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Abstract
Introduction
DesiredPropertiesof
Biomaterials
TypesofBiomaterials
Materials 2015, 8(5), 27492768; doi:10.3390/ma8052749 OpenAccess
WearofMetallic
(hp://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma8052749)
Biomaterials
Summary
Review
Acknowledgments
AuthorContributions

WearCharacteristicsofMetallicBiomaterials:AReview
ConflictsofInterest
References

MohamedA.Hussein 1,2,AbdulSamadMohammed1,*andNaserAlAqeeli1

1 DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,KingFahdUniversityofPetroleum&Minerals,

Dhahran31261,SaudiArabia
2 DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,KafrelsheikhUniversity,Kafrelsheikh33516,Egypt

* Authortowhomcorrespondenceshouldbeaddressed;Tel.:+966138601082;Fax:+96613
8602949.

AcademicEditor:NaozumiTeramoto

Received:17March2015/Accepted:8May2015/Published:21May2015

Abstract: Metals are extensively used in a variety of applications in the medical eld for
internal support and biological tissue replacements, such as joint replacements, dental roots,
orthopedic xation, and stents. The metals and alloys that are primarily used in biomedical
applications are stainless steels, Co alloys, and Ti alloys. The service period of a metallic
biomaterial is determined by its abrasion and wear resistance. A reduction
BacktoTop in the wear
 resistance of the implant results in the release of incompatible metal ions into the body that
loosentheimplant.Inaddition,severalreactionsmayoccurbecauseofthedepositionofwear

debris in tissue. Therefore, developing biomaterials with high wear resistance is critical to
ensuring a long life for the biomaterial. The aim of this work is to review the current state of
knowledge of the wear of metallic biomaterials and how wear is aected by the material
properties and conditions in terms of the type of alloys developed and fabrication processes.
We also present a brief evaluation of various experimental test techniques and wear
characterizationtechniquesthatareusedtodeterminethetribologicalperformanceofmetallic
biomaterials.

Keywords:metallicbiomaterial;tribology;wear;friction

1.Introduction
Fordecades,metalshavebeenusedextensivelyinavarietyofapplicationsinthemedicaleld.
Specically, metals are used for internal support and biological tissue replacements, such as joint
replacements, dental roots, orthopedic xation, and stents [1]. The metals and alloys that are
primarilyusedinbiomedicalapplicationsarestainlesssteels,Coalloys,andTialloys[2,3].
Allbiomaterialsarerequiredtosatisfyvariouscriteria,suchasadequatestrength,highresistance
tocorrosion,bioadhesion,biofunctionality,biocompatibility,highwearresistance,andlowfriction
[4]. However, the various biomaterials that have been developed thus far do not satisfy all of the
above requirements. Wear and corrosion have been reported to be the primary reasons for the
failure of implant elements. Some of the applications of tribology in the biomedical eld are as
follows: wear of dentures [5,6], heart valves [7], plates and screws in bone fracture repair [8];
friction between garments and friction between garments and skin [9,10]; and lubrication of
articial heart pumps [11], pleural surfaces, and the pericardium. Wear is a major factor in
controllinganddeterminingthelongtermclinicalperformanceofametallicbiomaterial.
Hence, the objective of this work is to address the current state of knowledge of the wear of
metallicbiomaterialsandhowwearisaectedbymaterialpropertiesandconditionsintermsofthe
type of alloys developed, fabrication processes, experimental test techniques, and characterization
methodologies.

2.DesiredPropertiesofBiomaterials
Abiomaterialshouldsatisfythecriteriagivenbelow.
Mechanical properties: Stress shielding can be prevented by matching the modulus of
elasticityofbiomaterialstothatofbone,whichvariesfrom4to30GPa[12,13]. Additionally,
the material should have a low modulus combined with high strength to prolong the service
periodoftheimplantandpreventloosening,therebypreventingtheneedforrevisionsurgery.
Biocompatibility: The developed material should be compatible with living systems and not
cause any bodily harm, which includes all of the negative eects a material can have on the
components of a biological system (bone, extra and intracellular tissues, and ionic
compositionofplasma)[11,12,13].

