Organization Development and Change

Management
UNIT-1
Nature of Planned Change:-
Organizational Development is directed in bringing about planned change in
order to increase the organizations preferences, also it is generally initiated and
implemented by managers often with the help of an OD practice. Planned
change can be used by organizations:
1. To solve problems
2. To learn from experience
3. To adapt to external environmental change
4. To improve performance
5. To influence future changes
6. To reframe shared perceptions

NOTE: The planned change process can vary depending on the change
situation.

Change in the organization can be accomplished through these four steps:

1. Entering

2. Diagnosing

3. Planning and Implementing

4. Evaluating and Institutionalizing

In order for change to happen one must enter the common grounds of the
organization to facilitate and see the problems and possibility for change. You
understand the problems of the organization and determine possible solutions
for it. Then, the diagnosing process is done. In this part of the process, one runs
a diagnosis on the alternatives that will fit best according to the problems. You
focus on how and why the problems occurred in order to have a better
understanding of the problem. Data gathering is also done in this procedure.

The step of planning and implementing the alternatives follow after. They
propose changes that will work best with their objectives and as well with their
mission and vision. The last step is the evaluation of the alternatives
implemented. It will be evaluated on how the alternatives fit with the policies
and procedures of the organization. They will further decide if the changes done
will be sustained or eradicated.

In my opinion, change is fundamental in every organization and its something

that its members should cope with. Change normally enables an organization to
work better. Whether it is an incremental change, if it will increase the
effectiveness of the organization, then they should consider these methods and
procedures.

Importance of Planned Change:-

Increased Productivity
Enhancement of Quality
Facing Completion
Technological Change
Customer Satisfaction
Expansion Of Market
Satisfaction Of owners
Complying with Laws
Development of Manpower

Personal and Organizational Barriers To Change:-

Personal Barriers to Change:-
Five reasons why individuals may resist change are:
1. Habit: Life is complex, to cope with having to make hundreds of decisions
every day, we all rely on habits or programmed responses.
2. Security: People with a high need for security are likely to resist change
because it threatens their feelings of safety.
3. Economic factors: Another source of individual resistance is concern that
changes will lower ones income.
4. Fear of the unknown: Changes substitute ambiguity and uncertainty for
the known.
5. Selective information processing: Individuals shape their world through
their perceptions. Once they have created this world, it resists change.
Organizational Barriers to Change:-
There are six major sources of organizational resistance:
1. Structural inertia: Organizations have built-in mechanisms to produce
stability; this structural inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability.
2. Limited focus of change: Organizations are made up of a number of
interdependent subsystems. Changing one affects the others.
3. Group inertia: Group norms may act as a constraint.
4. Threat to expertise: Changes in organizational patterns may threaten the
expertise of specialized groups.
5. Threat to established power relationships: Redistribution of decision-
making authority can threaten long-established power relationships.
6. Threat to established resource allocations: Groups in the organization that
control sizable resources often see change as a threat. They tend to be content
with the way things are.

Overcoming Resistance to Change

The following methods of overcoming-resistance to change are as follows:

Participation: Participation is generally considered the most effective

technique for overcoming resistance to change. Employees who take part
in planning and implementing change are better able to understand the
reasons for the change than those who are not involved. They become
committed to the change and make it work. Employees who have the
opportunity to express their own ideas and to understand the perspectives
of others are likely to accept change gracefully. It is a time consuming
process.
Education and Communication: Educating employees about the need
for and the expected results of an impending change help reduce their
resistance. Organizations should maintain an open channel of
communication while planning and implementing change. However, it is
also a time consuming process.
Facilitation of Change: Knowing ahead of lime that employees are
likely to resist change then the management should do as much as
possible to help them cope with uncertainly and feeling of loss.
Introducing change gradually, making only necessary changes,
announcing changes in advance and allowing time for people to adjust to
new ways of doing things can help reduce resistance.
Force-Field Analysis: In almost any situation where a change is being
planned, there are forces acting for and against the change. In force-field
 analysis, the management list each set of forces and then try to remove or
minimize some of the forces acting against the change.
Negotiation: Where someone or some group will clearly lose out in a
change and where that group has considerable power to resist, there
negotiation is required. Sometimes it is a relatively easy way to avoid
major resistance.
Manipulation and Cooperation: This is followed when other tactics
will not work or are too expensive. It can be quick and inexpensive;
however, it can lead to further problems if people feel manipulated.
Explicit and Implicit Coercion: This is adopted where speed is essential
and where the change initiators possess considerable power. It is speedy
and can overcome resistance.

