Prelims 2017

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Day 57

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NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen is an essential component of protein and required by all living organisms including human beings.
Nitrogen is needed for ourDNA, RNA and proteins and is critical to human agriculture.Nitrogen, a component
of proteins and nucleic acids, is essential to life on Earth.
Although 78 percent by volume of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas, this abundant reservoir exists in a form
unusable by most organisms. Through a series of microbial transformations, however, nitrogen is made available
to plants, which in turn ultimately sustain all animal life.
The steps, which are not altogether sequential, fall into the following classifications:

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Nitrogen fixation, in which nitrogen gas is converted into inorganic nitrogen compounds, is mostly (90
percent) accomplished by certain bacteria and blue-green algae (see nitrogen fixation). A much smaller
amount of free nitrogen is fixed by abiotic means (e.g., lightning, ultraviolet radiation, electrical equipment)
and by conversion to ammonia through the Haber-Bosch process.
Nitrates and ammonia resulting from nitrogen fixation are assimilated into the specific tissue compounds
of algae and higher plants. Animals then ingest these algae and plants, converting them into their own
body compounds.
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The remains of all living things and their waste products are decomposed by microorganisms in the
process of ammonification, which yields ammonia. (Under anaerobic, or oxygen-free, conditions foul-
smelling putrefactive products may appear, but they too are converted to ammonia in time.) Ammonia
can leave the soil or be converted into other nitrogen compounds, depending in part on soil conditions.
Nitrification, a process carried out by nitrifying bacteria, transforms soil ammonia into nitrates, which
plants can incorporate into their own tissues.
Nitrates also are metabolized by denitrifying bacteria, which are especially active in water-logged, anaerobic
soils. The action of these bacteria tends to deplete soil nitrates, forming free atmospheric nitrogen.
Human Impact on the Nitrogen Cycle:
Humans have contributed significantly to the nitrogen cycle by artificial nitrogen fertilization (primarily through
the Haber process, using energy from fossil fuels to convert N2 to ammonia gas (NH3) and planting of nitrogen
fixing crops. In addition, humans have significantly contributed to the transfer of nitrogen gases from Earth
to the atmosphere.
N2O has risen in the atmosphere as a result of agricultural fertilization, biomass burning, cattle and feedlots,

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and other industrial sources. N2O has deleterious effects in the stratosphere, where it breaks down and acts
as a catalyst in the destruction of atmospheric ozone. NH3 in the atmosphere has tripled as the result of
human activities.
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It is a reactant in the atmosphere, where it acts as an aerosol, decreasing air quality and clinging on to water
droplets, eventually resulting in acid rain. Fossil fuel combustion has contributed to a 6 or 7 fold increase in
NxOx flux to the atmosphere. NxOx actively alters atmospheric chemistry, and is a precursor of tropospheric
(lower atmosphere) ozone production, which contributes to smog, acid rain, and increases nitrogen inputs to
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ecosystems.
Ecosystem processes can increase with nitrogen fertilization, but anthropogenic input can also result in nitrogen
saturation, which weakens productivity and can kill plants. Decreases in biodiversity can also result if higher
nitrogen availability increases nitrogen-demanding grasses, causing a degradation of nitrogen-poor, species diverse
heath lands.
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SULPHUR CYCLE
Sulphur cycle, circulation of sulfur in various forms through nature. Sulphur is key to protein structure and is
released to the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels. Sulphur occurs in all living matter as a component
of certain amino acids. It is abundant in the soil in proteins and, through a series of microbial transformations,
ends up as sulphates usable by plants.

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Sulphur-containing proteins are degraded into their constituent amino acids by the action of a variety of soil
organisms. The sulphur of the amino acids is converted to hydrogen sulphide (H2S) by another series of soil
microbes. In the presence of oxygen, H2S is converted to sulfur and then to sulphate by sulfur bacteria.
Eventually the sulfate becomes H2S.
Hydrogen sulphide rapidly oxidizes to gases that dissolve in water to form sulphurous and sulphuric acids.
These compounds contribute in large part to the acid rain that can kill sensitive aquatic organisms and
damage marble monuments and stone buildings.
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Thus cycle can be divided as:

Sulphur Cycle in Soils
Sulphur enters the trophic cycle in terrestrial plants via root adsorption in the form of inorganic sulphates (e.g.,
calcium sulphate, sodium sulphate) or by direct assimilation of amino acids released in the decomposition of
dead or excreted organic matter. Bacterial and fungal (Aspergillus and Neurospora) mineralization of the
organic sulphhydryl in amino acids followed by oxidation results in sulphate; this adds to the sulphate pool for
root adsorption.
Sulphur Cycle in Atmosphere
Sulphur in the atmosphere comes from several different sources: decomposition and/or combustion of organic
matter, combustion of fossil fuels, and ocean surfaces and volcanic eruptions. The most prevalent form of
sulphur entering the atmosphere is sulphur dioxide (SO2). It, along with other atmospheric forms such as
elemental sulphur and hydrogen sulphide, is oxidized to sulphur trioxide (SO3), which combines with water to
form sulphuric acid (H2SO4), leading to acid rain.
Atmospheric sulphur, largely in the form of sulphuric acid, is removed by two general processes: rainout, which
includes all processes within clouds that result in removal; and washout, which is the removal by precipitation

