Ali Mohammed UMB

Chemistry
End of Year Exam Revision

Topic 1: Atomic Structure

Atoms
Atomic particles
Particle Where is it? Relative mass (amu*) Electric charge
Proton Nucleus 1 +1
Neutron Nucleus 1 0
Electron Orbiting Nucleus 1/1836 -1
*amu atomic mass units

The relative mass is measured in atomic mass units because there is no scale that
can measure an atom, as it is too light.

The atomic number of an atom tells you how many protons are in the atom.
All atoms have the same number of electrons as protons, except ions.
The mass number of an atom tells you how many protons and neutrons there are
together in an atom.
To find the number of neutrons in an atom there are, we subtract the atomic
number from the mass number.

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element but with a different number of neutrons.
The relative atomic mass of an element (A r) is the average value of all the isotopes of
the element. It is measured relative to Carbon-12 when it is exactly 12.
Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-37 have similar chemical properties because they both
have 17 electrons.
The difference of the two isotopes is that Chlorine-37 has a larger mass than
Chlorine 35.
Chlorine is stated to have a mass of 35.5 because this mass is the relative atomic
mass.
Relative atomic mass = (% mass of first isotope) + (% mass of second isotope).
NB: % must be expressed as a decimal.
Worked example:
There is 75% of Cl-35 and 25% of Cl-37.
Relative atomic mass = (0.75 35) + (0.25 37)
= 35.5

Chemistry
End of Year Exam Revision
Ali Mohammed UMB

There is the same number of protons as electrons in an atom to make them

electrically neutral overall. An atom is held together by the electrostatic force of
attraction between the negatively charged electrons and the positively charged
nucleus.

Periodic table
All the elements in each period have the same amount of shells. All the elements in
each group have the same number of electrons, the same valency and the same
reactivity.
The noble gases dont react because their outer shell is full and doesnt require any
electrons.
The halogens are very reactive because they are one short of having a full outer shell
The alkali metals are the most reactive because the only need one electron to gain a
full outer shell.

Topic 2: Detection and

Identification
Tests for cations
Compounds of some materials burn with a characteristic colour.
By heating various metal ions (cations), we can identify a substance, as it will burn
with a distinctive colour flame.
Metal Formula of ion Flame colour
Lithium Li+ Crimson-red
+
Sodium Na Yellow-orange
+
Potassium K Lilac
2+
Calcium Ca Brick red
To do the test, take a spatula of the compound or substance that needs testing and
place it on the end of a damp or wet splint. Then heat up the splint on a bunsen
burner and observe the flame.

For cations, the following have to be determined by reacting with sodium hydroxide
(NaOH):
Metal ion Colour of precipitate Ionic reaction
Copper(II) (Cu2+) Light blue Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
Iron(II) (Fe2+) Dirty green Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
Iron(III) (Fe3+) Rust brown Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
To do the test, you get the metal ions in salt and react it with a few drops of sodium
hydroxide, which should produce an insoluble hydroxide or a precipitate.
To test if a substance contains ammonium ions (NH4+), react it with sodium
hydroxide. Ammonia gas is produced, which will turn damp red litmus paper blue.

Tests for anions

Chemistry
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Ali Mohammed UMB

To test for halide ions (anions), react solution with silver nitrate (AgNO3) and dilute
nitric acid (HNO3)
Halide Colour of precipitate Ionic reaction
-
Chloride (Cl ) White Ag (aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
+
-
Bromide (Br ) Cream Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) AgBr(s)
Iodide (I-) Yellow Ag+(aq) + I-(aq) AgI(s)
Nitric acid is used to clear any carbonate or sulphite ions before the test.

To test for carbonate ions (anions), react substance with hydrochloric acid (HCl). If
CO32- ions are present, it will give off carbon dioxide, turning limewater cloudy.
CO32-(s) + 2H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)

To test for sulphate ions (anions), react solution with hydrochloric acid (HCl),
followed by barium chloride (BaCl 2). If SO42- ions are present, a white precipitate will
form.
Ba2+(aq) SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
Hydrochloric acid is added to clear any carbonate or sulphite ions before the test.

Tests for gases and water

These are the tests for the following gases:
Gas Test
Oxygen (O2) Relights a glowing splint
Hydrogen (H2) Makes a squeaky pop when ignited with
a burning splint
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Turns limewater cloudy when bubbled
through limewater
Chlorine (Cl2) Bleaches damp blue litmus paper
Ammonia (NH3) Creates a strong pungent smell and turn
damp red litmus paper blue

Copper(II) sulphate crystals can be used to test for water.

When copper(II) sulphate is bound to water (hydrated), it forms blue crystals.
When blue hydrated copper(II) sulphate crystals are heated, water evaporates,
leaving a white anhydrous copper(II) sulphate.
Hydrated copper(II) sulphate is blue. Anhydrous copper(II) sulphate is white.

