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3
In
the
lecture
on
cemen:tous
materials,
we
had
seen
how
cemen::ous
materials
go
from
being
a
pasty
material
to
one
that
can
bear
load,
by
increasing
the
volume
frac:on
of
solids
in
the
system.
This
takes
place
by
chemical
reac:on
between
anhydrous
phases
and
water
to
produce
hydrates
that
chemically
bound
water
in
their
structure
4
We
also
saw
that
there
is
a
rela:vely
well
dened
amount
of
water
that
can
react
with
cement.
This
is
around
a
value
of
0.28.
Above
this,
the
excess
water
ends
up
as
pores.
There
are
dierent
types
of
pores
and
the
most
cri:cal
ones
are
the
capillary
pores
as
water
transport
in
them
is
much
faster.
Capillary
pores
are
obtained
once
W/C
is
above
about
0.4.
All
water
added
above
this
leads
to
increasing
capillary
porosity.
The
exercises
should
have
convinced
you
on
how
the
increase
in
water
content
inuences
the
amount
of
porosity
and
how
this
in
turn
aects
mechanical
proper:es
as
the
elas:c
modulus.
Moreover,
you
should
have
seen
how
the
reac:vity
of
C2S,
being
lower
than
that
of
C3S
leads
in
an
ini:al
phase,
to
higher
porosi:es.
On
the
long
term,
C2S
consumes
more
water,
so
it
can
lead
to
higher
ul:mate
strength.
However,
for
that
it
must
be
given
enough
:me
and
prac:ce
does
not
oer
that.
5
The European Norm EN 197-1 defines different types of cements. These are
noted Cem n with n from I to V and followed by some letters that give
additional addition.
Cem I is ordinary Portland cement. It can contain up to 5 % secondary
material are allowed, which is typically used to include add limestone.
Cem II are still given the tem Portland cement. They contain however a
supplementary cementious material in limited amounts.
For most cases the second letter A means that the replacement level is
between 6 and 20%, while the letter B means that it is between 21 and 35%.
For silica fume amounts do not excess 10%. Different letters then used to
indicate the nature of the SCM
S = Slag (Schlacke)
D = Silca fume (Slicastaub)
L= Limestone (Kalkstein)
LL = Limestone (Kalikstein) (with a slightly larger organic residue)
Cem III are slag cements there, there is only one letter and it indicates that the
level of cement replacement (see table above)
Cem IV are pozzoloanic cements.
These are produced in regions that have volcanic ashes or minerals
Cem V is a composite cement that contains slag and pozzolans.
6
The
outline
for
this
lecture
is
that
we
will
have
four
parts
1) In
the
rst
part
we
will
nish
cement
hydra:on,
looking
at
factors
that
aect
it
In
par:cular
we
we
look
at
SCMs.
These
can
be
added
either
at
the
cement
or
the
concrete
produc:on
stage
or
both.
This
varies
from
country
to
country.
2)
In
part
two
we
will
examine
some
main
aspects
of
concrete
mix
design
Aggregates
and
their
grading
will
be
considered
as
well
as
the
role
of
water
3)
Hardened
state
proper:es
are
part
three
Here
we
will
examine
the
role
of
water
and
aggregates
on
dierent
proper:es
4)
We
will
nish
with
fresh
state
proper:es
We
will
build
upon
what
was
presented
about
rheology
in
a
previous
lecture
and
examine
how
these
proper:es
can
be
modied.
7
8
Fly-ash (Flugasche)
Fly-ash is a waste product from coal burning power plant and is recuperated in
the electrofilters of the chimneys.
Fly-ash particles are mostly round and contain silica that can react with CH
through a pozzolanic reaction to form C-S-H. This reaction is however slow, so
that clinker replacement by fly-ash reduces the rate of strength development.
This is the major limitation to high levels of clinker replacement by fly-ash. The
reduced rate of heat release is however interesting in massive objects where
one want to limit thermal cracking due to excessive self-heating.
9
Silica fume (Silikastaub)
The high silica content and high specific surface means that over a long period
of time a very high degree of reaction can be obtained. This property is
specifically exploited in high or ultra high performance concrete. Strength is
not the only property to benefit from the reactivity of silica fume. Durability is
also much enhanced as the final microstructure is substantially more refined.
This means for example that chloride ingress is much slower.
10
Slag
(Schlake)
Ground
granulated
blast
furnace
slag
(GGBS)
is
a
residue
from
steel
produc:on
in
blast
furnaces
(blast
furnace
slag
=
Hochofenschlacke)
The
molten
slag
is
rapidly
cooled
to
confer
a
glassy
structure
that
is
more
reac:on.
The
material
must
then
be
ground
to
a
neness
at
least
comparable
to
that
of
cement.
Its
reac:vity
substan:ally
increases
with
neness,
but
this
comes
at
the
expense
of
raising
grinding
costs.
Slag
has
similar
chemical
composi:on
to
cement
(CaO,
SiO2,
Al2O3,
MgO)
but
with
a
lower
CaO
content.