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below the clouds. Depending on the amount of the various sulphur compounds available to form the sulphuric
acid, the degree of acidity can be strong enough to ap-proximate that of battery acid. Atmospheric inputs of
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sulphuric acid provide the dominant source of both hydrogen ions (H+) for cation replacement.
Sulphur in Sediments
The sedimentary aspect of the cycle involves the precipitation of sulphur in the presence of such cations as
iron (Fe) and calcium (Ca) as highly insoluble ferrous sulphide (FeS) and ferric sulphide (Fe2S3, pyrite) or
relatively insoluble calcium sulphate (CaSO4).
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The oxidation of sulphides in marine sediments is a key process, though poorly understood.
Human Impact on the Sulpher cycle:
The sulphur cycles are increasingly being affected by industrial air pollution. The gaseous oxides of nitrogen
and sulphur are toxic to varying degrees. Normally, they are only transitory steps in their respective cycles; in
most environments, they are present in very low concentrations.
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The combustion of fossil fuels, however, has greatly increased the concentrations of these volatile oxides in
the air, especially in urban areas and in the vicinity of power plants, to the point where they adversely affect
important biotic components and processes of ecosystems. When plants, fish, birds, or microbes are poisoned,
humans eventually are also adversely affected.
Coal-burning emissions and automobile exhaust are major sources of SO2 and SO4 production and, along with
other industrial combustion, a major source of poisonous forms of nitrogen. Sulphur dioxide is damaging
photosynthesis, as was discovered in the early 1950s when leafy vegetables, fruit trees, and forests showed signs
of stress in the Los Angeles Basin. The destruction of vegetation around copper smelters is largely caused by
SO2.
Furthermore, both sulphur and nitric oxides interact with water vapour to produce droplets of dilute sulphuric
and nitric acid (H2SO4 and H2NO3) that fall on Earth as acid rain, a truly alarming development.
Acid rain has the greatest impact on soft-water lakes or streams and already acidic soils that lack pH buffers
(such as carbonates, calcium, salts, and other bases). Acid rain damages building materials. Our heritage
monuments (such as Taj Mahal at Agra) are threatened by the corrosive action of acid deposition. Acid rain
adversely affects terrestrial and aquatic vegetation. Most planktons, mollusks and fry young fish cannot tolerate
water having pH below 5.0. Low pH conditions also damage soil microbial community.
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HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
Water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-
atmosphere system. Of the many processes involved in the water cycle, the most important are evaporation,
transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Although the total amount of water within the cycle
remains essentially constant, its distribution among the various processes is continually changing.

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A brief treatment of the water cycle follows. For full treatment, see hydrosphere: The water cycle.
Evaporation, one of the major processes in the cycle, is the transfer of water from the surface of the Earth
to the atmosphere. By evaporation, water in the liquid state is transferred to the gaseous, or vapour, state.
This transfer occurs when some molecules in water mass have attained sufficient kinetic energy to eject
themselves from the water surface. The main factors affecting evaporation are temperature, humidity, wind
speed, and solar radiation.
The direct measurement of evaporation, though desirable, is difficult and possible only at point locations.
The principal source of water vapour is the oceans, but evaporation also occurs in soils, snow, and ice.
Evaporation from snow and ice, the direct conversion from solid to vapour, is known as sublimation.
Transpiration is the evaporation of water through minute pores, or stomata, in the leaves of plants. For
practical purposes, transpiration and the evaporation from all water, soils, snow, ice, vegetation, and other
surfaces are lumped together and called evapotranspiration, or total evaporation.
Water Vapour is the primary form of atmospheric moisture. Although its storage in the atmosphere is
comparatively small, water vapour is extremely important in forming the moisture supply for dew, frost,
fog, clouds, and precipitation. Practically all water vapour in the atmosphere is confined to the troposphere
(the region below 6 to 8 miles [10 to 13 km.] altitude).
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The transition process from the vapour state to the liquid state is called condensation. Condensation may
take place as soon as the air contains more water vapour than it can receive from a free water surface
through evaporation at the prevailing temperature. This condition occurs as the consequence of either
cooling or the mixing of air masses of different temperatures. By condensation, water vapour in the
atmosphere is released to form precipitation.
Precipitation that falls to the Earth is distributed in four main ways: some is returned to the atmosphere
by evaporation, some may be intercepted by vegetation and then evaporated from the surface of leaves,
some percolates into the soil by infiltration, and the remainder flows directly as surface runoff into the
sea. Some of the infiltrated precipitation may later percolate into streams as groundwater runoff. Direct
measurement of runoff is made by stream gauges and plotted against time on hydrographs.
Most groundwater is derived from precipitation that has percolated through the soil. Groundwater flow
rates, compared with those of surface water, are very slow and variable, ranging from a few millimetres
to a few metres a day. Groundwater movement is studied by tracer techniques and remote sensing.
Ice also plays a role in the water cycle. Ice and snow on the Earths surface occur in various forms such
as frost, sea ice, and glacier ice. When soil moisture freezes, ice also occurs beneath the Earths surface,