BacktoTop
 High wear resistance: The material should have a high wear resistance and exhibit a low
frictioncoecientwhenslidingagainstbodytissues.Anincreaseinthefrictioncoecientora

decrease in the wear resistance can cause the implant to loosen [14,15]. Moreover, the wear
debris generated can cause inammation that is destructive to the bone supporting the
implant.
High corrosion resistance: An implant that is made of a biomaterial with a low corrosion
resistancecanreleasemetalionsintothebody,whichinturnproducestoxicreactions[16].
Osseointegration: Osseointegration was rst dened as a direct structural and functional
connectionbetweenordered,livingboneandthesurfaceofaloadcarryingimplant[17].The
roughness, chemistry, and topography of the surface play a major role in good
osseointegration [18]. Implant loosening results from the nonintegration of the implant
surface into the adjacent bone [19]. Few researchers mention that osseiontegration is
undesirableduetotheriskofnotbeingabletoremovetheimplantafteruse[20].However,a
few of them have also demonstrated that the implant could be removed safely [20]. Thus
osseointegration is a desirable property for a biomaterial in some applications such as in
implantwhereitistobemadesurethattheimplantwillintegrateproperlywiththeboneand
othertissues[21].
Nontoxic:Thematerialshouldbeneithergenotoxic(whichcanaltertheDNAofthegenome)
norcytotoxic(causesdamagetoindividualcells).
Longfatiguelife:Thematerialshouldexhibitahighresistancetofailurebyfatiguetoprevent
implant failure and stress shielding from fatigue fracture. The failure of implants by fatigue
hasbeenreportedforhipprostheses[22].

3.TypesofBiomaterials
The materials that are used to build biomedical devices (orthopedic, dental, bone cements, etc.)
can be classied into metallic materials, ceramics, polymers, and composites. Metallic materials
within these four categories, despite some shortcomings, such as the release of metallic ions and
weardebris,arewidelyusedduetotheirhighstrength,toughness,andgoodbiocompatibility.

3.1.MetallicAlloysforBiomaterials
The high reliability of metallic biomaterials, in terms of their mechanical performance, has
resulted in their use mainly for the fabrication of medical devices for the replacement of hard
tissuesuchasarticialhipjoints,boneplates,anddentalimplants[2].Multipletypesofmaterials
and alloys have been investigated in the medical eld for their various properties and
characteristics [1]. Dierent alloy systems have been developed for use in the medical eld,
including stainless steels, Co alloys, and Ti alloys. Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3 summarize the
chemicalcompositionofalloysthatareregisteredintheASTMStandardandhavebeendeveloped
forbiomedicalapplications[23].Abriefdescriptionofeachmaterialisgivenbelow.

Table1.Titaniumalloysforbiomedicalapplications[23].

BacktoTop
 Table2.Chemicalcompositionsofstainlesssteelsregisteredin
ASTMstandardforbiomedicalapplications[23].

Table 3. Chemical compositions of Co alloys registered in

ASTMstandardforbiomedicalapplications[23].

3.1.1.TiAlloys
The high biocompatibility of Ti and Ti alloys has resulted in their preferential use over other
alloysystemsinthemedicalanddentistryelds[24,25,26].TheprimarycharacteristicsofTialloys
that have resulted in their being one of the main choices in the biomedical eld include good
mechanical properties, excellent corrosion behavior because of a TiO2 solid oxide layer, good
biocompatibility,arelativelylowYoungsmodulus,lightweight,andnonmagneticbehavior.The
aforementioned characteristics make Ti and Ti alloys the preferred choices for implantation.
However, Ti alloys exhibit poor tribological properties [27] because of low resistance to plastic
shearing,lowworkhardening,andlowprotectionexertedbysurfaceoxides[27].