It
is
also
largely
amorphous
and
the
crystalline
phases
it
contains
are
not
characteris:c
of
cement
LeG
alone
with
water
slag
reacts
only
very
liRle
or
extremely
slowly.
This
changes
in
alkaline
medium,
so
that
Portland
cement
greatly
ac:vates
slag
reac:vity.
This
gives
the
term
latent
hydraulic.
Further
addi:ons
of
hydroxides
and/or
sulfates
can
also
be
benecial.
Despite
this,
the
strength
development
is
substan:ally
delayed
when
clinker
is
par:ally
replaced
by
slag.
This
is
par:cularly
true
at
low
temperatures.
As
for
y-ash,
slag
has
mainly
long
term
benets
in
terms
of
strength
and
durability.
Moreover
the
lower
ini:al
reac:vity
can
be
useful
in
massive
objects.
Slag
can
also
be
added
directly
at
the
cement
plant,
a
prac:ce
rather
seldom
in
Europe,
but
much
more
spread
North
America.
11
The
impact
of
SCMs
on
cement
are
many
fold.
First
of
all
it
is
important
to
dis:nguish
if
one
is
speaking
about
replacement
of
cement
(some
cement
is
replaced
by
SCMs,
generally
by
mass)
or
addi:ons
(same
amount
of
cement
and
one
adds
SCMs).
For
blended
cements
it
is
the
rst
situa:on
that
is
of
concern
and
the
one
we
will
most
be
discussing.
The
replacement
of
cement
by
SCMs
generally
means
that
one
reduces
the
amount
of
highly
reac:ve
material
by
a
less
reac:ve
one.
This
means
that
in
an
ini:al
phases
there
is
a
strong
reduc:on
in
strength.
It
does
not
necessarily
mean
that
the
cement
remaining
is
reac:ng
slower.
This
lower
amount
of
cement
also
means
that
the
self
hea:ng
and
risk
of
thermally
induced
cracking
is
reduced.
The
SCMs
that
produce
hydra:on
will
over
the
long
term
compensate
and
in
some
cases
surpass
the
Ordinary
Portland
cement
in
terms
of
strength
or
durability.
This
depends
both
on
changes
in
the
pore
structure
and
chemistry.
The
reac:vity
of
cement
can
be
changed
ini:ally
in
some
cases.
This
can
happen
due
to
a
change
in
the
aluminate-silicate-sulfate
referred
to
in
the
lecture
on
cement.
12
The
dierence
between
SCMs
can
be
examined
on
a
ternary
diagram.
For
this
it
is
rst
necessary
to
explain
how
to
read
such
a
diagram.
At
each
corner
of
the
triangle
is
located
a
pure
component.
Along
a
side
line
the
composi:on
varies
linearly
from
one
to
another.
The
amount
of
one
component
in
such
a
graph
is
determined
as
follows
1) Draw
a
line
parallel
to
the
side
opposite
the
corner
of
the
component
you
are
examining.
For
SiO2,
these
would
be
horizontal
lines
parallel
to
the
blue
lines.
2) The
amount
is
then
read
on
either
of
the
edges
that
link
to
that
component.
In
the
above
examples,
the
line
linking
SiO2
to
CaO
as
well
as
the
one
linking
SiO2
to
Al2O3.
3) Repeat
this
for
the
other
components.
You
then
have
the
frac:ons
of
the
three
components
in
your
mix.
Such
plots
are
oGen
combined
with
isoclines,
that
can
represent
proper:es
as
mel:ng
temperatures.
13
Following
the
explana:ons
on
the
previous
slide,
the
point
marked
above
is
determined
to
contain
25%
Al2O3
25%
SiO2
50%
CaO
14
The
above
graphs
shows
the
ranges
of
SCMs,
as
well
as
Portland
cement
and
CSH.
15
The
reac:vity
of
SCMs
can
be
largely
divided
between
pozzolanic
(reacts
with
CaO)
and
hydraulic.
As
a
reminder
one
speaks
of
latent
hydraulic
when
a
binder
can
react
alone,
but
needs
to
be
ac:vated
to
do
so
at
a
reasonable
rate.
The
chart
above
shows
in
a
schema:c
way
the
balance
between
pozzolanic
and
hydraulic
reac:vity
of
SCMs
and
cement.
Note
that
Slag
is
the
most
hydraulic
of
all
SCMs
and
Silica
fume
the
least.
16
17
Cement
can
hydrate
even
if
not
exposed
to
liquid
water.
Humidity
from
the
atmosphere
will
indeed
be
consumed
by
the
anhydrous
cement
phases.
This
happens
to
dierent
extents
as
shown
above.
The
most
reac:ve
phase,
C3A,
reacts
with
humidity
down
to
rela:ve
humidi:es
as
low
as
~65%.
For
C3S
the
limit
is
~85%
and
C2S
~95%.
18
Temperature
has
a
major
eect
on
hydra:on
kine:cs.
The
above
graphs
show
typical
changes
in
the
rate
of
heat
release
for
C3S
(leG)
and
cement
hydra:on
(right).