Topic 3: Bonding
Ionic bonding
Ionic bonds form when a metal (positively-charged ion) reacts with a non-metal
(negatively-charged ion). They react in order to obtain a full outer shell. The metal
loses electrons and the non-metal gains electrons. Ionic bonding is the electrostatic
force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
When an atom loses electrons, its called oxidation. When an atom gains electrons,
its called reduction.

Chemistry
End of Year Exam Revision
Ali Mohammed UMB

Ionic solids are soluble in water because water is a polar molecule, meaning it will
break the charges and allow them to move freely. In non-polar molecules, such as
organic solvent, ionic solids are not soluble.
Ionic solids have high melting and boiling points because of the strong electrostatic
force of attraction acting in all directions, meaning more a lot of energy is required
to break it. For example, MgO has a higher melting point than NaOH because MgO
consists of more charges and has a strong electrostatic force of attraction and
requires more energy to break.
Compounds with ionic bonding always have giant ionic structures. The ions are held
together in a closely packed 3D lattice arrangement by the attraction between
oppositely charged ions. The electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged
ions is very strong. Because a lot of energy is needed to overcome the strong
attraction, this means that ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.
The charges on the ions in the lattice also effect the strength of the ionic bonding. A
lattice of 2+ and 2- ions will be held together by stronger forces of attraction than a
lattice of 1+ and 1- ions. The means the lattices made up of higher charges will have
higher melting and boiling points.
Sodium chloride has a typical ionic structure.

In a solid state, ionic solids do not conduct electricity. This is because the charges
cannot move and only vibrate. When dissolved in a solution (aqeous), the ions are
broken up and are free to move, meaning that that charge can move and electricity
is the flow of charge. Ionic compounds also conduct electricity when molten.
Ionic solids break easily breakable (brittle) as when the layers move over each other,
two like charges will meet and repel each other, causing it to break.

Covalent compounds
Covalent compounds are formed when two non-metals react together. The non-
metal atoms share outer electrons in order to gain a full outer shell. The atoms are
held together due to the electrostatic attraction between the bonding pair of
electrons (negatively-charged) and the nuclei of the atoms (positively-charged).
Oxygen needs two electrons to attain a full outer shell.

Chemistry
End of Year Exam Revision
Ali Mohammed UMB

Sometimes, only the outer shells of covalent bonds are drawn. Other examples of
covalent bonds are methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3) and water (H2O)

Simple covalent compounds have a simple molecular structure.

They have low melting and boiling points because there are weak intermolecular
forces of attraction between molecules, meaning the molecules are easily parted
from each other.
Most molecular substances are gases or liquids at room temperature.

They are not soluble in water but they are soluble in organic solvent.
They do not conduct electricity because they have no charges.

Giant covalent compounds have high melting and boiling points because every atom
in a covalent structure is joined together by strong covalent bonds.
They are not soluble in water or organic solvent.
They do not conduct electricity because they have no charge, apart from the
exception of graphite.

Diamond:
- Each carbon atom makes four bonds
- They are joined in a regular agreement by strong covalent bonds
- The giant structure has no free electrons
- Diamond does not conduct electricity

Chemistry
End of Year Exam Revision
Ali Mohammed UMB

- Diamonds are used to cut crystals as they are very strong

Graphite:
- Made from carbon atoms that each form three bonds
- Atoms form layers of hexagonal rings of six atoms
- The layers slide over each other due to weak forces between layers
- Within the layers are free electrons
- Graphite conducts electricity as charge can move
- Graphite is a lubricants and is soft
- It rubs off onto paper easily

Metallic bonding
Properties:
- High melting and boiling points
- Good electrical conductors
- Malleable
- Ductile
Structure of metals: Metals consist of a regular array of a regular of positive ions in a
sea of delocalised electrons in a 3D structure. The metal is held together by the
electrostatic force of attraction between the positively-charged ions and the
negatively-charged delocalised electrons.
High melting points and strong: Metals have high melting points and are strong
because the delocalised electrons and positive ions have a strong electrostatic force
of attraction, meaning they are harder to break.
Some metals have higher melting points than others because they have more
delocalised electrons and higher charged ions, which means there is a stronger force
of attraction, which is harder to break.
The electrostatic attraction between the metal ions and the delocalised electrons is
strong.
High temperatures are needed to break metallic bonds.

Chemistry
End of Year Exam Revision
Ali Mohammed UMB

Electrical conductivity: The delocalised electrons can move freely anywhere within
the metal lattice. The movement of charge means metals can conduct electricity.
Malleable/hammered into shape: The positive ions are able roll over the sea of
delocalised electrons into new positions without breaking the metallic bonds.
The delocalised electrons are a constant presence, always holding together any
shifting cations. The layers of atoms can slide over each other.