Each of the above methods has its advantages and disadvantages. There is
no universal strategy for overcoming resistance to change. Hence, an
organization that plans to introduce certain changes must be prepared to face
resistance from its employees. An organization should also have a planned
approach to overcome such resistances.

Unit-2
The Need for Diagnostic Models:-
To identify vital organizational variables and depict the nature of the
relationships between these key variables.
To understand more clearly and quickly what happens in organizations
and thus aids the diagnostic process.
To interpret data about an organization.

Organizational, Group and Individual Level Diagnosis:-

Organizational-level Diagnosis:-
General Environment:-

The general environment represents the external elements and forces that
can affect the attainment of organization objectives.
It can be described in terms of amount of uncertainty present in social,
technological. Economic, ecological and political forces.
Industry Structure:-

Strategy:-

A strategy represent the way an organization uses its resources to gain

and sustain a competitive advantage.
It can be described by the organizations mission, goals, and objectives,
strategic intent, and functional policies.

Structure :-

The structural system describes how attention and resources are focused
on task completion.
It represents the basic organizing mode chosen to
divide the overall workof an organization into subunits that can
assign task to individuals and groups.
Coordinate these subunits for completion of the overall work.

Culture:-

Organization culture represent the basic assumption, values, and norms

shared by organization members.
It orients employees to company goals and suggests the kinds of
behaviors necessary for success.
Human Resource Systems:-

Human Resources Systems include mechanism for selecting, developing,

appraising and rewarding organization members.
HR Systems influence the mix of skills, personalities and behaviors of
organization members.

Technology:-

Technology is concerned with the way an organization converts inputs into

products and services.

It represents the core of the transformation function and includes production

methods, work flow and equipment.

Group-level Diagnosis:-
Organization Design:-

Organization design is the major input to group design.

It consists of the design components characterizing the larger
organization within which the group is embedded: technology, structure,
human resources systems and organization culture.

Goal Clarity:-

Goal Clarity involves how well the group understands its objectives.
In general goals, should be moderately challenging; there should be a
method of measuring, monitoring, and feeding back information about
goal achievement.
The goals should be clearly understood by all members.

Task Structure:-

Task structure is concerned with how the groups work is designed.

Task structure can vary along two key dimensions: coordination of
members effort and regulation of their task behavior.

Group Functioning:-

Group functioning is underlying basis of group life.

How members relate to each other is important in work groups because
the quality of relationship can affect task performance.

Group Composition:-

Group composition concerns the membership of groups.

Members can differ on a number of dimensions having relevance to
group behavior.
Demographic variables such as age, education and job experience can
affect how people behave and relate to each other in groups.

Group Norms:-

Group Norms are member beliefs about how the group should perform
task.
Norms derive from interaction among members and serve as guides to
group behavior.
Individual-level Diagnosis:-
Organization Design:- Organization Design is concerned with the larger
organization within which the individual job is the smallest unit.

Group Design:-

Group Design concerns the larger group or department containing the

individual job.
Like organization design, group design is an essential part of the job
context.

Personal Characteristics:-

Personal characteristics of individuals occupying jobs include their age,

education, experience and skills and abilities.
Personal characteristics can affect job performance as well as how people
react to job designs.
Feeding Back

Diagnostic Information:-
Consultants present findings to clients and other members of the client
organization; feedback may include explicit recommendations or more general
findings to stimulate discussion, decision making and action planning.
Determining the Content of Feedback
Relevant
Understandable
Descriptive
Verifiable
Timely
Limited
Significant
Comparative
UnFinalized

Effective Feedback Meetings

People are motivated to work with the data

The meeting is appropriately structured

The right people are in attendance

knowledge
 power and influence

interest

The meeting is facilitated

Survey Feedback Process

Members involved in designing the survey

The survey is administered to the organization

The data is analyzed and summarized

The data is presented to the stakeholders

The stakeholders work with the data to solve problems or achieve vision

Limitations of Survey Feedback

Ambiguity of Purpose

Distrust

Unacceptable Topics

Organizational Disturbances

Action Research: Process and Approach

Action research involves actively participating in a change situation, often via
an existing organization, whilst simultaneously conducting research. Action
research can also be undertaken by larger organizations or institutions, assisted
or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of improving their
strategies, practices and knowledge of the environments within which they
practice. As designers and stakeholders, researchers work with others to propose
a new course of action to help their community improve its work practices.