An
increase
in
temperature
means
that
heat
is
release
earlier
and
that
the
maximum
rate
of
heat
release
is
higher.
19
As
a
thermally
ac:vated
chemical
reac:on
the
hydra:on
of
cement
can
be
roughly
t
with
an
Arrhenius
law
that
gives
the
rate
constant
as
a
func:on
of
an
ac:va:on
energy
and
of
the
absolute
temperature
The
above
plot
give
the
cumulated
heat
released
as
a
func:on
of
:me
and
for
dierent
temperatures.
As
compressive
strength
roughly
correlates
with
the
degree
of
hydra:on,
such
a
plot
can
be
used
to
determine
the
:me
needed
at
a
dierent
temperature
to
reach
the
strength
of
a
reference
sample
at
a
reference
temperature
20
Temperature
however
also
aects
the
density
of
C-S-H.
C-S-H
formed
at
higher
temperatures
mobilizes
less
water,
lls
less
space
and
this
in
a
durable
way
(does
not
change
once
the
temperature
is
changed).
As
a
consequence,
equivalent
degrees
of
hydra:on
will
give
higher
strength
fore
samples
hydrated
at
lower
temperatures.
The
dierences
are
clear
but
not
enormous.
21
The
following
video
shows
a
concrete
block
of
30x30x60
cm
adn
weighing
140
kgs.
Two
holes
have
been
drilled
in
it.
The
holes
were
then
lled
with
a
uid
material,
based
on
modied
mineral
binder
chemistry
22
For
those
doing
something
else
or
bored
at
this
:me,
its
:me
to:
-Time
to
wake
up
-
Stop
reading
20
Minuten
-
LiG
up
your
eyes
from
TV
on
internet
And
look
!
23
24
There
are
many
reasons
for
adding
sand
and
aggregates
to
make
concrete
rather
than
using
just
cement
paste.
First
of
all
there
is
the
ques:on
of
cost
as
sand
and
aggregates
are
much
cheaper
than
cement.
Second,
is
the
fact
that
large
samples
of
cement
paste
crack.
Although
concrete
also
cracks,
the
sand
and
aggregates
lead
to
an
increase
in
the
number
of
cracks,
but
the
length
of
these
is
reduced.
One
speaks
of
micro-cracking.
This
is
much
less
problema:c
on
engineering
and
durability
of
the
material
than
the
few
larger
cracks
in
cement
paste.
25
A
useful
way
of
thinking
about
concrete
is
to
consider
that
the
cement
paste
is
the
glue
between
the
sand
and
aggregates.
26
27
As
men:oned
on
the
previous
slide,
there
are
many
reasons
for
wishing
to
increase
the
amount
of
aggregates
in
concrete.
However,
one
must
insure
that
there
remains
enough
cement
paste
to
ll
the
gaps
between
them.
This
brings
us
to
exposing
some
basic
no:ons
of
par:cle
packing.
As
seen
in
metals,
the
maximum
packing
of
spheres
of
same
size
is
74%
in
a
(hexagonal
close
pack).
Even
if
aggregates
were
spherical
and
of
the
same
size,
one
would
never
reach
this,
unless
placing
them
by
hand.
A
limit
that
this
more
realis:c
for
processing
is
the
so-called
random
close
pack,
which
is
of
64%.
For
all
types
of
par:cle
shape
and
size
distribu:on,
one
can
keep
the
concept
that
there
exists
some
packing
limit,
probably
consistent
with
random
close
packing.
In
prac:ce,
it
would
barely
be
possible
to
prepare
mixes
with
a
higher
content
of
aggregates.
Moreover,
the
ow
proper:es
would
become
increasingly
worse
as
the
volume
frac:on
of
aggregates
approaches
that
limit.
Blow
this
limit,
the
system
becomes
possible
to
process.
28
To
understand
how
ow
proper:es
vary
depending
on
the
amount
of
par:cles
in
the
system,
it
is
convenient
to
use
the
empirical
rela:on
proposed
by
Krieger
and
Dougerthy.
This
gives
the
ra:o
of
the
suspension
viscosity
divided
by
the
viscosity
of
the
con:nuous
phase.
For
example
we
could
take
the
viscosity
of
concrete
divided
by
the
one
of
cement
paste.
It
then
expresses
that
normalized
viscosity
as
a
func:on
of
the
volume
frac:on,
of
the
maximum
packing
frac:on
and
an
intrinsic
viscosity
of
the
par:cles.
The
later
is
2.5
for
spheres.
It
changes
for
other
shapes.
The
maximum
packing
can
be
thought
of
as
a
random
close
packing
but
is
in
eect
determined
empirically.
The
most
important
feature
of
this
equa:on
is
that
the
viscosity
diverges
as
the
volume
frac:on
of
par:cles
approaches
their
maximum
packing.
29
The
graph
above
represents
the
Krieger
Dougerthy
equa:on
for
spheres,
using
volume
frac:ons
of
054,
0.64
and
0.74.
