0 1
c out,d = c out,c = c s,out = 2
k +1 10
pO pO c pO p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 51 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
m p10
*
m
*
p p2
0 0
p2
0 1
pO c p1 p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 52 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
p00 00 p10 10
m p10 10
m k p2 k p2 k
m 2
k
k 1
= 2 -
p10 A out k 1 p10 A out k -1 p10 p10
p00 A out
p10 10
m
p10 A out
k
p2
0 p 2
0
k 1 1
p
O c k 1 p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 54 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
p10 A out
k+1
2 k-1
k
k +1
k p2
0 2 k-1 1
k +1
p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 55 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
k
p2
0 p 2
0
k 1 1
p
O c k 1 p1o
A4
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 56 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Outline
Sonic velocity and Mach number
Stagnation properties
Steady 1-D isentropic compressible flows in a
duct
Design of nozzles: convergent nozzles and
convergent-divergent (De Laval) nozzles
Design of diffusers: divergent diffuser
Off-design performance of convergent nozzles
Off-design performance of convergent-divergent
nozzles
Effects of viscous dissipations
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 57 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Data:
characteristic nozzle cross sections: Ain, A t , A out
0 0 0
fluid properties upstream of nozzle: p1 , 1 , c1 p1 , 1 equal to p0 , 0
0
back pressure (in the environment downstream from nozzle): p2
Quantities to be evaluated:
mass flow rate: m
fluid velocity at throat and outlet port: c t , c out
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 58 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
p1 , 1 p2 p2a p2,des
c1 c out
p
po
p1
pc
a p2a p2,des
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 59 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
e p2e https://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=0ycxMTUnruw
pc Shock waves
NB: the shock wave moves
k
towards the outlet section when
pc 2
1
p0O k 1
k
a
p2 decreases. For some
p2a p2,des conditions, it may occur in the
0.528 for air outlet section or even
Expansion wave p2f downstream from it.
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 60 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 61 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 62 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
= const
*
Fixed Lets vary the p 10 = p 10
upstream downstream p2
10 = = const
0 *
conditions pressure m 1
p2
0 1
p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 63 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
c out
m p10 = p10
c1
10 = = const
0 *
1
p2=pout=p1=p0 k 0 0 2 k+1
p p2b 0 = A out 2
m p1 1 1 k - 1 k 0
k -1
po b NB: nozzle is
p2d
p1 d
chocked for p2p2d
e p2e
pc
a p2a p2,des
p2f
c out
m p10 = p10
k 0 0 p2b
2
k p
k+1
k
c1 b = A out
m 2 p1 1 0 - 2b
= = const
0 *
10 1 k -1 0
p1 p1
p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b
o
p b NB: nozzle is k-1
p2d k p10 p2b k
p1 d
chocked for p2p2d
c out,b = 2 1-
k - 1 10 p10
e p2e
pc
a p2a p2,des
b
p2f
p1 , 1 p2 *
c out
m p10 = p10 = const d = A out
m 2
k 0 0 p2d k p2d k
p1 1 0 - 0
c1 k -1 p1 p1
10 =
0 *
1 = const
p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b k-1
o k p10 p2d k
p b NB: nozzle is c out,d = 2 1-
p2d k -1 10 p10
p1 d
chocked for p2p2d
e p2e d
pc
a p2a p2,des b
k p10 p2f
c t = c s,t = c c = 2
k +1 10
When p2=p2d, the nozzle is chocked (p=pc, Ma=1 in
the throat section). At point d, the nozzle behaves
as a Venturi duct. In this condition, evolution is p2d
p2
isentropic and pout,d=p2d, so the equation above still 0 p
0
p10 1
describes the mass flow rate at point d. pO c p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 67 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
= = const
0 * 2 k-1
c1 10 1
d = Aout
m 2
k -1
p1 1 0 - 0 A t p10 10 k
k +1
p1 p1
p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b
o
p b NB: nozzle is
k+1
p2d 2 k-1
p1 d
chocked for p2p2d At p10 10 k
e p2e d k +1
pc
a p2a p2,des b
k p10 p2f
c t = c s,t = c c = 2
k +1 10
The mass flow rate, at point d, coincides with the
critical mass flow rate:
p2d
p2
d = A out
m 2
k 0 0 p2d
2
k
k+1
p2d k 0 0 2 k-1
p1 1 0 - 0 A t p1 1 k
k+1
0 p
0
p10 1
k -1 p1 p1
k +1
pO c p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 68 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
c out
m p10 = p10 2 k+1
k 0 0 p2d k p2d k
k+1
2 k-1
c1 md = A out 2 p1 1 0 - 0 A t p10 10 k
= = const
0 * k -1 p1 p1 k +1
10 1
p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b
o
p b NB: nozzle is
k+1
p2d 2 k-1
p1 d
chocked for p2p2d At p10 10 k
f a=des e d k +1
e p2e
*
m
pc
a p2a p2,des b
p2f
When p2<p2d, the nozzle is chocked and the mass p2f p2e
flow rate does not change anymore. p10 p10
k+1
p2 p2d
= A t p10 10 k 2 k-1 p2d
p2
*
p10 p0O
m
k +1 0
p2a p
p10 p0
p
0
p10 1
When p2<p2d, is the above mass flow rate equation
pO c p1o
still valid? For which points?