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forming permafrost in tundra climates. About 18,000 years ago glaciers and ice caps covered approximately
one-third of the Earths land surface. Today about 12 percent of the land surface remains covered by ice
masses.
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In the natural system, material circulation is driven by energy from the sun and, to a much lesser extent, from
radioactive decay of elements in the earths interior and motions of its tides. This is a mechanical and inorganic
view of the earth. In another and more realistic sense, the earth has a natural metabolism; materials have
circulated about its surface for millions of years in a complex, interconnected web of biogeochemical cycles.
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An array of physical, chemical, and biological processes weather and erode rocks and transfer materials in and
out of the atmosphere, from the atmosphere to the biota and back again, to the oceans via rivers, and to the
continents by uplift. Each element has a natural biogeochemical cycle. It is these cycles and their relationship
to the physical climate system that have led to the development of a relatively stable and resilient surface
system during geologic time. Life has evolved in this system and plays a strong role in the development and
maintenance of the system through processes, and fluxes.
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Human activities have contributed materials to the biogeochemical cycles. Some of these materials enter
element cycles already naturally in operation; they are the same chemical species that have circulated for
millions of years.
Other materials are synthetic compounds and are foreign to the natural environment. These anthropogenic
fluxes are leading to a number and variety of environmental issues, including the possibility of global climate
change. There is no doubt that human activities have interfered in biogeochemical cycles and have modified
the composition of the atmosphere. Understanding the consequences of this interference requires better
quantitative descriptions of these cycles, their interconnections, and, in particular, their coupled response to
perturbations, such as a change in climate.
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MAURYAN EMPIRE
The foundation of the Mauryan Empire opens a new era in the history of India and for the first time, the
political unity was achieved in India.
The history writing has also become clear from this period due to accuracy in chronology and sources.
Besides plenty of indigenous and foreign literary sources, a number of epigraphical records are also
available to write the history of this period.

Literary Sources
A. Kautilyas Arthasastra

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Arthasastra in Sanskrit was written by Kautilya, a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya. Kautilya
was also called Indian Machiavelli.

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The manuscript of Arthasastra was first discovered by R. ShamaSastri in 1904.
The Arthasastra contains 15 books and 180 chapters but it can be divided into three parts: the first
deals with the king and his council and the departments of government;
The second with civil and criminal law; and
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The third with diplomacy and war. It is the most important literary source for the history of the
Mauryas.
B. VisakadattasMudrarakshasa
The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in Sanskrit.
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Although written during the Gupta period, it describes how Chandragupta with the assistance of
Kautilya overthrew the Nandas.
It also gives a picture of the socio-economic condition under the Mauryas.
C. Megasthenes Indica
Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
Megasthenesbook Indica has survived only in fragments. Yet, Indica gives details about the Mauryan
administration, particularly the administration of the capital city of Pataliputra and also the military
organization.
His picture on contemporary social life is notable.
D. Other Literature
Apart from these three important works, the Puranas and the Buddhist literature such as Jatakas provide
information on the Mauryas.
The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on the role Asoka in spreading
Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
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E. Archaeological Sources
Among the archaeological sources of the Mauryan period, a considerable amount of numismatic (the
study of coins) evidence, some artifacts from archaeological excavations and art objects are avilable.
A large number of silver and copper coins which are punch-marked are also available. These appear to
have been in circulation throughout the Mauryan period. These coins provide some knowledge of socio-
economic life of the Mauryan period. For example, Chandragupta was depicted standing with a Greek
queen in one of his coins which reveals friendly relations between Magadha and Greece.
Remarkable inscriptions of Asoka engraved on rocks and pillars which notwithstanding the ravages of
time have supplied us with authoritative details of inestimable value. Asokan edicts were found not
only in the Indian sub-continent but also in Kandhar in Afghanistan.
These inscriptions are in the form of 44 royal orders and each royal order has several copies. The
inscriptions were composed in the 2 Prakritlanguage and written in the Brahmi script (written from left
to right) throughout thereafter part of the empire.
In the northwestern part, they appear in the Kharoshti script written from right to left and in Kandhar

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in the Greek and Aramaic script.
These inscriptions were generally placed on highways.
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They throw light on the career of Asoka, his external and domestic policies and the extent of his
empire.
Cunningham published Corpus . Inscriptions Indicarum in 1879, which is a series of collection of
inscriptions bearing on the history of Maurya, post-Maurya and Gupta times.
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Gimar inscription of Rudradaman (150 AD) also offers some useful inputs into the provincial
administration of Gujarat under the Mauryas.
a) Epigraphy
The study of inscriptions is called epigraphy. It is referred to as Lifeblood of history.
b) Palaeography
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The study of old writings used in inscriptions and other old records is called palaeography.
c) Numismatics
The study of coins is called numismatics.
Largest number of punch-marked coins found under the Mauryas.
Largest number of coins in general found in the Post-Mauryan period.
Largest number of clay coins found under the Kushanas.
Largest number of potin and lead coins found under the Satvahanas.
Largest number of gold coins found under the Guptas.
POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE MAURYAS
Chandragupta Maurya (322 - 298 B.C.)
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta is called Sandrocottus by
the Greek scholars.
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He captured Pataliputra from the last ruler of the

Nanda dynasty, Dhanananda.
In this task he was assisted by Kautilya, who was
also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta.
After firmly establishing his power in the Gangetic
valley, he marched to the northwest and subdued
the territories up to the Indus. Then he moved to
central India and occupied the region north of
Narmada river.
In 305 B.C., he marched against SelukasNiketar,
who was Alexanders General controlling the
northwestern India. Chandragupta Maurya
defeated him and a treaty was signed. By this
treaty, SelukasNiketar ceded the trans-Indus

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territories - namely Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia
- to the Mauryan Empire. He also gave his daughter in marriage to the Mauryan prince. Chandragupta

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made a gift of 500 elephants to Selukas. Megasthenes was sent to the Mauryan court as Greek ambassador.
Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favour
of his son Bindusara. Then he went to SravanaBelgola, near Mysore along with Jain monks led by
Bhadrabhagu and starved himself to death.
Bindusara (298 - 273 B.C.)
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Bindusara was called by the Greeks as Amitragatha meaning slayer of enemies.

