Learning Guide Unit 3

Overview

Unit 3: Evolution and Sustaining Biodiversity

Topics:

Evolution of communities and species

Discovering how populations change

Mechanisms of evolution

Speciation

Common misconceptions about evolution

Ecosystem principles

Importance of Biodiversity

Threats to Biodiversity

Preserving Biodiversity

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Explain how Darwins theory of evolution differed from the current view at the time.

2. Describe how the present-day theory of evolution was developed.

 3. Describe the four basic causes of evolution.

4. Describe the definition of species and how species are identified as different.

5. Describe biodiversity.

6. Identify benefits of biodiversity to humans.

7. Explain the effects of habitat loss, exotic species, and hunting on biodiversity.

8. Identify the early and predicted effects of climate change on biodiversity.

9. Explain the legislative framework for conservation.

10. Identify examples of the effects of habitat restoration.

Tasks:

Read the Learning Guide and Reading Assignments

Participate in the Discussion Assignment (post, comment, and rate in the Discussion
Forum)

Make entries to the Learning Journal

Take the Self-Quiz

Take the Graded Quiz

Introduction

Discovering How Populations Change

Evolution by natural selection arises from three conditions: individuals within a species
vary, some of those variations are heritable, and organisms have more offspring than
resources can support. The consequence is that individuals with relatively advantageous
variations will be more likely to survive and have higher reproductive rates than those
individuals with different traits. The advantageous traits will be passed on to offspring in
greater proportion. Thus, the trait will have higher representation in the next and
subsequent generations leading to genetic change in the population.

The modern synthesis of evolutionary theory grew out of the reconciliation of Darwins,
Wallaces, and Mendels thoughts on evolution and heredity. Population genetics is a
theoretical framework for describing evolutionary change in populations through the
change in allele frequencies. Population genetics defines evolution as a change in allele
frequency over generations. In the absence of evolutionary forces allele frequencies will
not change in a population; this is known as Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle.
However, in all populations, mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and migration act
to change allele frequencies.

Mechanisms of Evolution

There are four factors that can change the allele frequencies of a population. Natural
selection works by selecting for alleles that confer beneficial traits or behaviors, while
selecting against those for deleterious qualities.

Mutations introduce new alleles into a population. Genetic drift stems from the chance
occurrence that some individuals have more offspring than others and results in changes
in allele frequencies that are random in direction. When individuals leave or join the
population, allele frequencies can change as a result of gene flow.

Evidence of Evolution

The evidence for evolution is found at all levels of organization in living things and in the
extinct species we know about through fossils.

Fossils provide evidence for the evolutionary change through now extinct forms that led
to modern species. For example, there is a rich fossil record that shows the evolutionary
transitions from horse ancestors to modern horses that document intermediate forms and
a gradual adaptation o changing ecosystems. The anatomy of species and the
 embryological development of that anatomy reveal common structures in divergent
lineages that have been modified over time by evolution.

The geographical distribution of living species reflects the origins of species in particular
geographic locations and the history of continental movements. The structures of
molecules, like anatomical structures, reflect the relationships of living species and match
patterns of similarity expected from descent with modification.

Speciation

Speciation occurs along two main pathways: geographic separation (allopatric speciation)
and through mechanisms that occur within a shared habitat (sympatric speciation). Both
pathways force reproductive isolation between populations.

Sympatric speciation can occur through errors in meiosis that form gametes with extra
chromosomes, called polyploidy.

Autopolyploidy occurs within a single species, whereas allopolyploidy occurs because of

a mating between closely related species. Once the populations are isolated, evolutionary
divergence can take place leading to the evolution of reproductive isolating traits that
prevent interbreeding should the two populations come together again. The reduced
viability of hybrid offspring after a period of isolation is expected to select for stronger
inherent isolating mechanisms.

Common Misconceptions about Evolution

The theory of evolution is a difficult concept and misconceptions abound.