Wendell L. French and Cecil Bell define organization development (OD) at one
point as "organization improvement through action research".[4] If one idea can
be said to summarize OD's underlying philosophy, it would be action research
as it was conceptualized by Kurt and later elaborated and expanded on by other
behavioural scientists. Concerned with social change and, more particularly,
with effective, permanent social change, Lewin believed that the motivation to
change was strongly related to action: If people are active in decisions affecting
them, they are more likely to adopt new ways. "Rational social management",
he said, "proceeds in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of
planning, action and fact-finding about the result of action".[5]

Unfreezing: Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or

group becomes aware of a need to change.

Changing: The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are

explored and tested.

Refreezing: Application of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforcing,

adopted.

Figure 1: Systems Model of Action-Research Process

Lewin's description of the process of change involves three steps:[5]

Figure 1 summarizes the steps and processes involved in planned change

through action research. Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of
change.

1. The cycle begins with a series of planning actions initiated by the client
and the change agent working together. The principal elements of this
 stage include a preliminary diagnosis, data gathering, feedback of results,
and joint action planning. In the language of systems theory, this is the
input phase, in which the client system becomes aware of problems as yet
unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to effect changes, and
shares with the consultant the process of problem diagnosis.

2. The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation,

phase. This stage includes actions relating to learning processes (perhaps
in the form of role analysis) and to planning and executing behavioral
changes in the client organization. As shown in Figure 1, feedback at this
stage would move via Feedback Loop A and would have the effect of
altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of the client
system into better alignment with change objectives. Included in this
stage is action-planning activity carried out jointly by the consultant and
members of the client system. Following the workshop or learning
sessions, these action steps are carried out on the job as part of the
transformation stage.[6]

3. The third stage of action research is the output or results phase. This stage
includes actual changes in behavior (if any) resulting from corrective
action steps taken following the second stage. Data are again gathered
from the client system so that progress can be determined and necessary
adjustments in learning activities can be made. Minor adjustments of this
nature can be made in learning activities via Feedback Loop B
(see Figure 1).

Major adjustments and reevaluations would return the OD project to the first or
planning stage for basic changes in the program. The action-research model
shown in Figure 1 closely follows Lewin's repetitive cycle of planning, action,
and measuring results. It also illustrates other aspects of Lewin's general model
of change. As indicated in the diagram, the planning stage is a period of
unfreezing, or problem awareness.[5] The action stage is a period of changing,
that is, trying out new forms of behavior in an effort to understand and cope
with the system's problems. (There is inevitable overlap between the stages,
since the boundaries are not clear-cut and cannot be in a continuous process).

The results stage is a period of refreezing, in which new behaviors are tried out
on the job and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part of the system's
repertoire of problem-solving behavior. Action research is problem centered,
client centered, and action oriented. It involves the client system in a diagnostic,
active-learning, problem-finding and problem-solving process.

History of Action Research:-

The origins of action research are unclear within the literature. Authors such as
Kemmis and McTaggert (1988), Zuber-Skerrit (1992), Holter and Schwartz-
Barcott (1993) state that action research originated with Kurt Lewin, an
American psychologist. McKernan (1988 as cited in McKernan 1991) states
that action research as a method of inquiry has evolved over the last century and
careful study of the literature shows "clearly and convincingly that action
research is a root derivative of the scientific method' reaching back to the
Science in Education movement of the late nineteenth century." (McKernan
1991:8)

McKernan (1991:8) also states that there is evidence of the use of action
research by a number of social reformists prior to Lewin, such as Collier in
1945, Lippitt and Radke in 1946 and Corey in 1953. McTaggert (1992:2) cites
work by Gstettner and Altricher which has a physician named Moreno using
group participation in 1913 in a community development initiative with
prostitutes in Vienna. Freideres (1992:3-4) asserts that the concept of
participatory research emerged in the 1970s from development work in low
income countries and mentions names such as Fals-Borda and Freideres.