He is said to have conquered the Deccan up to Mysore. Taranatha, the Tibetan monk states that
Bindusara conquered 16 states comprising the land between the two seas.
The Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of the far south. The MauryanEmpire
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underBindusara extended up to Mysore.

Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian king Antiochus I. Bindusara wrote to
Antiochus I asking for sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist. The latter sent all but a sophist because the
Greek law prohibited sending a sophist.
Bindusara supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect. Bindusara appointed his son Asoka as the governor
of Ujjain.
Asoka the Great (273 - 232 B.C.)
Asoka acted as Governor of Ujjain and also suppressed a revolt in Taxila during his father Bindusaras
reign.
There was an interval of four years between Asokas accession to the throne (273 B.C.) and his actual
coronation (269 B.C.). Therefore, it appears from the available evidence that there was a struggle for the
throne after Bindusaras death.
The Ceylonese Chronicles, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa state that Asoka captured power after killing his
ninety-nine brothers including the his elder brother Susima. The youngest brotherTissa was spared.
According to Taranatha of Tibet, Asoka killed only six of his brothers.
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Asokas Edict also refers to his brothers acting as officers in his administration.
The most important event of Asokas reign was his victorious war with Kalinga in 261 B.C.
Although there is no detail about the cause and course of the war, the effects of the war were described
by Asoka himself in the Rock edict XIII: A hundred and fifty thousand were killed and many times that
number perished After the war he annexed Kalinga to the Mauryan Empire.
Another most important effect of the Kalinga war was that Asoka embraced Buddhism under the influence
of Buddhist monk, Upagupta.

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Approximate Dates of Mourya Dynasty

Emperor Reign start Reign end
Chandragupta Mourya 322 B.C.E 298 B.C.E.
Bindusara 297 B.C.E. 272 B.C.E.
Asoka The Great 273 B.C.E. 232 B.C.E.
Dasaratha 232 B.C.E. 224 B.C.E.
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Samprati 224 B.C.E. 215 B.C.E.

Salisuka 215 B.C.E. 202 B.C.E.
Devavarman 202 B.C.E. 195 B.C.E.
Satadhanvan 195 B.C.E. 187 B.C.E.
Brihadratha 187 B.C.E. 185 B.C.E.

Extent of Asokas EmpireExtent of Asokas Empire

Asokas inscriptions mention the southernmost kingdoms - Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras
as border states. Therefore, these states remained outside the Mauryan Empire.
According to Rajatarangini, Kashmir was a part of the Mauryan Empire. Nepal was also within the
Mauryanempire. The northwestern frontier was already demarcated by Chandragupta Maurya.

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Asoka and BuddhismAsoka and Buddhism
Asoka appointed special officers called Dharma Mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma.