3.1.2.StainlessSteels
The austenitic stainless steel SUS 316L is the only reported stainless steel that is used in the
biomedicaleld.However,afewresearchershavefoundthattheNicontainedinthisalloycauses
allergic reactions [2]. Moreover, piing, crevice, and stress corrosion have been reported for
implants fabricated from SUS 316L [23]. To prevent Ni allergic reactions, an austenitic stainless
steel with high nitrogen content has been developed. Therefore, the new research trend is to
developNifreestainlesssteels.

3.1.3.CoAlloys
The wear resistance of Co alloys is higher than that of both Ti alloys and stainless steel alloys
[23]. In articial hip joints, the head of the joint is subjected to wear. Thus, hip joints have been
fabricated from Co alloys, such as CoCrMo alloys, which exhibit high strength and ductility.
DispersingcarbideinCoalloyshasbeenreportedtoincreasetheresistancetowearofthesealloys
[2]. Furthermore, the transformation of the metastable phase to the martensitic phase (via a
deformationinduced transformation) has been found to improve the wear resistance of Co alloys
[2].ComparedtocastCoCralloys,wroughtCoCralloyscanbeusedforimplantdeviceswithhigh
strength requirements. However, the Ni content in wrought CoCr alloys causes allergic reactions
[23].
SomeofthemechanicalpropertiesofmetallicbiomaterialsarecomparedinTable4.Examplesof
the metallic alloys used in biomedical applications, their advantages and disadvantages are
summarizedinTable5.
AsobservedinTable4,theYoungsModulusofCoCralloysandstainlesssteelisfoundtobe10
that of the bone, which may cause stress shielding. However, the Youngs modulus of titanium
anditsalloysisapproximately0.5thatofstainlesssteel,andhencetheriskofstressshieldingis
BacktoTop
 lessintitaniumanditsalloyscomparedtothatofCoCralloysandstainlesssteel.

Table 4. Comparison of mechanical properties of metallic

biomaterialswithbone[28].

Table 5. Comparison of metallic biomaterials used in the

humanbody.

3.1.4.LimitationsofCurrentMetallicBiomaterials
ThepresenceofelementssuchasNi,Cr,andCoinbothstainlesssteelandCoCralloyshastoxic
eects[31].Nitoxicityleadstodermatitis.ThelongtermexistenceofAlandVionsinTialloyshas
beenfoundtocauseAlzheimersdisease,osteomalacia,andneuropathyinthelongterm[32].The
presence of Co has also been reported to have carcinogenic eects [33]. Recently, it is reported in
[34] that stainless steels and CoCr alloys usually contain some harmful elements, such as Ni, Co,
andCr.Inaddition,6Al4ValloyiscomposedofcytotoxicelementslikeAlandV,whichmaycause
severeproblemsoncereleasedinsidethehumanbody.
A high friction coecient and wear debris formation can produce an inammatory reaction,
leading to the loosening of implants due to osteolysis [35]. A high modulus of elasticity leads to
stressshielding,whichcausesimplantfailure.Figure1summarizesthereportedcausesofimplant
failure.

Figure1.Reportedcausesofimplantfailure[18].

4.WearofMetallicBiomaterials
The aforementioned discussion illustrates that the wear resistance of the biomaterial plays a
signicantroleintheproperfunctioningofthematerial.Hence,thewearresistanceofabiomaterial
is clinically important. Several studies have been performed to investigate the tribological
properties of developed biomaterials. We rst summarize various wear test congurations that
have been used by various researchers, followed by a description of the dierent techniques that
are used to characterize wear and a review of various results for the wear and friction that have
beenobtainedbydierentresearchers.

4.1.WearTestingMethods
BacktoTop
 Given the aforementioned limitations, especially in terms of the tribological properties, it is
critical to characterize the wear and friction of developed biomaterials using a suitable test

methodology.Themethodsthataremostcommonlyusedintheliteraturetostudythetribological
behavior of metallic biomaterials are the blockondisc [36,37], ballondisc [38,39,40,41], and pin
ondisc[42], as shown in Figure2. The temperature of the tests was selected to be 37 0.1 C to
simulatereal[37,38]orambient[36]conditions.Theweartestswereconductedinanenvironment
ofsimulatedbodyuids(Ringerssolution)[36]oruidscontainingNaClandphosphatebuered
solutions (PBS) [26]. However, in a few studies, tests were also conducted under dry sliding
conditions [37,39]. Table 6 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of various wear test
congurations.