Despite the clouded origins of action research, Kurt Lewin, in the mid 1940s
constructed a theory of action research, which described action research as
"proceeding in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of planning, action
and the evaluation of the result of action" (Kemmis and McTaggert 1990:8).
Lewin argued that in order to "understand and change certain social practices,
social scientists have to include practitioners from the real social world in all
phases of inquiry" (McKernan 1991:10). This construction of action research
theory by Lewin made action research a method of acceptable inquiry.
(McKernan 1991:9)

Varieties of Action Research:-

TYPE 1: Technical/Technical-Collaborative/Scientific-Technical/Positivist
Early advocates of action research such as Lippitt and Radke in 1946, Lewin in
1947, Corey in 1953, and Taba and Noel in 1957 put forward a scientific
method of problem solving. (McKernan 1991:16) The underlying goal of the
researcher in this approach is to test a particular intervention based on a pre-
specified theoretical framework, the nature of the collaboration between the
researcher and the practitioner is technical and facilitatory. The researcher
identifies the problem and a specific intervention, then the practitioner is
involved and they agree to facilitate with the implementation of the
intervention. (Holter and Schwartz-Barcott 1993:301). The communication flow
within this type of research is primarily between the facilitator and the group, so
that the ideas may be communicated to the group (Grundy 1982:360).

Technical communication (Grundy 1982:360)

Grundy (1992:355) has developed a model describing technical action research.

(Grundy 1982:355)

Techne being the skill of action research, the idea being how the event will
occur, the event is the taking of the idea and the thoughts that the researcher has
about the event and making them happen.

A project guided by technical action research will have the following

characteristics: the project would be instigated by a particular person or group
of people who because of their greater experience or qualifications would be
regarded as experts or authority figures. Technical action research promotes
more efficient and effective practice. It is product directed but promotes
personal participation by practitioners in the process of improvement. "It fosters
the disposition characteristic of the artisan within the participating practitioners"
(Grundy 1987:154). This approach to action research results in the accumulation
of predictive knowledge, the major thrust is on validation and refinement of
existing theories and is essentially deductive (Holter et al 1993:301).

TYPE 2: Mutual-Collaborative/Practical-Deliberative-Interpretivist Perspective

In this type of action research project the researcher and the practitioners come
together to identify potential problems, their underlying causes and possible
interventions (Holter et al 1993:301). The problem is defined after dialogue
with the researcher and the practitioner and a mutual understanding is reached.
"Practical action research seeks to improve practice through the application of
the personal wisdom of the participants" (Grundy, 1982: 357).

The communication flow in this type of action research must be unimpaired

between each member of the group and the facilitator. (Grundy 1982:360)

Practical and Emancipatory Communication (Grundy 1982:360)

This design of action research allows for a more flexible approach, not available
in the positivist paradigm. "Indicative of this flexibility is the frequent use of
'interpretive' as an umbrella term that comfortably accommodates interactive
and phenomenological perspectives" (McCutcheon and Jung 1990:146).

McKernan (1991:20) feels that the practical model of action research trades off
some measurement and control for human interpretation, interactive
communication, deliberation, negotiation and detailed description. "The goal of
practical action researchers is understanding practice and solving immediate
problems" (McKernan 1991:20). The practitioners involved in the mutual
collaborative approach to action research gain a new understanding of their
practice, the changes implemented tend to have a more lasting character.
However the changes tend to be connected to the individuals directly involved
in the change process, and therefore the interventions tend to be short lived
when these individuals leave the system or there is an influx of new people
(Holter etal 1993:301).

"Practical action research fosters the development of professionalism by

emphasising the part played by personal judgement in decisions to act for the
good of the client" (Grundy 1987:154). This mode of action research "promotes
autonomous, deliberative action - ..praxis" (Grundy 1987:154). Grundy's
(1982:357) model for this type of action research is detailed below.

(Grundy 1982:357)

Grundy (1982:356) discusses three types of knowing. The first is techne or

knowing-how, the source of skilful action. The second is episteme, the source of
scientific action or knowing that. The third type of knowing is phronesis, the
knowing-why, the source of moral action which is often called practical
judgment. Techne, as occurs in Type 1 action research results in a making
action, it is product related. While phronesis results in a doing-action or praxis,
and is therefore product centred. The 'Idea' in the interaction is personal,
subjective and never fully formed, rather it is constantly being formed and being
influenced by the situation (Grundy 1992:357).