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In 241 B.C., he visited the birth place of Buddha, the Lumbini Garden, near Kapilavastu.
He also visited other holy places of Buddhism like Sarnath, Sravasti and Kusinagara.
He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra who planted there the
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branch of the original Bodhi tree.
Asoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 240 B.C. in order to strengthen the Sangha.
It was presided over by MoggaliputtaTissa.
Asokas DhammaAsokas Dhamma
Although Asoka embraced Buddhism and took efforts to spread Buddhism, his policy of Dhamma was
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a still broad concept. It was a way of life, a code of conduct and a set of principles to be adopted and
practiced by the people at large.
His principles of Dhamma were clearly stated in his Edicts.
The main features of Asokas Dhamma as mentioned in his various Edicts may be summed as follows:
a) Service to father and mother, practice of ahimsa, love of truth, reverence to teachers and good treatment
of relatives.
b) Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings and avoiding expensive and meaningless ceremonies
and rituals.
c) Efficient organization of administration in the direction of social welfare and maintenance of constant
contact with people through the system of Dhammayatras.
d) Humane treatment of servants by masters and prisoners by government officials.
e) Consideration and non-violence to animals and courtesy to relations and liberality to Brahmins.
f) Tolerance among all the religious sects.
g) Conquest through Dhamma instead of through war.
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 The concept of non-violence and other similar ideas of Asokas Dhamma are identical with the teachings
of Buddha.
Asoka did not equate Dhamma with Buddhist teachings.
AsokasDhamma signifies a general code of conduct. Asoka wished that his Dhamma should spread
through all social levels.
The rock edicts which talk about dhamma are as follows.
Major Rock Edict I declares prohibition of animal sacrifice and holiday of fest gatherings.
Major rock edict II relates to certain measures of social welfare which are included in the working of
dhamma. It mentionA medical treatment for men and animals, construction of roads, wells, tree planting
etc.
Major Rock Edict III declares that liberality towards Brahmanas and Sramanas is a virtue, respect to
mother and father, etc are all good qualities. Asoka refers Major Rock Edict III to anusamyana or tour
of inspection which some categories of officials has to undertake one every five years for expounding
dhamma and for official work.
Major Rock Edict IV is a very important statement of the policy dhamma. The edict comments that due
to the policy of dhamma, the lack of morality and disrespect towards Brahmanas and Sramanas, violence,
unseemly behaviours to friends, relatives and others and evils of this kind have been checked. The killing
of animals to a large extent was also stopped.
Major Rock Edict V refers to the appointment of dhamma-mahamattas for the first time in the twelfth
year of this reign. These special officers were appointed by the king to look after the interests of all sects
and religions and spread the message of dhamma in each nook and corner of the society. The implementaton
of the policy of. dhamma was entrusted in their hinds.
Major Rock Edict VI is an instruction to dhamma-mahamattas. They are told that they. could bring their
reports to the king at any time, irrespective of whatever activity he may be engaged in. The second part
of the Edict deals with speedy administration and smooth transaction of business.
Major Rock Edict VII is a plea for toleration amongst all the sects. It appears from the edict that tensions
among the sects were expressed intensely, pciliaps in open antagonism. The plea is part of the overall
strategy to maintain unity.
Major Rock Edict VIII states that dhammayatras or tours would be undertaken by the emperor. The
earlier practice of the emperor of going out on hunting expeditions was given up. Dhammayatras enabled
the emperor to come into contact with various sections of people in the empire.
Major Rock Edict IX attacks ceremonies performed after birth, illness, marriage and before setting out
for a journey. A censure is passed against ceremonies observed by wives and mothers. Asoka instead lays
stress on the practice of dhamma and uselessness of ceremonies.
Major Ro-ck Edict Xtenounces fame and glory and re-asserts the merits of following the policy of
dhamma.
Major Rock Edict XI is a further explanation of the policy of dhamma. Emphasis is on respect to elders,
abstaining from killing animals, and liberality towards friends.
Asoka in rock Edict XII and many other edicts prescribes the following codes to be followed:
 (i) Obedience to mother and father, elders teachers and other respectable persons.
(ii) Respect towards teachers.
(iii) Proper treatment towards ascetics, relations, slaves, servants and dependents, the poor and miserable,
friends, acquaintances, and companions.
(iv) Liberality towards ascetics, friends, comrades, relatives and the aged
(v) Abstention from killing of living beings.
(vii) Non-injury to all living creatures.
(vii) Spending little and accumulating little wealth.
(viii) Mildness in case of all living creatures.
(ix) Truthfulness.
(x) Attachment to morality.
(xi) Purity of heart.
Major Rock Edict XII is again an appeal towards toleration among sects. This edict reflects the anxiety
the king felt due to the conflict between sects and carries his plea for harmony.
Major Rock Edict XIII is of paramount importance in understanding the Asokan policy of dhamma. The
rock edict pleads for conquest by dhamma instead of war. This is a logical culmination of the thorough
processes which began from the first rock edict, and by conquest what is perhaps meant is the adaptation
of the policy of dhamma by a country, rather than its territorial control.
Asoka was the greatest of kings surpassing Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar and other renowned
Emperors of the world.
According to H.G. Wells Amidst the tens and thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns
of history, the name of Asoka shines and shines almost alone, a star.
Asoka Dhamma is so universal that it appeals to humanity even today.
He was an example in history for his benevolent administration and also for following the policy of non-
aggression even after his victory in the war. His central ideal was to promote the welfare of humanity.
Later Mauryas Asokas death in 232 B.C. was followed by the division of the Mauryan Empire into two
parts - western and eastern. The western part was ruled by Kunala, son of Asoka and the eastern part by
Dasaratha, one of the grand sons of Asoka.
Due to the Bactrian invasions, the western part of the empire collapsed. The eastern part was intact under
Samprati successor of Dasaratha.
The last Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was assassinated by PushyamitraSunga.
Foreign RelationsForeign Relations
The Asokan inscriptions are one of the main sources in this regard which mention contemporary rulers
in other parts of the world.
The foreign relations of the Mauryas can be divided into distinct phases- the initial phase of the expansion
and the latter phase or the phase of consolidation.
 The initial phase was marked by an aggressive foreign policy and a policy of securing trade routes and
subjugating the Greek settlements in the north and north-west regions.The incorporation of central India
gave them control over Dakshinapatha and brought them into the peninsula. The initial phase of expansion
came to an end after the Kalinga war.
During the second phase, the emphasis shifted to consolidation and having friendly relations with immediate
neighbours and also with far off countries. Asoka was the main proponent of such a policy and he was
probably influenced by diplomatic requirements. geographical proximity and trade needs.
In Rock Edict XIII Asoka has referred to five contemporary rulers.
1. Antiyoka (Antiochus II of Syria);
2. Turmaya (Ptolemy II philadelphus of Egypt);
3. Antikini (Antigonas of Macedonia);
4. Maka (Magas of Cyrene), and
5. Aliksudaro (Alexander of Epirus).
The reference to these rulers is in the context of dhammavijata (victory by dhamma) indicating that
missions were sent to these rulers with the message of dhamma.
These missions successfully established friendly contact for the Edict mentions that the greatest victory,
i.e., victory.by dhamma had been achieved in these regions.
The relations of the Mauryas with the powers in the south have been cordial.
No Asokan inscriptions have been discovered so far in the regions ruled by the Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras
and Satyaputras- the major independent powers in the south.
Rock Edict XIII mentions about dhammaiVuya in these regions as well.
Sri Lanka remained another friendly neighbour again due to the policy of dhamma.
History

MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION
Central Government
Indian history entered a new era with the beginning of the Mauryanempire as, for the first time India
attained political unity and administrative uniformity.
After establishing the empire, the Mauryasorganised a very elaborate system of administration. Megasthenes
has left detailed accounts of the system of government under Chandragupta. His account can be
supplemented by that of Kautilya.
With the increase in the size and administrative needs of the state from a small tribal state to a territorial
empire, there was a corresponding increase in the powers of the king.
The king emerged as the supreme head of the state military, judicial, executive and legislative functions.
The concept of law as the legal expression of socio-economic and political rules, customs was made
subordinate to the concept of royal decree, having an independent validity of its own.
The existing theories on statecraft and kingship were implemented by Chandragupta into a pattern of
highly centralised administration for the vast empire.
The other six elements of state, as mentioned in the Arthashastra of Kautilya are, amatya or bureaucracy,
anapada or territory, durga or the fortified capital, kasha or the treasury, danda or the coercive machinery
and mitra or the allied powers.
The necessity to share the kings authority was some kind of check on him. Kautilya says that the king
shall employ minister (mantrin) and also a council of ministers (mantriparishad). He says all kinds of
administrative measures are presided by deliberations in a well formed council.
Megasthenes also says that the king was assisted by a council whose members were noted for wisdom.