Figure2.Schematic of (a) ballondisc, (b) pinondisc, and (c)

blockondiscweartestcongurations.

Table 6. Advantages and disadvantages of various wear test

congurations[43].

4.2.CharacterizationTechniquesfortheWearofBiomaterials
Dierentcharacterizationtechniqueshavebeenusedtoevaluatetribologicalbehavior.Chemical
analyses, such as energydispersive Xray spectroscopy (EDXS/EDS), have been used for selected
regionstodeterminethecomposition.Ascanningelectronmicroscope/lightmicroscope(SEM/LM)
hasbeenusedtodeterminethewearmechanismortoperformaposttestexamination[30].A 3D
Talysurf instrument has been used to measure the 3D surface roughness [38].Xrayphotoelectron
spectroscopy(XPS)hasbeenusedtostudythesurfacechemistry.Thevolumelossintheweartrack
has been measured using an optical prolometer/3Dprolometer. An atomic force microscope
(AFM)hasalsorecentlybeenused[44]tostudydierenttribologicalphenomena,suchasfriction,
surfaceroughness,scratching,andadhesion.Moreover,interestingmechanicalproperties,suchas
the modulus of elasticity and hardness, could be measured using AFM with a depthsensing
indentationsystem.

4.3.WearPerformanceofDierentBiomaterials
Table7listsvariousdevelopedmaterialsandtheirfabricationtechniques,thetypesofweartests,
and the parameters used to characterize wear, along with a summary of the results obtained by
variousresearchers.

Table7.Wearstudiesofmetallicbiomaterials.

BacktoTop


Li et al. [42] studied the eects of the Nb content, surface modication, the material of the
counterface, and heat treatment on the wear characteristics of TiNbTaZr and Ti6Al4V (TAV1)
alloys. The authors found that increasing the Nb content improved the wear resistance. Heat
treatmentenhancedtheresistancetowearofTi29Nb13Ta4.6Zr(TNZT1)becauseoftheformation
of oxide particles from Nb2O5. The material of the counterface was reported to have a signicant
eectonthewearloss.Althoughnowearwasobservedfortheslidingofpolyethylene(UHMWPE)
and a pig bone on the oxidized surface of Ti29Nb13Ta4.6Zr, the wear loss from the sliding of
these materials on stainless steel was higher than on both the TNZT1 and TAV1 alloys. Figure 3
comparesthemorphologyfordierentalloysslidingagainstdierentcounterfaces.
Choubeyetal.[45] investigated the tribological characteristics of commercially pure (CP) Ti, Ti
6Al4V,andTi5Al2.5FeinHanksssolution(asimulatedbodyuidsolution).Theobservedwear
mechanisms were tribomechanical abrasion, transfer layer formation, and cracking. The
predominant wear mechanism was tribomechanical wear. Figure 4 compares the steadystate
coecientoffriction(COF)forthestudiedmaterials.TheCOFofCo28Cr6Mounderfreingwas
0.4,whereasasuperior(lower)valueof0.3wasobservedforaTi5Al2.5Fe/steelcouple.

Figure3. Wear morphology of (a) TNZT1, (b) TNZT3, and (c)

TAV1 sliding on a stainless steel plate; (d) TNZT1, (e) TNZT3,
and(f)TAV1slidingonUHMWPE;(g)TNZT1,(h)TNZT3,and
(i)TAV1slidingonapigbonein0.9%NaCl[36].

Figure 4. Steadystate friction coecient for the studied

materials[45].