TYPE 3: Enhancement approach/Critical-Emancipatory Action research/Critical

Science perspective

Emancipatory action research "promotes emancipatory praxis in the

participating practitioners; that is, it promotes a critical consciousness which
exhibits itself in political as well as practical action to promote change."
(Grundy 1987:154) There are two goals for the researcher using this approach,
one is to increase the closeness between the actual problems encountered by
practitioners in a specific setting and the theory used to explain and resolve the
problem. The second goal, which goes beyond the other two approaches, is to
assist practitioners in identifying and making explicit fundamental problems by
raising their collective consciousness (Holter et al 1993:302).

Jurgen Habermas, a critical social theorist presents a theoretical model for

understanding emancipatory action research. (Habermas 1972 as cited in
Grundy 1982) Habermas presents a framework within which social critique may
be developed. "It is through the development of critique that the mediation of
theory and practice is possible. The development of action-orientated critique
has three phrases: theory, enlightenment and action" (Grundy 1982:358).

Emancipated strategic action follows from the disposition of critical intent.

(Grundy 1982:358) Critical intent is the disposition which motivates action and
interaction at all stages of emancipatory action research and is particularly
important in the development of the theoretical perspective which informs and
underpins a project (Grundy 1982:358).

Critical intent is not "the intention to be rigorously discriminating only with

regard to one's own practice. It has a social consciousness as well in that it is a
disposition toward the critical assessment of the extent to which the social
milieu impedes the fostering of the good" (Grundy 1982:358). This mode of
emancipatory action research does not begin with theory and end with practice,
but it is informed by theory and often it is confrontation with the theory that
provides the initiative to undertake the practice (Grundy 1982:358). The
dynamic relationship between theory and practice in emancipatory action
research entails the expansion of both theory and practice during the project.

When a person reflects upon theory in the light of praxis or practical judgment,
the form of knowledge that results is personal or tacit knowledge. This tacit
knowledge can be acquired through the process of reflection. The interaction of
theory and practical judgment through the process of reflection, with the input
from critical intent leads to critical theorems (Grundy 1982:359).

The second function which Habermas distinguishes in the mediation of theory

and practice is the organisation of the process of enlightenment in which critical
theorems are applied and tested in a unique manner by the initiation of
processes of reflection carried out within certain groups towards which these
processes have been directed. These group processes of reflection will give rise
to enlightenment in the form of authentic insights (Habermas 1972 as cited in
Grundy 1982:360). The facilitator must not attempt to direct the outcome of the
deliberative process by attempting to thrust enlightenment on the participants,
but must allow symmetrical communication to occur from which enlightenment
will flow (Grundy 1982:360).

The third function which Habermas distinguishes is the organisation of action.

The organisation of enlightenment has its focus upon the past while the
organisation of action is future orientated (Grundy 1982:361). The form of
strategic action resulting from enlightenment is a form of praxis. "Whereas
action which resulted from phronesis was also a form of praxis, the
development of 'critical theorems' and the process of enlightenment result in the
true praxis for it is action which is freed from the dominating constraints of the
environment" (Grundy 1982:361).

Grundy (1982:363) has a diagrammatic representation of the above discussion.

 Unit-3
Classification of OD Intervention :-
OD Interventions are classified on the basis of;

The objectives of interventions

The targets of interventions

Major Families Of OD Interventions:-

Diagnostic Activities:-

Fact finding activities designed to ascertain the state of the system.

Data collection methods are interviews, questionnaire, survey meetings
and examining organizational records.

Team Building Activities:-

Activities designed to enhance the effective operation of system teams.

Different kinds of teams are formal work teams, temporary task force
teams, newly constituted teams, and cross functional teams.

Inter Group Teams:-

Activities designed to improve the effectiveness of independent groups.

They focus on joint activities and output is considered as a single system.
When more than two groups are involved, the activities are called
organizational mirroring.

Survey Feedback Activities:-

Activities that rely on questionnaire surveys to generate information.

Groups analyse the data regarding their performance and design action
plans to correct problems.
Education and Training Activities:-

Activities designed to improve individual skills, abilities and knowledge.