Note
the
divergences.
Note
also
that
at
low
volume
frac:on
the
three
curves
are
equal.
30
On
this
slide,
we
show
what
dierent
maximum
packing
means
in
terms
of
viscosity.
We
start
with
a
volume
frac:on
of
0.51
(51%
of
the
space
is
occupied
by
aggregates).
For
phi_max=0.54,
the
rela:ve
viscosity
is
50,
while
for
phi_max
=
0.64
it
is
13
and
for
phi_max
=
0.74
it
is
9.
If
we
take
a
volume
frac:on
of
58%.
It
is
physically
impossible
to
get
than
large
amount
of
par:cles
in
the
system
for
phi_max=0.54.
For
phi_max
=
0.64,
the
viscosity
is
now
50,
while
for
phi_max
=
0.74
it
is
only
18.
31
For
a
given
par:cle
shape,
the
maximum
packing
can
be
changed
by
varying
the
par:cle
size
distribu:on.
The
easiest
way
to
understand
this
is
that
one
can
start
lling
the
system
with
the
largest
par:cles
(leG
gure,
blue
circles).
Then,
all
the
gaps
that
are
large
enough
are
lled
by
the
next
largest
group
of
par:cles
(center
gure,
black
par:cles).
This
is
repeated
a
certain
number
of
:mes.
The
right
gure
shows
the
third
itera:on
of
this
(red
circles).
The
rst
step
of
the
process
is
analogue
to
the
inclusion
of
inters::al
atoms
in
metals,
except
that
here
we
are
not
dealing
with
a
crystalline
structure.
32
There
are
dierent
models
to
determined
the
op:mal
par:cle
size
distribu:on
to
use
in
concrete.
Some
are
completely
empirical
others
theore:cal.
On
the
conceptual
level
it
is
useful
to
understand
the
dierent
situa:ons.
Above
leG
is
a
case
where
large
grains
dominate.
The
space
is
rst
lled
with
large
aggregates
and
then
some
amount
of
small
ones
are
added
in
the
gaps.
On
the
right,
small
grains
dominate.
The
space
is
rst
lled
by
small
par:cles.
Then
enough
of
the
small
grains
are
removed
to
include
the
number
of
large
grain
at
hand.
We
talk
here
of
binary
mixtures
without
interac:on.
This
means
that
one
can
place
the
par:cles
regardless
of
the
presence
of
the
others.
The
sizes
are
very
dierent
one
from
the
other.
33
In
contrast
a
system
with
complete
interac:on,
means
that
the
best
packing
of
any
mix
is
obtained
by
a
complete
segrega:on
of
the
components.
These
would
have
very
similar
sizes
but
dierent
shapes.
34
The
intermediate
situa:on
is
one
where
there
is
a
par:al
interac:on.
This
can
be
divided
into
two
parts
1) Loosening.
This
takes
place
when
the
small
par:cles
are
too
large
to
perfectly
t
in
a
gap
among
large
par:cles.
The
later
are
then
someone
displaced
from
their
ini:al
posi:on.
The
overall
size
of
the
system
is
increased
and
the
maximum
packing
is
decreased
(with
respect
to
a
system
without
interac:on).
2) Wall
eect.
Here
the
small
par:cles
in
large
amounts
are
too
large
to
pack
ideally
around
the
large
grains.
The
leave
gap.
The
overall
system
size
increases
and
the
maximum
packing
decreases
(with
respect
to
a
system
without
interac:on).
35
On
this
graph
a
schema:c
representa:on
is
given
of
how
the
maximum
packing
changes
when
the
propor:on
of
large
and
small
par:cles
are
changed.
In
this
specic
example,
the
large
par:cles
are
considered
to
pack
beRer
in
the
rst
place,
but
this
is
not
necessarily
the
case.
The
total
interac:on
case,
gives
a
monotonic
varia:on
from
one
packing
level
to
the
other.
In
contrast,
the
system
without
interac:on
or
with
par:al
interac:on
shows
a
maximum
at
intermediate
packing.
In
the
wide
majority
of
cases,
the
maximum
is
closer
to
the
large
par:cles
than
to
the
small
ones,
which
is
easy
to
understand
intui:vely.
36
The
above
graph
shows
a
ternary
packing
for
three
par:cle
sizes.
The
colored
zones
show
areas
of
equal
packing.
In
this
case,
the
maximum
packing
is
obtained
with
only
few
of
the
intermediate
class.
With
real
aggregates
the
later
result
is
explained
by
the
fact
that
each
size
has
its
own
size
distribu:on
and
that
the
par:cle
sizes
are
not
large
enough
from
one
class
to
another
so
as
to
avoid
interac:ons.
37
Aggregates
can
be
obtained
by
crushing
rock
or
by
removal
from
river
or
sea
bed.
In
the
later
case
aggregates
are
rounded
while
as
in
the
rst
case
they
are
angular.
This
dierence,
together
with
varia:on
in
aspect
ra:o
(ra:o
of
length
to
width)
has
a
big
eect
on
the
maximum
packing.