CvijovicAlagicetal.[36]comparedthetribologicalbehaviorofTi13Nb13ZrandTi6Al4VELI
under dierent heat treatment conditions. The results showed that the wear resistance of the Ti
6Al4V ELI alloy was superior to that of the Ti13Nb13Zr alloy under all of the heat treatment
conditions.ThemartensiticmicrostructureoftheWQTi6Al4VELIalloyincreasedthehardnessof
the alloy, resulting in superior resistance to plastic deformation during the wear test. The wear
mechanism observed for this alloy was predominantly abrasion. The lower hardness of the Ti
13Nb13ZralloyresultedinahigheramountofwearlossthanfortheTi6Al4Valloy.
BacktoTop
 Sureshetal.[38]studiedthewearbehaviorofanultranegrained(UFG)Ti13NbZralloy.The
samples were processed by equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE). The eect of the surface

roughness on the wear behavior was also studied. The authors concluded that both the grain size
andsurfacetextureaectedthemechanicalpropertiesandwearoftheasreceivedalloy.However,
there was no signicant dierence between the average friction coecient of the ECAEprocessed
alloyandthatoftheasreceivedsample.Inaddition,nomajorchangewasobservedinthefreing
wear after ECAE processing for both samples. This result was aributed to the absence of a
signicant increase in the hardness of the samples after ECAE. Abrasion was observed to be the
predominant wear mechanism. A few researchers [54,55] reported that the UFG nanostructured
materials increase the hardness and lead to enhancement in the wear resistance and resistance to
weardebrisformation.TheUFGmaterialsobtainedbythesevereplasticdeformation(SPD)process
exhibitlowerfrictioncoecientsandbeerwearresistance[56].UFGTisamplesintwoprocessing
statesequalchannelangularpressing(ECAP)foreightpassesandECAP+furthercoldrollingfor
75%strainwerestudiedandtheresultsshowedthattheUFGstructureresultsinaloweradhesion
componentandconsequentlylowersfrictioncoecient,whichinturnimprovedthewearproperty
[56].
Xuetal.[39]investigatedthewearresistanceofTi15MoxNb(x=5%,10%,15%,and20%)alloys
under dry conditions. The friction coecient was observed to increase with the Nb content.
Adhesivewearwasobservedtobetheprimarywearmechanism.
Fellahetal.[41]examinedthewearbehaviorofTi6Al7NbandAISI316Lstainlesssteelalloysat
dierentslidingspeedsandloads.Figure5comparesthemeanvaluesofthefrictioncoecientfor
both alloy systems under dierent conditions. The same friction and wear mechanisms were
observedforthetestedsamples.Thechangeinthewearratewithslidingspeedwasnotsignicant
fortheTi6Al7Nballoy.Anincreaseinthefrictioncoecientwiththeslidingspeedwasobserved
for both alloys. The wear mechanisms that were observed at high speed were plastic deformation
andadhesivewear.

Figure5.MeanfrictioncoecientsofAISI316LandTi6Al7Nb
[41].

Iwabuchietal.[46]conductedafreingweartestandareciprocatingslidingweartestonaCo
29Cr6Mo alloy, a Ti6Al4V alloy, and a SUS304 stainless steel alloy in Hankss solution. The
results showed the good freing resistance of the Ti6Al4V alloy relative to that of the standard
SUS304stainlesssteelalloy,whereasthecorrespondingresistancetoslidingwearwaspoorbecause
of abrasion. The Co29Cr6Mo alloy exhibited good wear resistance, and the synergy eect was
considerablystrongerinthefreingtestthanintheslidingweartest.Figure6comparesthemean
valueofthefrictioncoecientinpurewatertothatinHanksssolution.Thegureclearlyshows
higher mean values for the friction coecient in the freing test than the sliding test for both
liquids.