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 69 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
p2=pout=p1=p0
p p2b
o
p b NB: nozzle is
k+1
p2d 2 k-1
p1 d
chocked for p2p2d At p10 10 k
f a=des e d k +1
e p2e
*
m
pc
a p2a p2,des b
p2f
We distinguish 3 cases: p2f p2e
p10 p10
p2a p2 p2d
Case 1: 0 0 0 p2d
*
p2
pO p1 pO
p2 p2a
0
p2a p
p10 p0
p
0
p10 1
Case 2:
p10 p0O pO c p1o
p2 p2a
Case 3:
p10 p0O
*
NB: different notations can be used p2a p2,des p p p
0 0 0 0 0
for the design pressure ratio: pO pO pO a pO des pO
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 70 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 72 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
p0O A t p10 A t
k
k 1
m p10 10
= 2
k p2 k p2 k
-
p10 A t k -1 p10 p10
p10 10
m
p10 A t
p2 p2 p2
0 0
p
0 0 1
p1 a pO c p1 d p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 77 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
p10 10
m k
p10 A t
k+1
2 k-1
k
k +1
p2
0 p2
0 1
p1 d
p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 78 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
p2 p2 p2
0 0
p
0 0 1
p1 a pO c p1 d p1o
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 79 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Outline
Sonic velocity and Mach number
Stagnation properties
Steady 1-D isentropic compressible flows in a
duct
Design of nozzles: convergent nozzles and
convergent-divergent (De Laval) nozzles
Design of diffusers: divergent diffuser
Off-design performance of convergent nozzles
Off-design performance of convergent-divergent
nozzles
Effects of viscous dissipations
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 80 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
dS =
dQ dL w
+ 0
1 c12 2
T T 2
c out,is c out
2
dQ dL w 2 2
dS = + 0
T T
p2
For design conditions, the value of
might range from 0.97-0.99 for a
out
convergent nozzle and from 0.94-0.97 out,is
in a convergent-divergent nozzle.
p1
1
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 84
S
Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 85 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Backup
slides
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 86 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
dp (4)
cdc = -
dp cdc 1 dp d dc 1 d 1 d
cdc = - =- = - 2 c 2s =-
c2 c 2 d c c Ma2
d dc
= -Ma2 (5)
c
Eq. (5) can be replaced in (1) giving:
-Ma2
dc dA dc
c
+
A
+
c
=0
dA dc
A
=
c
Ma2 -1 (6)
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 87 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
cdc dp p 1 dc dp 1 p 1 dc dp 1 c 2s
=- =- k =-
c2 p c2 c p k c2 c p k c2
dc dp 1
=- (7)
c p kMa2
dp 1- Ma2
dA
A
=-
dp 1
p kMa 2
2
Ma -1 =
p kMa2
(8)
Back to slide 14
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 88 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 89 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
** Calculation of velocity
From Eq. (4) (see slide 87):
c p dp
0 cdc = -
p0O
For an isentropic expansion of an ideal gas from the stagnation conditions O0 to
the generic pressure p:
1
p p0O 1 1 p0O k
= =
k 0 k
O O0 p
Therefore:
1 1 1
2 p
0 k 1
p
0 k 1- 1
p
p
0 k
k 1- k
1 1
c 1
k
O p - O O 1-
p
0
=- p k dp = - p k =- p - pO
2 O0
0
O0 1 O0 k -1
1- p0O
O
k
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 90 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power
Politecnico di Torino
Dipartimento Energia
** Calculation of velocity
1 1
1
1-
2 p0O k 1- 1 1 p0O k 1
p
k=-
c k 1- k 1- k
0
p0O k 0
=- 0 p k - pO -1
2 O k -1 O0 k -1 pO
k-1
c2 k p0O p k
= 1- 0
2 k -1 O0 pO
k-1
k pO p
0 k
c= 2 0
1- 0 (9)
k -1 O pO
Back to slide 18
Fundamentals of thermal and hydraulic 91 Prof E. Spessa, Ing. D. Misul, ing. R. Finesso
machines & fluid power