In
turn
this
eects
important
proper:es
for
prac:ce
as
Water
demand
and
workability,
pumpability.
In
reality
these
are
dierent
aspects
of
the
same
problem.
Indeed,
an
increase
in
water
demand,
means
that
to
obtain
the
same
rheological
proper:es
(ow),
one
needs
to
add
more
water.
Adding
water
means
that
one
has
less
aggregates
per
unit
volume.
One
also
reduces
the
viscosity
of
the
con:nuous
phase.
Aggregates
that
pack
less
well
lead
to
a
higher
viscosity.
To
counter
this,
one
can
be
tempted
to
add
more
water.
This
is
the
origin
of
the
term
water
demand.
Conversely,
if
the
amount
of
water
is
xed,
an
aggregate
that
packs
less
well
will
lead
to
a
higher
viscosity,
because
the
divergence
on
the
Krieger
Dougethy
curve
comes
earlier.
It
is
important
to
understand
that
behind
proper:es
commonly
referred
to
in
prac:ce,
as
water
demand
and
workability,
there
is
a
basic
physical
phenomena
of
par:cle
packing.
38
Various
approaches
exist
to
propose
idealized
grading
curves.
They
are
aimed
at
reducing
the
work
of
a
person
preparing
concrete,
making
it
easier
for
him
to
produce
a
granular
skeleton
with
a
high
packing
degree.
An
old
formula:on
is
due
to
Fuller
and
is
a
square
root
rela:on.
In
this
approach,
each
aggregate
frac:on
at
hand
must
be
sieved
to
determine
the
size
frac:on
within
each
of
them.
One
then
aRempts
to
t
as
best
as
possible
the
idealized
curve
by
varying
the
propor:on
of
the
dierent
sands
and
aggregates
available.
This
sieve
analysis
must
be
done
regularly
as
a
way
of
checking
for
any
variability
of
the
material
received.
Adjustments
may
then
be
needed
depending
on
the
result.
39
In
the
slide
above
two
binary
mixes
are
shown
as
examples.
They
dier
by
the
size
of
the
largest
aggregates.
Form
this
example
it
can
see
that
this
changes
means
that
a
change
in
the
frac:on
of
both
components
is
needed.
Remember
that
this
is
however
an
empirical
rela:on.
The
second
table
gives
the
example
of
a
ternary
blend,
of
which
the
frac:ons
are
also
calculated
from
the
Fuller
equa:on.
40
The
Fuller
equa:on
assumes
that
the
sizes
start
at
innitely
small
values.
It
is
temp:ng
to
re-write
the
equa:on
in
a
way
that
includes
a
nite
minimum
size.
This
is
shown
to
the
right.
Remember
this
example
is
just
for
fun
and
for
the
next
slide
41
The
modied
equa:on
using
a
minimum
size
of
1.7
meters,
ts
extremely
well
the
size
distribu:ons
of
the
football
team
of
Barceleona
as
men:oned
before
just
for
fun
42
43
44
In
what
follows,
we
will
examine
how
various
concrete
proper:es
vary
when
the
amount
of
aggregates
is
changed.
Here
it
is
essen:al
to
stress
that
the
examples
show
all
keep
the
SAME
water
to
cement
ra:o.
They
have
the
same
Paste
Quality
or
in
other
words
the
same
Glue
between
the
aggregates.
What
is
changed
is
just
the
number
of
those
aggregates.
45
The
above
graph
shows
a
collec:on
of
data
on
compressive
strength
when
the
volume
of
paste
with
xed
W/C
is
changed.
Here,
we
are
not
looking
at
the
absolute
values
of
each
series,
but
at
how
each
series
varies
with
the
paste
volume.
Because
of
this
it
is
convenient
to
normalize
all
these
data
series
as
explained
on
the
next
slide.
46
For
each
series,
we
take
a
representa:ve
value
dened
as
the
strength
at
300
L/m3.
Each
series
is
divided
by
that
value.
For
all
series,
the
normalized
value
at
300
L/m3
(paste)
is
therefor
unity.
We
therefore
bring
all
data
together
in
a
way
much
easier
to
compare.
Underlying
this
is
the
assump:on
that
the
strength
of
concrete
is
a
product
between
paste
strength
and
a
func:on
of
the
aggregates
(amount,
shape,
size
distribu:on,
etc).
If
this
is
the
case,
we
expect
all
data
to
collapse
on
a
master
curve.
47
The
above
graph
shows
indeed
that
all
these
series
of
compressive
strength,
once
normalized
collapse
of
a
given
master
curve.
This
makes
it
easier
also
to
see
the
general
trend
of
how
strength
changes
with
the
volume
frac:on
of
aggregates.
When
the
paste
volume
is
reduced,
the
compressive
strength
increases.
However,
this
increase
is
not
very
important.
Indeed,
the
paste
volumes
typically
found
in
SCC
(Self
Compac:ng
Concrete),
Ordinary
Concrete
(OC)
and
Roller
Compacted
Concrete
(RCC)
are
shown.