Figure6. Mean friction coecient against an Al2O3 ball in (a)

freingand(b)sliding[46].
BacktoTop


Chibaetal.[48]studiedthewearcharacteristicsofaforgedCoCrMoalloyandacastCoCralloy
with high carbon contents. The results showed that the wear resistance of the forged CoCr alloy
was higher than that of the cast CoCr alloy. The higher wear loss of the cast CoCr alloy resulted
fromtheprecipitationofcarbideinthisalloy.Figure7isacomparisonoftheSEMmicrographsof
the wear scars on both surfaces. The number of grooves and scratches in the cast CoCr alloy was
higherthanthatintheforgedCoCralloy.Themeasuredfrictioncoecientoftheforgedalloywas
higherthanthatofthecastalloy.
Muozetal.[40]usedtribocorrosiontocomparethewearofCoCrMoalloysintwoformslow
carbon (LC) and high carbon (HC)in four dierent simulated body uids. The results showed
that the wear behavior of these alloys depended on the surrounding environment. There was no
dierence in the wear resistance between the LC and HC alloys in both NaCl and PBS without
albumin. The LC alloy had a higher wear resistance than the HC alloy in NaCl and PBS with
albumin. The dierence in the alloy behavior under dierent solutions was aributed to the
enhancement of corrosion from sliding and chemical eects at the surface that aected both the
mechanicalwearandthirdbodybehavior.Figure8comparestheweartracksforboththeLCand
HC alloys under dierent solution conditions. The optical microscope images clearly show
scratchesoverthescarlength,illustratingthatabrasionwasthepredominantwearmechanism.The
weardebrisaccumulatedaroundthetrackforbothalloysintheNaClsolutionandwashigherthan
inthePBSsolution.Interestingly,thepresenceofalbumininthesolutionsreducedtheweardebris
forbothalloys.

Figure7.SEMmicrographsofwearscarsof(a)castCoCralloy
and(b)forgedCoCralloy[48].

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Figure8.Optical microscopy images of wear trace LC and HC

alloysduringslidingin(a)and(b)NaCl;(c)and(d)NaClwith
albumin;(e)and(f)PBS;and(g)and(h)PBSwithalbumin[40].

Fischeretal.[50] examined the wear characteristics of CrNiMo steels, lowcarbon Cobase alloy
CoCr29Mo,CrNiMnMoNsteel,andNifreeCrMnMoNsteelalloysinslidingwear.Theyevaluated
the wear characteristics in sliding wear using a pinondisk tribometer and torsional fatigue tests
followedbyelectronmicroscopy.TheresultsshowedthatNifreeCrMnMoexhibitedsuperiorwear
behavior compared to CrNiMo steels. This improvement was found to result from planar slip
because of the formation of nanosized wear particles in the CrMnMo alloy containing C and N.
However, the CrNiMo containing Ni exhibited wavyslip. The wear particles that formed were
eithernanoormicronsizedandhadahigherwearratethanthatofNifreehighnitrogensteeland
theLCCoCrMoalloy.Thisdierenceinthewearratewasaributedtothetribochemicalreactions
of the nanosized wear particles, which resulted in surface nanofatigue. In contrast, the micron
sized wear particles produced abrasion, microfatigue, and microploughing that inhibited tribo
chemicalreactions.
By decreasing the lengthscale of the contact, the hardness and yield stress will increase
[57,58,59]. Therefore, it is important to study the tribological and mechanical properties of the
biomaterialsattherelevantscale.
Beakeetal.[60], studied the nanoscratch and nanofreing of Ti6Al4V, 316L stainless steel and
CoCr alloy. The nanoscratch and nanofreing tests were performed with a commercial
nanomechanicaltestsystem.Testswereperformedat25Cusinga3.7mmspheroconicaldiamond
BacktoTop
 indenter.TheresultsshowedthattheCoCralloypossessesbeerwearresistanceoverawiderange
of experimental conditions compared to Ti6Al4V, and 316L stainless steel alloys exhibited