The activities may be directed toward technical skills required for
performing tasks.
The activities may also be directed toward leadership issues,
responsibilities and functions of group members.

Techno Structural and Structural Activities:-

Activities designed to improve the effectiveness of organizational

structures and job designs.
The activities may take form of,
Experimenting with new organization structures and evaluating their
effectiveness.
Devising new ways to bring technical resources to bear on problems.

Process Consultant Activities:-

Activities that help the client to perceive, understand and act up on

process events.
These activities perhaps more accurately describe an approach.
Primary emphasis is on Process such as communications, leader and
member roles in groups and inter-group cooperation and competition.

Grid Organization Development Activities:-

Activities developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, constitute a six

phase change model involving the total organization.
Internal resources are developed to conduct most of the programs which
may take 3 to 5 yrs.

Six Phase:-

Upgrading Individual Managers

Skills and leadership abilities.
Moves to team improvement activities.
Intergroup relation activities
Planning for improvement
Developing implantation tactics
Evaluation Phase
 Individual, Interpersonal and Team Intervention:-
Examples of Individual Interventions

Laboratory Training Group Leadership Development

(T-Groups)

Coaching Multi-rater (360-Degree) Feedback

Mentoring Job Design

Self-Awareness Tools Job Descriptions

Training, Education and Development Conflict Management

Values Clarification and Value Integration Action Learning

Classification-Individual Interventions

Sensitivity Training
Behaviour Modelling
Johari Window
Transaction Analysis
Stress Management
Career Planning
Empowerment
Sensitivity Training
 Social sensitivity in one word is empathy. It is ability of an individual to
sense what others feel and think from their own point of view.
Behavioural flexibility is ability to behave suitably in light of
understanding.

Goals of Sensitivity Training

Method of changing behaviour through unstructured group interaction.

Primary focus is on reducing interpersonal friction
Focuses on individual behaviour within groups.
Fuels emotional outburst.
Team members become aware of work-place dynamics.
Sensitivity toward those who are disabled

Behavior Modelling

Learning by copying or mimicking behaviour.

Powerful ways to learn what behaviours are acceptable and what

behaviours are objectionable.

MODELLING AS OD TOOL

Resolve organizational issues

Instil a vested sense of responsibility

Simplify Project Management

Measure & Track

Respond rapidly

Johari Window Model

Open

Known to candidate as well as others

Blind

Known to others but not candidate

 Hidden

Known to candidate but not others

Unknown

Neither the candidate knows about himself nor others

Transaction Analysis

3 Ego states

Parent

Child

Adult

Types of Transaction

Reciprocal transaction

Crossed transaction

Duplex or Covert transaction

Stress management

Effect of stress

Stress defense mechanism

Individual approach:

Time management

Physical exercise and relaxation

Practicing good habits

Other contributing factors

 Organization approach

Introduce changes in work

Improving organization communication

Organization initiatives

Career Planning

Need for career planning

Career Planning Process

Identificatio
n of Analyze Aligning Action plan
individual career needs and and periodic
Goals and opportunity opportunity review
Aspiration

Interpersonal interventions in an OD program are designed to enhance

individual skills, knowledge, and effectiveness. This type of program utilizes
group dynamics by gathering individuals together in loosely structured
meetings. Subject matter is determined by the group, within the context of basic
goals stipulated by a facilitator. As group members try to exert structure on
fellow members, group members gain a greater awareness of their own and
other's feelings, motivations, and behaviours. Other types of interpersonal
interventions include those designed to improve the performance review
process, create better training programs, help workers identify their true wants
and set complementary career goals, and resolve conflict.
Team Interventions

Distinction between Groups and Teams

A work group is

a number of persons
Usually reporting to a common superior
having some face-to-face interaction
persons have some degree of interdependence in carrying out
tasks for the purpose of achieving organizational goals

A team is

a form of group
has some characteristics in greater degree than ordinary
groups
and a higher degree of interdependency and interaction

Team or work groups

Strategic units of organization

Much of the organizations work is accomplished directly or indirectly

through teams
Work team culture exerts a significant influence on individual behaviour

Teams

Cross-Functional Teams

Comprised of individuals with functional home base- eg. Manufacturing,

design, and engg etc.-but they meet regularly to solve ongoing challenges
requiring input from a number of functional areas

Effective Teams

:are relaxed, comfortable and informal

 High-Performance Teams:

Have strong personal commitment to each other- commitment to others growth

and success

Team-Building Interventions

The four main areas:

Diagnosis
Task Accomplishments
Team relationships
Team and organization processes

Major approaches to Team Building

THE FORMAL GROUP DIAGNOSTIC MEETING

Its purpose is to conduct a general critique of the performance of the group and
to uncover and identify problems on which they will work on.