If
one
wants
to
stay
within
systems
that
can
be
processed
in
a
similar
way,
the
varia:on
in
paste
volume
is
rather
small
and
the
resul:ng
change
in
strength
is
essen:ally
negligible.
It
can
be
noted
that
there
is
a
large
scaRer
at
high
paste
volumes,
but
this
is
not
important
range
for
prac:cal
purposes.
48
The
fact
that
the
volume
of
paste
does
not
aect
strength
contrasts
radically
with
the
eect
of
W/C
on
it.
The
eect
of
W/C
on
strength
has
been
known
for
ages.
Some
of
the
rst
data
on
this
subject
are
shown
above.
49
The
above
graph
shows
the
varia:on
of
normalized
elas:c
modulus
with
respect
to
paste
volume.
Here
again,
the
elas:c
modulus
increases
when
the
paste
volume
is
reduced,
but
the
varia:on
is
not
very
important.
50
The
above
graph
shows
the
varia:on
of
normalized
direct
tensile
strength
with
respect
to
paste
volume.
Here
again,
the
elas:c
modulus
increases
when
the
paste
volume
is
reduced,
but
the
varia:on
is
not
very
important
within
ranges
of
prac:cal
interest.
51
In
the
above
graph
the
normalized
depth
of
abrasion
is
shown.
A
low
value
of
the
abrasion
depth
means
that
the
sample
has
a
high
abrasion
resistance.
Here
the
varia:ons
are
more
important
than
before.
52
Drying
shrinkage
is
posi:vely
aected
by
a
reduc:on
in
the
paste
volume.
Here
again
the
data
is
ploRed
in
a
normalized
form.
53
Creep
varies
very
strongly
with
the
paste
content.
However,
in
the
region
of
prac:cal
interest,
the
above
graph
lacks
in
resolu:on
to
indicate
really
how
important
the
eect
is.
54
A
change
in
the
volume
of
paste
can
also
aect
durability
proper:es.
Here
we
consider
the
depth
of
carbona:on.
This
is
the
depth
at
which
ingress
of
CO2
has
produce
a
pH
drop
of
the
paste
aGer
a
given
:me.
Before
looking
at
the
eect
of
paste
volume,
we
however
rst
consider
here
the
role
of
WATER
TO
CEMENT
ra:o.
The
above
graph
shows
that
there
is
a
HUGE
varia:on
with
W/C.
Note
that
the
same
y-scale
will
be
used
on
the
next
graph.
55
The
above
graph
shows
a
radical
contrast
with
the
previous
one.
While
W/C
cause
immense
varia:ons
in
the
depth
of
carbona:on,
a
change
in
the
paste
volume
is
virtually
without
eect.
Changes
in
paste
volume
are
do
therefore
not
pose
a
problem
in
situa:on
where
the
concern
for
durability
comes
from
carbona:on.
56
In
summary,
while
W/C
radically
changes
most
proper:es
of
concrete,
the
amount
of
aggregates
most
oGen
only
has
a
limited
eect.
The
property
that
is
most
aected
by
a
change
in
the
amount
of
aggregates
is
however
the
rheology.
This
is
an
important
issue
as
in
prac:ce,
inadequate
rheology
is
oGen
countered
by
changing
the
water
content.
This
can
happen
despite
specica:ons.
Therefore
it
is
important
to
control
the
rheology,
because
otherwise,
the
pragma:c
solu:on
to
that
is
to
add
water,
which
in
turn
messes
up
all
main
proper:es
of
concrete
(engineering
and
durability).
In
the
net
sec:on
we
turn
to
examining
important
aspects
of
concrete
rheology.
57
58
As
explained
in
a
previous
lecture,
concrete
is
oGen
described
as
a
Yield
stress
uid.
This
means
that
a
given
stress
must
be
applied
for
it
to
start
owing.
Once
it
has
started
to
ow,
the
stress
must
be
increased
to
increase
the
rate
of
ow.
If
this
increase
is
linear,
one
speaks
of
a
Bingham
uid.
If
not,
(and
in
general)
one
speaks
of
a
Herschel
Buckley
uid.
Rheological
measurements
are
oGen
reported
as
Flow
Curves
in
which
the
x-axi
is
the
shear
rate
and
the
y-axis
the
shear
stress.
Another
representa:on
is
the
Apparent
viscosity,
which
is
the
ra:o
of
shear
stress
to
shear
rate
(right
gure).
The
important
point
is
that
a
yield
stress
uid
has
an
innite
viscosity
at
zero
shear
rate.
A
Bingham
uid
has
tends
towards
a
plateau
viscosity
at
innite
shear
rate.
Processing
of
concrete
takes
place
at
rather
low
shear
rates,
so
that
viscosity
is
largely
dominated
by
the
yield
stress.
In
par:cular
form
lling
is
determined
when
the
ow
is
just
stopping.
This
means
that
the
shear
rate
is
very
low.