The factual nature of evolution is often challenged by wrongly associating the scientific
meaning of a theory with the vernacular meaning. Evolution is sometimes mistakenly
interpreted to mean that individuals evolve, when in fact only populations can evolve as
their gene frequencies change over time.

Evolution is often assumed to explain the origin of life, which it does not speak to.

It is often spoken in goal-directed terms by which organisms change through intention,

and selection operates on mutations present in a population that have not arisen in
response to a particular environmental stress.

Evolution is often characterized as being controversial among scientists; however, it is

accepted by the vast majority of working scientists.

Critics of evolution often argue that alternative theories to evolution should be taught in
public schools; however, there are no viable alternative scientific theories to evolution.
 The alternative religious beliefs should not be taught as science because it cannot be
proven, and in the United States it is unconstitutional.

Importance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity exists at multiple levels of organization, and is measured in different ways

depending on the goals of those taking the measurements. These include numbers of
species, genetic diversity, chemical diversity, and ecosystem diversity.

The number of described species is estimated to be 1.5 million with about 17,000 new
species being described each year. Estimates for the total number of eukaryotic species on
Earth vary but are on the order of 10 million. Biodiversity is negatively correlated with
latitude for most taxa, meaning that biodiversity is higher in the tropics. The mechanism
for this pattern is not known with certainty, but several plausible hypotheses have been
advanced.

Humans use many compounds that were first discovered or derived from living
organisms as medicines: secondary plant compounds, animal toxins, and antibiotics
produced by bacteria and fungi. More medicines are expected to be discovered in nature.
Loss of biodiversity will impact the number of pharmaceuticals available to humans.

Crop diversity is a requirement for food security, and it is being lost. The loss of wild
relatives to crops also threatens breeders abilities to create new varieties. Ecosystems
provide ecosystem services that support human agriculture: pollination, nutrient cycling,
pest control, and soil development and maintenance.

Loss of biodiversity threatens these ecosystem services and risks making food production
more expensive or impossible. Wild food sources are mainly aquatic, but few are being
managed for sustainability. Fisheries ability to provide protein to human populations is
threatened when extinction occurs.

Threats to Biodiversity

The core threats to biodiversity are human population growth and unsustainable resource
use.

To date, the most significant causes of extinction are habitat loss, introduction of exotic
species, and overharvesting. Climate change is predicted to be a significant cause of
extinction in the coming century.

Habitat loss occurs through deforestation, damming of rivers, and other activities.

Overharvesting is a threat particularly to aquatic species, but the taking of bush meat in
the humid tropics threatens many species in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
 Exotic species have been the cause of a number of extinctions and are especially
damaging to islands and lakes. Exotic species introductions are increasing because of the
increased mobility of human populations and growing global trade and transportation.

Climate change is forcing range changes that may lead to extinction. It is also affecting
adaptations to the timing of resource availability that negatively affects species in
seasonal environments. The impacts of climate change are currently greatest in the arctic.
Global warming will also raise sea levels, eliminating some islands and reducing the area
of all others.

Preserving Biodiversity

Five mass extinctions with losses of more than 50 percent of extant species are
observable in the fossil record. Recent extinctions are recorded in written history and are
the basis for one method of estimating contemporary extinction rates. The other method
uses measures of habitat loss and species-area relationships. Estimates of contemporary
extinction rates vary but are as high as 500 times the background rate, as determined from
the fossil record, and are predicted to rise.

There is a legislative framework for biodiversity protection. International treaties such as

CITES regulate the transportation of endangered species across international borders.
Legislation within individual countries protecting species and agreements on global
warming have had limited success; there is at present no international agreement on
targets for greenhouse gas emissions.

In the United States, the Endangered Species Act protects listed species but is hampered
by procedural difficulties and a focus on individual species. The Migratory Bird Act is
an agreement between Canada and the United States to protect migratory birds. The non-
profit sector is also very active in conservation efforts in a variety of ways.