Important Officials in Mauryan Central Administration

Bhandagaradhikreta Head of the royal treasury
Cahapaksha-Patalik Head of the account department
Dandapashika Head of the Police department
Khadyakpakika Inspector of royal kitchen
Mahadandanayak Chief Justice
Mahamahipilapati Controller and executor of elephantry
Mahanarpati Head of foot soldiers (infantry)
Mahapratihar An official to maintain the royal palace
Mahasandivigrahak An official for post-war conciliation
Mahaswapati Controller or cavalry
 Manabaladhikritas Commander-in-chief
Ranabhandagarika Inspector for the all-central departments
Sarvadhyaksha Official to present different guests at king's court
Revenue Department
Samharta, the chief of the Revenue Department, was in charge of the collection of all revenues of the
empire.
The revenues came from land, irrigation, customs, shop tax, ferry tax, forests, mines and pastures, license
fee from craftsmen, and fines collected in the law courts.
The land revenue was normally fixed as one sixth of the produce.
The main items of expenditure of the state were related to king and his household, army, government
servants, public works, poor relief, religion, etc.
Army
The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under the control of Senapati.
According to Greek author Pliny, the Mauryan army consisted of six lakh infantry, thirty thousand cavalry,
nine thousand elephants and eight thousand chariots.
The salaries were paid in cash. It seems that the six wings of the armed forces the army, the cavalry, the
elephants, the chariots, the navy and the transport, were each assigned to the care of a separate committee.
Each wing was under the control of Adyakshas or Superintendents. Megasthenes mentions six boards of
five members each to control the six wings of the military.
Department of Commerce and Industry
This department had controlled the retail and wholesale prices of goods and tried to ensure their steady
supply through its officers called Adyakshas.
It also controlled weights and measures, levied custom duties and regulated foreign trade.
Judicial and Police Departments
The king was at the head of the judicial administration and constituted the highest appellate court in the
realm.
In villages and towns, cases were settled by the gramavradha and nagaravyavaharikamahamatra respectively.
Rajukas were equal to modern district magistrates.
Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal courts- - dharmasthiya and kantakashadhana.
The chief justice of the Supreme Court at the capital was called Dharmathikarin.
There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and districts under Amatyas.
Different kinds of punishment such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation and death were given to the
offenders.
Torture was employed to extract truth. Police stations were found in all principal centres.
 Both Kautilya and Asokan Edicts mention about jails and jail officials.
The DhammaMahamatras were asked by Asoka to take steps against unjust imprisonment.
Remission of sentences is also mentioned in Asokas inscriptions.
Census
The taking of Census was regular during the Mauryan period.
The village officials were to number the people along with other details like their caste and occupation.
They were also to count the animals in each house.
The census in the towns was taken by municipal officials to track the movement of population both
foreign and indigenous.
The data collected were cross checked by the spies.
The Census appears to be a permanent institution in the Mauryan administration.
Provincial and Local Administration
The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with their capitals at Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and
Kalinga.
The provincial governors were mostly appointed from the members of royal family and were responsible
for the maintenance of law and order and collection of taxes for the empire.
The district administration was under the charge of Rajukas, whose position and functions are similar to
modern collectors. He was assisted by Yuktas or subordinate officials.
Village administration was in the hands of Gramani and his official superior was called Gopa who was
in charge of ten or fifteen villages.
Province
i. Kumara (Governors, title given to sons of kings).
ii. Aryaputra (Governors, title given to persons of royal blood, usually kings ralatives).
District
i. Pradesikes (head of the district, looked after law & order and revenue collection).
ii. Raj juka (looked after rural administration and justice).
Group of Village
i. Sthanika (looked after tax collection).
ii. Gramika (village headman).
Both Kautilya and Megasthanes provided the system of Municipal administration.
Arthasastra contains a full chapter on the role of Nagarika or city superintendent. His chief duty was to
maintain law and order.
Megasthenes refers to the six committees of five members each to look after the administration of
Pataliputra.
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These committees looked after:

1. Industries
2. Foreigners
3. Registration of birth and deaths
4. Trade
5. Manufacture and sale of goods
6. Collection of sales tax.

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MAURYAN ECONOMY
The Mauryan economy was an expanding economy and the state took a keen interest in consolidating and
promoting its economic gains.
State not only controlled and coordinated the activities of the peasant manufacturers and traders, but also
directly participated in the production and exchange of different commodities.
The state, in fact, very strictly regulated the economic activities of the state.
The economy of northern India during the Mauryan times was predominantly agrarian.
There were two distinct categories of land:

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Rastra land, practically belonging to the cultivator and

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Sita land, settled as well as formed directly under crown supervision.
Taxes on the former type of land were one Sixth of the harvest.
In addition water tax was levied.
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The peasants also paid pindakara, which was collected from villages as group.
The village folk were required to supply provisions to the royal army, called senabhakta, passing through
their areas.
Some of the villages were marked for performing drudgery for the state in lieu of taxes.
Some villages, with pastoral bases, paid taxes in the form of cattle and dairy products.
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The Mauryan government also provided irrigation facilities to the peasantry.