Consequently
the
ability
of
a
given
concrete
to
ll
a
given
formwork
is
largely
determined
by
its
yield
stress.
Yield
stress
is
therefore
essen:al
to
concrete
processing.
59
Happily
enough
some
very
simple
tests
are
directly
related
to
yield
stress.
This
is
the
case
of
Slump
or
slump
ow.
As
a
reminder,
slump
is
the
height
drop
of
a
conical
sample
placed
on
a
horizontal
surface
aGer
the
mold
is
removed.
Slump
ow
is
the
diameter
of
the
base
aGer
the
ow
has
stopped.
Slump
is
used
for
s:
concrete
and
slump
ow
for
uid
concrete.
At
the
beginning
of
the
slump
ow
the
system
is
conned
in
the
cone
and
at
rest.
60
As
soon
as
the
cone
is
removed
the
system
is
no
more
conned
and
the
sample
is
deformed
by
its
own
weight.
The
gravity
load
is
at
its
highest
and
the
sample
starts
to
ow
rela:vely
rapidly.
The
above
graph
represents
this
by
showing
the
system
to
be
at
a
high
shear
rate.
61
As
the
sample
spreads,
the
stress
due
to
gravity
reduces
(less
height,
less
pressure).
The
stress
level
is
lower
and
so
is
the
shear
rate
(the
system
ows
slower).
62
The
system
is
geung
even
slower
63
Eventually
the
system
stops
owing
once
the
stress
due
to
gravity
is
balanced
by
the
yield
stress
(cohesion)
of
the
material.
64
In
most
cases
concrete
can
be
described
as
a
Bingham
uid.
This
means
that
above
the
yield
stress,
the
shear
stress
increases
linearly
with
the
shear
rate.
It
also
means
that
the
rheological
behavior
can
be
described
by
two
parameters:
yield
stress
and
plas:c
viscosity.
65
Yield
stress
and
plas:c
viscosity
vary
depending
on
the
mix
propor:ons
of
concrete.
Moreover,
there
varia:on
can
be
described
by
other
terminologies.
A
wet
concrete
typically
can
mean
that
the
yield
stress
and/or
the
plas:c
viscosity
are
reduced.
A
s:
concrete,
most
oGen
means
that
It
has
a
high
yield
stress.
It
will
not
show
much
slump.
A
viscous
concrete,
means
that
although
the
concrete
shows
a
high
slump,
it
takes
a
long
:me
to
reach
that
condi:on.
66
The
yield
stress
of
concrete
comes
from
the
existence
of
a
network
of
aRrac:ve
forces
among
the
ne
par:cles
in
the
system
which
in
addi:on
to
cement
can
include
slag,
y-ash,
slag,
silica
fume,
limestone
ller,
etc.
The
aRrac:ve
forces
give
the
system
a
cohesion.
Under
the
eect
of
shear
a
certain
number
of
these
bonds
can
be
broken.
Once
enough
of
these
bonds
are
broken
the
system
is
capable
of
ow.
Ini:ally,
there
are
groups
of
par:cles
that
can
s:ll
be
s:cking
together
without
preven:ng
the
system
from
owing.
Schema:cally,
this
describes
a
transi:on
from
a
solid
state
to
a
liquid
state.
67
Addi:on
of
water
reduces
both
the
yield
stress
(intercept)
and
the
plas:c
viscosity
(slope)
Addi:on
of
superplas:cizer
only
aect
the
yield
stress.
68
The
eect
of
air
inclusion
of
air
is
represented
here
very
schema:cally.
It
has
liRle
eect
on
yield
stress
but
reduces
the
plas:c
viscosity.
One
way
of
understanding
this
is
that
at
low
shear
rate,
air
bubbles
do
not
deform
much
so
they
behave
mainly
as
solid
inclusions
that
do
not
contribute
to
the
network
of
par:cles
s:cking
one
to
the
other.
Under
ow,
the
shear
forces
can
poten:ally
deform
the
air
bubbles,
which
is
favorable
and
leads
to
a
reduc:on
of
plas:c
viscosity.
69
Understanding
the
rheology
of
concrete
is
not
a
trivial
task
because
of
the
dierent
length
scales
involved.
One
way
of
looking
at
the
problem
is
the
so-called
homogeniza:on
approach.
In
this,
one
considers
a
rst
con:nuous
phase
(matrix)
to
which
par:cles
are
added
(cement).
This
leads
to
the
forma:on
of
a
new
matrix
at
a
larger
scale
of
which
the
proper:es
are
obtained
by
homogeniza:on.
Larger
par:cles
(sand)
are
then
added
to
this
matrix
to
produce
a
material
with
larger
scale
inclusions.
Once
again
the
proper:es
of
this
new
matrix
are
obtained
by
homogeniza:on.
In
terms
of
rheology,
this
approach
suers
from
the
fact
that
cement
par:cles
have
a
tendency
to
s:ck
together.
This
can
give
rise
to
the
forma:on
of
agglomerates
(group
of
par:cles
stuck
one
to
another)
of
which
the
size
is
similar
to
the
gap
between
sand
par:cles,
or
even
similar
to
the
sand
par:cles
themselves.