Conservation preserves are a major tool in biodiversity protection. Presently, 11 percent

of Earths land surface is protected in some way. The science of island biogeography has
informed the optimal design of preserves; however, preserves have limitations imposed
by political and economic forces. In addition, climate change will limit the effectiveness
of present preserves in the future. A downside of preserves is that they may lessen the
pressure on human societies to function more sustainably outside the preserves.

Habitat restoration has the potential to restore ecosystems to previous biodiversity

levels before species become extinct. Examples of restoration include reintroduction of
keystone species and removal of dams on rivers.

Zoos have attempted to take a more active role in conservation and can have a limited
role in captive breeding programs. Zoos also have a useful role in education.
Reading Assignment

Read chapters 5, and 11 in the textbook and answer the 'End of Chapter Review Questions' in
each chapter.
Discussion Assignment

Your posts should cover the questions below in full, and be at least 300 words long. Then
reply to and peer-review at least three other posts by next Wednesday 11:59PM UoPeople
Time, and rate the posts and replies.

This week I would like for you to find and review a project, organization or park related to
protecting biodiversity. Preferably one that is near where you live. This could be a local group or
non-profit organization that works to protect biodiversity. It could be a park, natural reserve, or
conservation area. Or, it could be something else that is related.

Study the information you have found, then answer the following questions:

1. What did you choose to cover? Please list the main link to the park/reserve/organization.

2. Where is it located?

3. What is its mission?

4. What is one project related to biodiversity that they are doing? Please describe it (Dont
just copy and paste information form the site... please describe it in your own words).

5. How are human actions related to the problems they are working on?

6. In what ways could You participate in this project/reserve/organization you are

reviewing?

Any materials cited should be referenced using the style guidelines established by the American
Psychological Association (APA).

Behind the cage, a sun beer and moon beer were staring at me.

Was it hunger that I saw in their eyes? Burning hatred? Unbearable sorrow? Or fear
of human? How did the sun beer feel when a Vietnamese general army cut its leg
then steep it in alcohol for a pseudo-elixir?

It was one encounter with wildlife that I still remember till today. In 2013, I assisted
Wildlife At Risk in their annual review. Wildlife At Risk is a NGO, based in Hochiminh
City, and active throughout the southern provinces of Vietnam. The website is
http://www.wildlifeatrisk.org/
Its aim to preserve a rich biodiversity where humans live in harmony with nature
and wildlife. Its mission is to the long-term conservation of Vietnams threatened
biodiversity, by fighting against illegal wildlife trade and promoting conservation of
endangered species and their habits.

The NGO has 3 centers: Cu Chi Wildlife Rescue Station, Cat Tien Bear and Wild Cat
Rescue Station, and Hon Me Wildlife Rescue Station. Small centres, full of apes, sun
beer, moon beer, king cobra, enjoying their rescued time before being released
back to nature.

The sun beer which I shared a moment with, was one of the many sun and moon
beers in the Cat Tien Rescue Station. It was one of their major projects, which
rescue the beers from illegal trading route within Vietnam Cambodia Laos
borders. The beers would be then treated in a rescue station, until they are healthy
and ready to live in nature again. Each will be inserted a chip for the staffs to
monitor their location and health status.

It is a tough battle, with limited funding, people, and even political power against a
much more fierce force. Illegal traders are often armed with firepower or macchiato.
Jungle is a dangerous field. And sometimes the rescuers has to go against the local
VIP (government officer)s threatening collection hobby.

As for little me, I assisted them in the annual review, with English and Vietnamese
translation to collaborate between international volunteers and local staffs. Much
work to be done, but up to this day, I have been helping the consultant there in her
on-going project of biodiversity conservation in Vietnam.
Learning Journal

Go to these weblinks and learn about ecosystem services, and also learn about the economic
value of protecting natural ecosystems and their services.

The Ecological Society of America

Costanza, R., et. al. (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural
capital. Nature, 387, 253-260.