decreasingwearresistancewithanincreaseinthefreingload.
Sunetal. [61], investigated the Microabrasion mechanisms of cast CoCrMo in simulated body
uids.A modied Phoenix Tribology TE/66 microabrasion tester was semi immersed in a liquid
tank.Moreover,thenanoindentationandnanoscratchtestwereperformedtostudythenanoscale
material deformation occurring during micro abrasion process. The results showed that the
abrasivewearrateandwearmechanismsoftheCoCrMoaredependentonthenatureofthethird
bodyabrasives,theirentrainmentintothecontact,andthepresenceoftheproteins.Theinteraction
betweenthespecimenandtheabrasivewasaectedbythepresenceofproteinduetoitsinuence
on the solution viscosity. The existence of protein at lower abrasive volume fractions acts as a
boundarylubricantandreducesthewearloss;however,atahighvolumefractionofabrasive,the
existenceofproteinenhancedthewearloss.
Thisstudyisimportantforinvivowearcorrosionstudyofthealloysinthehipjointasthehard
particlessizesaresmallandlessinquantity.

4.4.TechniquestoImproveWearResistanceofMetallicBiomaterials
In addition to the various processing techniques and compositional changes that enhance the
wear resistance of metallic biomaterials, the following surface modication techniques for
improvingthewearresistanceofthebiomaterialshavealsobeenreportedintheliterature.
Ion implantation (physical deposition) is considered a simple technique for signicantly
modifying the physical and/or chemical properties of the near surface of a material in which
suitableionsareembeddedintothesurfaceofamaterialfromabeamofionizedparticles.This
technique has been reported to improve the wear performance of Ti6Al4V and Co28Cr6Mo
alloys[62].
Nitriding(athermochemicalsurfacetreatment)hasbeenusedtoincreasetheresistanceofa
Ti6Al4Valloytodrywear[63,64].
Carburizationandboriding techniques are used to enhance surface hardness, which in turn
improvesthewearresistance.
Plasmaspraycoatinghasalsobeenusedtoenhancethewearresistanceoffewbiomaterials.

5.Summary
An extensive literature survey has shown that the wear resistance of Ti and Co alloys has been
improvedunderdierentconditionsinextensivestudies.Wesummarizetheresultsofthesestudies
forTiandCobasedmetallicbiomaterialsbelow.

Tialloys
Ingeneral,addingNbtoTialloysenhancesthewearresistanceofthesealloysandslightly
increases the friction coecient primarily because of the increase in the hardness of the
alloy. The heat treatment of these alloys has been observed to further increase the wear
resistancebecauseoftheformationofNb2O5particles.
Abrasivewearhasbeenobservedtobethepredominantwearmechanism.
Hence,surfacetreatmentsandcoatingarenecessarytoenhancetheresistanceofalloysto
wearandfriction.
Coalloys BacktoTop
 Forged CoCr alloys exhibit higher wear resistance than cast CoCr alloys. However, the
friction coecient of the forged CoCr alloys has been observed to be higher than that of
thecastalloys.
The wear behavior of LC and HC CoCrMo alloys depends on the surrounding
environment.
NifreeCrMnMoexhibitsimprovedwearbehaviorcomparedtoCrNiMosteels.

It is important to study the tribological and mechanical properties of the biomaterials at the
relevantscale.

Acknowledgments
TheauthorswouldliketoacknowledgethesupportprovidedbyKingAbdulazizCityforScience
and Technology (KACST) through the Science & Technology Unit at King Fahd University of
Petroleum&Minerals(KFUPM)forfundingthisworkthroughprojectNo.12ADV303604aspart
oftheNationalScience,TechnologyandInnovationPlanandKingFahdUniversityofPetroleum&
Minerals(KFUPM)throughProjectNo.IN131020.

AuthorContributions
Mohammed A. Hussein and Abdul Samad, Mohammed conceived the idea for this paper.
MohammedA.Husseinwasinstrumentalincollectingandpuingalltheliteraturetogetherinthe
form of this review. Abdul Samad, Mohammed contributed by guiding and structuring the
completedocumentintoacomprehensivereviewpaperandcheckingforthelanguagecoherency.
NaserAlAqeelicontributedbyhelpingineditingthenaldocument.Alltheauthorscontributed
totheproofreadingofthenaldocument.

ConictsofInterest
Theauthorsdeclarenoconictofinterest.

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