The Arthashatra refers to a water tax which was regularly collected wherever the state assisted in providing
irrigation.
One of Chandraguptas governers, Pushyagupta was responsible for building a dam across a river near
Girnar in western India, resulting in a famous Sudarshan lake to supply water for irrigation.
Cattle breeding in the peasant society had become an adjunct of agriculture, but there were still certain
pockets which pursued pastoral economy. Herds were maintained not only by the state but also by wealthy
individuals.
Fishing and hunting were practiced as a means to livelihood especially by the tribes and the practitioners
of these occupations had to pay one-tenth of their catch to the royal storehouse.
Asoka stopped the indiscriminate killing of animals and introduced many measures for the welfare of
people who practiced it.
Under the Mauryas, the most important industry was that of mining and metallurgy and the state had a
monopoly over it and state controlled everything from processing to refining.
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The major metals mentioned as being under state control included gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, bitumen
and lead.
The state sold out most of these metals to the traders, the artisans, the gold smiths and the individual
manufacturers.
But the state had the monopoly to manufacture arms, certain type of implements and ships. The craftsmen
who were employed for this purpose were given wages.
The state also had a monopoly in the production of salt.
Some of the other important industries of the period were textile manufacturing, carpentry, pottery, stone-
cutting, lapidary, work in ivory and bone.
Textile industry had reached a high level of specialisation and we get reference to fine cotton clothes,
woolen blankets and linen dukala fabrics. Mathura, Kalinga, Vanga, Vatsa and Mahisa were important
centres of textile manufacturing.

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KIGALI AGREEMENT
Countries came to an agreement in Kigali, Rwanda to phase out a family of potent greenhouse gases by the
late 2040s and move to prevent a potential 0.5 degree Celsius rise in global temperature by the end of the
century. In all, 197 countries, including India, China and the United States, agreed to a timeline to reduce the
use of HFCs by roughly 85 per cent of their baselines by 2045.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are a family of greenhouse gases that are largely used in refrigerants in home and
car air-conditioners. They are currently the world's fastest growing greenhouse gases, with emissions increasing
by up to 10 per cent each year. They are one of the most powerful, trapping thousands of times more heat
in the Earth's atmosphere than carbon dioxide (CO2).

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Significance of Kigali Agreement

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It amends the 1987 Montreal Protocol.
Montreal Protocol initially conceived only to plug gases that were destroying the ozone layer, but now
the latest agreement includes gases responsible for global warming.
This agreement along with the recently ratified Paris agreement pushes countries to cap global warming
to "well below 2 degrees Celsius" by 2100.
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The richest countries, including the U.S. and those in the European Union, will freeze the production and
consumption of HFCs by 2018, reducing them to about 15 per cent of 2012 levels by 2036.
China, Brazil and all of Africa, will freeze HFC use by 2024, cutting it to 20 percent of 2021 levels by
2045.
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India is part of a group that will only be freezing HFC use by 2028 and reducing it to about 15 per cent
of 2025 levels by 2047.
Paris agreement that will come into force by 2020 doesn't legally bind countries to their promises to cut
emissions but the currently amended Montreal Protocol will bind countries to their HFC reduction
schedules from 2019.
There are also penalties for non-compliance as well as clear directives that developed countries provide
enhanced funding support estimated at billions of dollars globally.
Grants for research and development of affordable alternatives to hydrofluorocarbons will be the most
immediate priority.
With the recent agreement, India gets to participate in a positive global climate action, while gaining time to
allow its heating, ventilation and air-conditioning sectors to grow and refrigerant manufacturers to find a
comfortable route to transition and cost of alternatives to fall. Analysts also concluded that Kigali agreement
is fair to the realities of India's future economic development.
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BUREAU OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) was established in March 2002, as a statutory body by the Government
of India under the Energy Conservation Act 2001.
It is responsible for spearheading the improvement of energy efficiency of the economy through various
regulatory and promotional instruments. The primary goal of BEE is to reduce the energy intensity in the
Indian economy.
It coordinates with State level agencies and energy consumers to perform functions and exercise powers that
may be necessary for efficient use of energy and its conservation in India.
The broad objectives of BEE are as under:

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To exert leadership and provide policy recommendation and direction to national energy conservation and
efficiency efforts and programs.
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To coordinate energy efficiency and conservation policies and programs and take it to the stakeholders.
To establish systems and procedures to measure, monitor and verify energy efficiency results in individual
sectors as well as at a macro level.
To leverage multi-lateral and bi-lateral and private sector support in implementation of Energy Conservation
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Act and efficient use of energy and its conservation programs.

To demonstrate delivery of energy efficiency services as mandated in the EC bill through private-public
partnerships.
To interpret, plan and manage energy conservation programs as envisaged in the Energy Conservation
Act.
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BIOMASS ENERG
Biomass, a renewable energy source, is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms,
such as wood, waste, and alcohol fuels.
Biomass is commonly plant matter grown to generate electricity or produce, heat. For example, forest
residues (such as dead trees branches and tree stumps), clippings and wood chips may lie used as biomass.
Biomass also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibers or chemicals: Biomass may
also include biodegradable wastes that ' burnt as fuel. It excludes organic material such as fossil fuel which
has been transformed by geological processes into substances such as coal or petroleum.