The United Nations: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment & Humans

1. Of the different kinds of ecosystem services you learned about, discuss two that are
important in your local area, village, forests and/or nation.

2. How are these services endangered and what economic costs to society do you foresee
with their loss?

For example, when people built homes and buildings over wetlands in Florida, then the
wetlands were destroyed. Normally, wetlands are important to help control flooding, and
without them, there were more floods and water damage in cities, which caused a lot of
economic costs to the citizens. So, now Florida is trying to restore many lost wetlands in
order to have the ecosystem service of flood control returned.

3. What is one action that people could take to help protect these services?

4. One or two sentences or your own personal reflection on something you learned this
week.

I sat still, speechless, as the news about The Mekong Delta ecosystem withers days
by days.

The Mekong delta has been a dedicated ecosystem service to Vietnam. (World
Wildlife Fund, n.d.) states that it holds irreplaceable richesranging from rare
wildlife in spectacular natural landscapes to communities with distinct cultural
heritages. Its 200 million acresthe combined size of Texas and Arkansascontain
some of the most biologically diverse habitats in the world.
To Asia, this is the rice bowl. It accounts for up to 25 percent of the global
freshwater catch and provides livelihoods for at least 60 million people. In Vietnam
only, the delta has produced nearly half of the country's rice since 1997. To Asia,
this is also the home. More than 300 million people are depending on its rivers,
forests and wetlands for food security, livelihoods and culture.

Yet as significant as its sounds, the most pressing threats are hydropower
development, climate change, illegal wildlife trade and habitat loss.

In 2016, its threatening climate change made the headline in Vietnam. Sea level
rise has shown its warning to the local. (Union of Concerned Scientists , 2011)
predicted 60% of the delta is likely to become highly vulnerable to flooding if the
sea level rises 17.7 inches (45 centimeters) above 1997 levels. Rice production,
from three seasons in a year, might drop to just one. And by 2050, sea level rise in
the delta could directly affect an estimated 1 million people or more. 1

Illegal wildlife trade is another stinging matter. In 2011, the last Javan rhino in
Vietnam was declared extinct, founded with a bullet in its leg and its horn removed.
Despite local campaign that rhino horn only contains carbon just like your hair,
some believes that it can cure cancer, which resulted in skyrocketed demand in
Vietnam. The Asian elephants and tiger were also sharing the same fate, with non-
stop growing of illegal wildlife poaching. The balance of ecosystem was shaken
violently.
The damage was done. Now how can people control them, or even better, reserve
the damage?

For climate change, organization such as World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has been
working directly with local communities to restore wetlands and coastal
mangroves, prime aquaculture and agricultural lands. Hopefully these projects will
slow down climate change impacts like sea-level rise, and extreme flooding and
drought events.

For illegal wildlife trade, organization such as (Wildlife At Risk, n.d.) plays the
pioneer role in establishing wildlife habitat protectionsstrengthening enforcement
and limiting encroachments on SEAs protected areas. Its trade monitoring network
within the border of Vietnam-Laos-Thailand, is working to protect and rescue wildlife
such as the king cobra, sun beer, moon beer, and apes.

It is said that There is no rewards or punishment in nature, there is only

consequences. Mother Nature might not be so forgiving anymore as its children
the human, are dramatically destroying her. I completed this weeks lesson with a
deep reflection: have we pushed nature too far? And what shall we do about the
devastating consequences in the near-future?

References
Union of Concerned Scientists . (2011). Mekong River Delta, Vietnam . Retrieved
from www.climatehotmap.org: http://www.climatehotmap.org/global-warming-
locations/mekong-river-delta-vietnam.html

Wildlife At Risk. (n.d.). Home. Retrieved from www.wildlifeatrisk.org:

http://www.wildlifeatrisk.org/

World Wildlife Fund. (n.d.). Greater Mekong. Retrieved from www.worldwildlife.org:

http://www.worldwildlife.org/places/greater-mekong