Topic 4: Rates of Reaction

In order for a reaction to occur, the particles must:
1) Have enough energy
2) Have the correct orientation to each other

There are five ways of increasing the rate of a reaction:

Method What happens Explanation
1 Increase the The average kinetic energy The collision frequency increases,
temperature of the particles increases. and there is a greater proportion of
*2 (successful) collisions with the
required energy.
2 Increase the The particles will be in a The collision frequency increases.
1
pressure smaller container. *
3 Increase the There will be more The collision frequency increases.
concentration particles in a certain
space. *1
4 Increase the There will be more There will be more collision
surface area particles exposed to react. between particles.
5 Use of A catalyst helps correctly A greater proportion of collision at
catalyst orientate the particles. the correct orientation will occur
1
* As a reaction progresses, there are fewer reactant particles, so they collide less
frequently and the reaction slows down.
*2 Faster collisions are only caused by increasing the temperature.
Chemistry
End of Year Exam Revision
Ali Mohammed UMB

Effect of concentration on rate of reaction:

Reaction of Magnesium with Hydrochloric acid
1) Decide a volume of HCl and pour it into a beaker.
2) Measure a certain length of Mg ribbon and put it in the HCl.
3) Measure time taken for Mg ribbon to dissolve.
4) Repeat the experiment for different concentrations (2.0M, 1.5M, 1.0M,
0.8M, 0.6M, 0.4M)
The results should show that as concentration of HCl increases, time taken for Mg
ribbon to dissolve decreases, meaning rate of reaction increases. The relationship is
exponential.
The independent variable is concentration of HCl, measured in molars (M).
The dependant variable is time taken for Mg ribbon to dissolve in seconds (s), or rate
or reaction (s-1).

Effect of temperature on rate of reaction:

Reaction of Sodium thiosulphate with Hydrochloric acid
1) Measure a volume of Na2S2O3 and pour into a conical flask.
2) Measure a volume of H2O and pour into the conical flask.
3) Adjust the temperature (20C).
4) Add a volume of HCl.
5) Draw a black mark under the conical flask.
6) Measure time taken for black mark to disappear (cloudy sulphur precipitate
produced).
7) Repeat the experiment at different temperatures (30C, 40C, 50C, 60C,
70C).
The results should show that as temperature increases, time taken for black mark to
disappear decreases, meaning rate of reaction increases. The relationship is
exponential.
The independent variable is temperature, measured in degrees Celsius (C).
The dependant variable is time taken for black mark to disappear in seconds (s), or
rate or reaction (s-1).

The effect of surface area on rate of reaction:

Reaction of Hydrochloric acid with marble chips
1) Measure a volume of HCl and pour it into a conical flask.
2) Weigh some large marble chips and pour it with the HCl.
3) Attach a gas syringe to the conical flask.
4) Measure the volume of gas (CO2) produced at regular intervals.
5) Repeat the experiment with small marble chips and powdered marble.
The results should show that as surface area (smaller marble chips) increases,
volume of gas production increases, meaning rate of reaction increases. The
relationship is exponential (inverted).
The independent variable is surface area, measured in size of marble chips.
The dependant variable is amount of gas produced in a time (cm3), or rate or
reaction (s-1).

Chemistry
End of Year Exam Revision
Ali Mohammed UMB

The effect of catalyst on rate of reaction:

Decomposition of Hydrogen peroxide (with manganese(IV) oxide)
2H2O2 (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
1) Measure a volume of H2O2 and pour into a conical flask.
2) Weigh some MnO2 with a certain particle size, and pour into the conical flask.
3) Attach a gas syringe to the conical flask.
4) Measure the volume of gas (O2) produced at regular intervals (or in 60
seconds).
5) Repeat the experiment at different masses of MnO 2 (0.1g, 0.2g, 0.3g, 0.4g,
0.5g, 0.6g, 0.7g, 0.8g, 0.9g, 1.0g)
The results should show that as mass of catalyst increases, volume of gas production
increases, meaning rate of reaction increases. The relationship is exponential
(inverted).
The independent variable is mass of catalyst, measured in grams (g).
The dependant variable is amount of gas produced in a time (cm3), or rate or
reaction (s-1).

Activation energy:
Activation energy is the minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.
Increasing the temperature means particles have enough energy to overcome the Ea
(activation energy) barrier.

Catalysts:
A catalyst is a substance that usually speeds up a reaction.
They do this by providing an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy.
At the end of the reaction, the catalyst is chemically unchanged and it is not used up,
so it can be used over and over again.
Catalysts decrease the activation energy, increasing the number of successful
collisions.

Chemistry
End of Year Exam Revision