Biomechanics 2015

1. (a) Give a description of the micro-structure of cortical bone. In your answer describe its
multi scale structure and illustrate your answer with diagrams.

Cortical bone tissue is laid down in lamellae, or layers, about 5 m thick. Near the
outer and inner surfaces of the bone, the lamellae are circumferentially arranged and parallel
to one another; these are known as the circumferential lamellae. Between the outer and inner
circumferential lamellae, cortical bone tissue is primarily made up of osteonal bone, which
consists of cylindrically shaped structures formed from concentric lamellae. These cylindrical
structures are approximately 200 m in diameter and 1 cm long, and are typically aligned
with the long axis of the bone. This solid bone matrix is permeated by a highly
interconnected network of canals and channels. Osteocytes live within this network, where
they are supplied by nutrients dissolved in the extracellular fluid. A canal plus surrounding
lamellae and intervening bone is called an osteon. The osteons are packed together to form
the bone proper. The space between osteons is called interstitial lamellar bone, and the
junction between osteons and interstitial bone is the cement line.

(b) Describe the main chemical constituents of bone. Give a (20 marks)
short description of each.

Water, organic collagen-based phase, mineral phase that provides bone with its characteristic rigidity and
strength. This mineral phase is composed primarily of crystalline hydroxyapatite ([Ca 3(PO4)2]3
Ca(OH)2), with small amounts of other mineral substances.
(c) What is the function of each of these phases? What types of cells are found in bone? In your
answer give a short description of each type.

Osteoblasts, which are recruited to synthesize bone. They produce the organic part of the
bone matrix.
Osteoclasts, which are recruited to dissolve bone. They are huge, mobile, very ramified cells,
having numerous nucleus with a granular cytoplasm.
Osteocytes and lining cells, which reside permanently in bone tissue. are located in cavities in
the bone matrix called lacunas, and each one only has one osteocyte.
They are extremely important cells that maintain the bone matrix.

2 (a) Tendons and ligaments are important structures in the human body. Give a
description of their structure and function. In your answer include a diagram of their
structure.
Ligaments in the skeletal system attach one bone to another across a joint and therefore help
to guide joint movement and maintain joint congruency. Outside the skeletal system,
ligaments support internal organs and structures including the uterus. Ligaments are primarily
composed of collagen (mostly type I and some type III), elastin fibers, and proteoglycans.
Tendons connect muscles to bones and are responsible for transmitting force between the
two. The matrix of tendons is composed primarily of type I collagen (Table 9.7). In the main
body of the tendon, the collagen is organized in a structural hierarchy with features similar to
ligaments, including fiber crimping.

(b) List the types of non-linear mechanical behaviour that ligaments and tendons exhibit. In your
answer also discuss the crimping of fibrils.

(c) For a given number of cycles to failure it has been shown that cortical bone can withstand a tensile
stress given by the equation below:
Slt=118N-o.071
For 106 cycles what tensile stress can cortical bone withstand using the above equation?

44.24 Pa

3. (a) How is the cardiovascular system regulated? Describe briefly the three types of control
which restore homeostasis. In your answer draw a diagram to illustrate this control system.

The cardiovascular system is subject to precise reflex regulation so that an appropriate supply
of oxygenated blood can be reliably provided to different body tissues under a wide range of
circumstances. The sensory monitoring for this critical homeostatic process entails primarily
mechanical (barosensory) information about pressure in the arterial system and, secondarily,
chemical (chemosensory) information about the level of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
blood.