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Industrial biomass can 'be grown from numerous types of plant, including miscanthus, switchgrass. Hemp,
corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, and a variety or tree species, ranging from eucalyptus palm

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(palm oil).
Although fossil fuels have their origin in ancient biomass, they are not considered biomass by the generally
accepted definition because they contain carbon that has been "out" of the carbon cycle fora very long
time. Their combustion therefore disturbs the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere.
Biomass Sources
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Biomass energy is derived from three distinct energy sources : wood, waste, and alcohol fuels.
1) Wood energy is derived both froth direct use of harvested wood as a fuel and from Wood waste streams.
The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or "black liquor", a waste product from
processes of the pulp, paper and paperboard industry.
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2) Waste energy is the second largest source of biomass energy. The main contributors of waste energy are
municipal solid waste (MSW), manufacturing waste, and landfill gas.
3) Biomass alcohol fuel, or ethanol, is derived almost exclusively from corn. Its principal use it as an
oxygenate in gasoline. For biomass fuels, the most common feedstocks used today are corn grain (for
ethanol) and soybeans (for biodiesel).
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation fuels like
ethanol and bio-diesel. Methane gas is the main ingredient of natural gas. Smelly stuff, like rotting
garbage, and agricultural and human waste, release methane gas also called "landfill gas" or "bio-gas".
Biomass to liquids (BTLs):- Crops like corn and sugar cane can be fermented to produce the transportation
fuel, ethanol. Bio-diesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-aver food products like
vegetable oils and animal fats. Also, Biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still under
research. In China, more than 8 million bio-gas digesters convert manure and other organic wastes into
methane. In rural India also, bio-gas plants are a popular source of energy.
How is biomass converted into energy?
1) Burning: Burning stuff like wood, waste and other plant matter releases stored chemical energy in the
form of heat, which can be used to turn shafts to produce electricity. Let's see this simple illustration of
how biomass is used to generate electricity.
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2) Decomposition: Things that can rot, like garbage, human and animal waste, dead animals and the like can
be left to rot, releasing a gas called biogas (also known as methane gas or landfill gas). Methane can be
captured by a machine called Microturbine and converted into electricity. Sometimes, animal waste (poop)
can also be converted into methane by a machine called 'Anaerobic Digester'
3) Fermentation: Ethanol can be produced from crops with lots of sugars, like corn and sugarcane. The
process used to produce ethanol is called gasification.
4) Biorefinery: develop technology for biorefineries that will convert biomass into a range of valuable fuels,
chemicals, materials, and products-much like oil refineries and petrochemical plants do.
Advanced technologies for the biomass energy applications:
Biofuels - Converting biomass into liquid fuels for transportation
Biopower - Burning biomass directly, or converting it into gaseous or liquid fuels that burn more efficiently,
to generate electricity
Bioproducts - Converting biomass into chemicals for making plastics and other products that typically are
made from petroleum.
Benefits of Biomass Energy:-

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1) No Harmful Emissions:- Biomass energy, for the most part, creates no harmful carbon dioxide emissions.
2) Clean Energy: It does release carbon dioxide but captures carbon dioxide for its own growth.
3) Abundant and Renewable: Since they come from living sources, and life is cyclical, these products
potentially never run out, so long as there is something living on earth and there is someone there to turn
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that living things components and waste products into energy.

4) Reduce Dependency on Fossil Fuels: It has developed as an alternate source of fuel for many homeowners
and have helped them to reduce their dependency on fossil fuels.
5) Reduce Landfills: Another benefit of this energy is that it can take waste that is harmful to the environment
and turn it into something useful. For instance, garbage as landfill can, at least partially, be burned to create
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useable biomass energy.

6) Can be Used to Create Different Products: Biomass energy is also versatile, as different forms of organic
matter can be used to create different products. Ethanol and similar fuels can be made from corn and other
crops. With so many living things on the planet, there is no limit to how many ways it can be found and
used.
Disadvantages of Biomass Energy:-
1) Expensive: Firstly, its expensive. Living things are expensive to care for, feed, and house, and all of that
has to be considered when trying to use waste products from animals for fuel.
2) Inefficient as Compared to Fossil Fuels: Ethanol, as a biodiesel is terribly inefficient when compared to
gasoline.
3) Harmful to Environment: Using animal and human waste to power engines may save on carbon dioxide
emissions, but it increases methane gases, which are also harmful to the Earth's ozone layer.
4) Consume More Fuel: Using trees and tree products to power machines is inefficient as well.
5) Require More Land: Combustion of biomass products require some land where they can easily be burnt.
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Biomass Energy in India

About 32% of the total primary energy use in the country is still derived from biomass and more than 70%
of the country's population depends upon it for its energy needs. The current availability of biomass in India
is estimated at about 500 millions metric tones per year. India has over 5,800 MW biomass based power plants
comprising 4,760 MW grid connected and 927 MW off-grid power plants.
Bottlenecks faced by the Indian Biomass Industry
1) Lack of adequate policy framework and effective financing mechanisms
2) Lack of effective regulatory framework
3) Lack of technical capacity
4) Absence of effective information dissemination
5) Limited successful commercial demonstration model experience

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Government incentives and Subsidies for Biomass Energy Production
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) provides Central Financial Assistance (CFA) in

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the form of capital subsidy and financial incentives to the biomass energy projects in India.
Biomass Energy for Rural India (BERI) Project sponsored by GEF-UNDP, ICEF. The Project aims at
developing and implementing a bio-energy technology package to reduce Green House Gas (GHG) emissions
and to promote a sustainable and participatory approach in meeting rural energy needs.
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