THE FORMAL GROUP TEAM-BUILDING MEETING

It has the goal of improving the teams effectiveness through better management
of task demands, relationship demands and group processes.
PROCESS CONSULTATION INTERVENTIONS

Process consultation model is similar to team-based interventions

It places greater emphasis on diagnosing and understanding process
events

A GESTALT APPROACH TO TEAM BUILDING

Focuses more on the individual than on the group is the Gestalt Approach to
OD.

Transactional Analysis:-

A system of popular psychology based on the idea that one's behaviour and
social relationships reflect an interchange between parental (critical and
nurturing), adult (rational), and childlike (intuitive and dependent) aspects of
personality established early in life.

This therapeutic approach originates from psychology and psychoanalysis,

but with useful implications for organizational development. Organizations
use transactional analysis for training and developing employees. According
to its founder, Dr. Eric Berne, transactional analysis gives participants more
autonomy, or control over their own destiny, including the elements of
spontaneity, intimacy and awareness.

Contractual Relationships

The transactional analysis approach cannot work unless there is a

contractual relationship involving different parties. An organization
arranges training and therefore becomes a party in a contractual
relationship with employees and trainers. Employees can participate in
transactional analysis to learn more about themselves and increase their
autonomy. As parties to such a transaction, employees will have rights
and responsibilities that they accept in the beginning of the training
process.

Ego States

Transactional analysis rests on analysing interactions between at least two

people. People will interact using one of the three ego states. The Child
 ego state acts according to emotions, such as fear and anxiety. The Adult
ego state describes rational thought processes including problem-solving.
The Parent ego includes rules learned about society and life in the early
part of life; a person accepts rules without question.

Use in Organizations

A trainer can use transactional analysis to help participants understand

how we communicate in dysfunctional patterns such as from a Parent or
Child ego state instead of an Adult ego state. When people become more
aware, they can communicate more openly at work. This awareness on
the part of many individuals promotes functional communication and
eradication of dysfunctional behaviour patterns. Following transactional
analysis, professionals can work together to identify organizational needs
and problem-solving methods.

Unit-4
Importance of Teams:-
Better communication

Equal stakes in outcome

Increased trust

Greater efficiency

Greater productivity

Increased engagement

Motivated employees
Knowledge and independence
More delegation
Greater flexibility
Innovation
Better client service
 Unit-5
Organization Transformation:-
Organisational Transformation is a term referring collectively to such activities
as reengineering, redesigning and redefining business systems. The dominant
enabling technology in transforming organization is information and
technology.

As business model change rapidly in the financial environment and mergers and
acquisition change the face of the organization. So, organization continually
need to

A flexible, effective and efficient organization.

A customer-centric approach to organizational activities.
Recognition of current strengths to create a more productive environment
Understanding and reaping the benefits of competitive IT and business
alignment.
Promotion of an integrated approach to IT and business

Three Types of Transformation

Improving Operation: To achieve a quantum improvement in the firm's

efficiency, often by reducing costs, improving quality and services and
reducing development time.
Strategic Transformation: The process of changing strategy seeks to
regain a sustainable competitive advantage by redefining business
objectives, creating new competences and harnessing these capabilities
to meet market opportunities.
Corporate Self-Renewal: Self-Renewal creates the ability for a firm to
anticipate and cope with change so that strategic and operational gap
does not develop.
Phases of Transformation

Phase-1: It begins with the automation of existing activities to reduce cost

and raise capacities and expands to encompass a broader range of
applications to optimize operations.
Phase-2: It focuses on adding features, functions, value-added processes
and new service to the core business.
Phase-3: It may become principal vehicles for growth; the existing
business can be redefined.

Transformation Strategies

There are various strategies to transform organization. It may be followed:

1. Transformation through Values

In the changing business environment, values are guiding force for the
companies. Values are nothing but something we hold dear, something that
reflects an ideal or an ethic. A value to individual is purpose & meaning of life.
Values to an organisation are foundations of culture. Organisation should choose
values i) compatible with society's core values, ii) Based on sublimation of
basic human urges, iii) compatible with purpose & operating context and iv)
compatible with third world context.

2. Transformation through Organisation Development

Most people and organisations are riot prepared for the vastly accelerated pace
of change. OD appears to be one of the primarily methods for this. Organisation
Development rests on three basic propositions (Bennis, 1969)
* Organisations change forms throught the age. The changes taking place in that
age make it necessary to revitalize and rebuild organizations.

* The only way to change organizations lies in changing the climate of the
organization.

* A new social awareness is required by people in organizations.

In short, the basic thrust behind OD is that the world is rapidly changing and
that our organizations must follow suit.

Greiner identified what he considered to be the seven most commonly used

approaches to change.

a) The Decree Approach

b) The Replacement Approach

c) The Structural Approach

d) The Group Decision Approach

e) The Data Discussion Approach

f) The Group Problem Solving Approach

g) The T-Group Approach

3. Transformation through Reengineering

Reengineering is revolutionary, challenging the operation and even existence of

fundamental processes. It not only improves the old way of doing business, it
seeks to create a new and better way.

4. Transformation through McKinsey's Plan

A ten point blue print for an organization

a) Organise primarily around process, not task.

b) Flatten the hierarchy by minimizing subdivision of processes.

c) Give senior leaders charge of processes & process performance.

d) Link performance objectives & evaluation of all activities to customer

satisfaction.

e) More teams, not individuals, the focus of organization performance and

design.

f) Combine managerial and non-managerial activities as often as possible.

g) Emphasise that each employee should develop several competencies.

h) Inform & Train people on a just-in-time, need to perform basis.

i) Maximise supplier and customer contact with every one in the organization.

j) Reward individual skill development and team performance instead of

individual performance alone.

5. Transformation through Competitive Benchmarking

Benchmarking is the continuous process of measuring products, services and

practices against the toughest competitions or those companies recognize as
industry leaders.

6. Transformation through Six Sigma

It is the statistical parameter used to describe variation. It can be described as

going from appx 35,000 defects per million operation to not more than 3 defects
per million. It focuses on achieving tangible results as well as speaks the
language of business. It uses as an infrastructure of highly trained employees
from various sectors of the company.

7. Transformation through Kaizen Principle

a) Small Improvement

b) Conventional Knowledge

c) Personal Involvement

d) Many people

e) Improve the process

f) Standardise- Do- Check- Act to Plan-Do-Check-Act

Unit-6
Powers of OD:-
Organisations are made up of many different power elements; different interest
groups, divisions with functional agendas, coalitions of special interests, the
exercise of managerial power and various aspects of political behaviour
exercised by individuals, teams and groups

With power so inherent in the make up of an organisation it is important that

theOD practitioner who is embarking on an OD programme understands what
power exists, who holds the power and also the way in which power is used to
influence the workings of the organisation.

OD by its nature is political. Not because it wants to inherit the power within
the organisation, but because organisation development is fundamentally about
change, and change requires power to happen. What is more OD may upset the
power boundaries and political landscape of the organisation recognising and
harnessing the power within the organisation prevents resistance and supports
the change process.
Being skillful in our recognition and use of the power holders within the
organisation will ensure that the change process is aided by those with power
and supported by the political machinations rather than being used to create
barriers for the OD practitioner to bump into.

The distribution of power is also useful to understand in the context of

organisational diagnosis. For instance understand how many employees feel
disempowered, and dont perceive themselves as having access to the sources of
power within the organisation can inform the organisation development
intervention design. Investigating and understand who holds power, but not
necessarily authority will also inform key decisions, especially over who should
be included on temporary diagnostic teams, or trained as change agents.

Values of OD:-

Providing opportunities for people to function as human beings rather

than as resources in the productive process.
Providing opportunities for each organization member, as well as for the
organization itself, to develop to his full potential.
Seeking to increase the effectiveness of the organization in terms of all of
its goals.
Attempting to create an environment in which it is possible to find
exciting and challenging work.
Providing opportunities for people in organizations to influence the way
in which they relate to work, the organization, and the environment.
Treating each human being as a person with a complex set of needs, all of
which are important in his work and in his life.