These
agglomerates
are
broken
down
by
shear.
Their
forma:on
can
be
prevented
by
including
superplas:cizers.
Overall
the
system
behavior
is
not
easy
to
predict,
but
the
homogeniza:on
approach
remains
useful
on
the
conceptual
level.
70
Par:cles
in
concrete
are
subject
to
various
forces
the
balance
of
which
determines
the
system
behavior.
These
forces
depend
on
the
par:cle
size
but
not
in
the
same
way.
They
have
typically
power
law
dependences,
but
not
the
same
power
law
exponent.
It
results
from
this
the
forces
that
are
important
for
aggregates
can
be
negligible
for
silica
fume
and
vice
versa.
71
The
two
graphs
above
illustrate
how
forces
ac:ng
on
par:cles
depend
on
their
size.
All
values
are
indica:ve.
They
depend
on
various
parameters
of
which
average
values
have
been
taken
to
give
a
general
sense
of
how
the
various
forces
compare.
By
colloidal
it
is
means
the
forces
that
cause
the
par:cles
to
s:ck
together.
The
y-axis
are
forces
normalized
by
the
gravity
force
and
given
in
log-scale.
A
value
larger
than
one
means
that
the
force
in
ques:on
is
more
important
than
gravity
and
a
value
lower
than
one
means
that
it
is
less
important
than
gravity.
To
the
leG
is
the
situa:on
in
which
par:cles
are
allowed
to
s:ck
together
they
can
come
very
close
together).
To
the
right
is
the
opposite.
The
important
features
in
this
graph
are
to
see
how
from
the
nest
par:cles
(silica
fume)
to
the
largest
(coarse
aggregates)
the
rela:ve
importance
of
forces
changes.
No
in
par:cular
that
gravity
force
is
less
important
for
silica
fume
than
colloidal
forces.
A
consequence
of
this
is
that
suspensions
of
silica
fume
do
not
tend
to
segregate.
For
cement,
we
are
in
a
situa:on
where
various
forces
are
in
the
same
range:
colloidal,
gravity
and
viscous.
Depending
on
the
details,
one
or
another
may
dominate.
For
comple:on
it
should
be
noted
that
these
forces
depend
also
on
the
volume
frac:on
of
solids,
which
is
not
taken
into
account
here.
72
The
four
cartoons
above
illustrate
some
important
aspects
of
concrete
stability.
The
rst
one
shows
the
total
volume
that
will
be
considered,
separa:ng
a
paste
volume
of
occulated
cement
from
an
aggregate
volume
where
the
aggregates
are
taking
as
square
of
two
dierent
sizes.
Mixing
everything,
brakes
down
the
occulated
structure
to
the
extend
that
the
remaining
agglomerates
(or
ocs)
are
space
lling
between
the
aggregates
as
shown
in
Fig.
2.
The
inten:on
here
is
to
indicate
that
there
is
a
con:nuous
network
of
par:cles
which
is
self-suppor:ng.
Despite
their
large
size,
aggregates
do
not
segregate
due
to
gravity.
This
would
represent
an
ordinary
concrete.
One
that
would
need
to
be
vibrated
to
be
put
into
place.
The
vibra:on
brakes
down
the
ocs,
making
it
possible
for
concrete
to
ow.
The
deocculated
system
is
represented
in
Fig.
3.
In
ordinary
concrete,
the
structure
rebuilds
very
fast
and
does
not
allow
for
segrega:on.
If
superplas:cizers
are
used
in
such
a
concrete,
there
is
however
a
risk
to
have
a
problem
of
segrega:on.
This
can
be
solved
as
shown
in
Fig.
4,
by
replacing
some
of
the
water
by
addi:onal
cement.
If
one
wants
to
move
to
self
compac:ng
concrete,
then
one
would
addi:onally
replace
part
of
the
aggregates
by
paste,
to
make
it
possible
for
the
aggregates
to
73
All
the
secrets
of
concrete
formula:on
good
and
bad
explained
with
fondue
74
More
of
the
same
75
76
77
78
Superplas:cizers
are
organic
polymers
that
are
water
soluble.
When
added
to
concrete
they
are
rst
in
the
aqueous
phase.
From
there,
they
will
tend
to
adsorb
onto
the
surface
of
par:cles.
In
amounts,
adsorp:on
is
most
important
on
the
ner
par:cles,
because
they
oer
the
largest
surface
for
adsorp:on.
79
By
adsorbing
onto
the
ne
par:cles,
superplas:cizers
can
reduce
or
eliminate
the
aRrac:ve
interpar:cle
forces.
The
easiest
way
to
understand
this
is
to
think
about
a
magnet.
The
aRrac:ve
force
between
a
magnet
and
a
metallic
surface
increases
as
the
separa:on
distance
between
the
magnet
and
the
metal
is
reduced.
The
highest
adhesion
force
is
when
both
are
in
contact.
The
same
is
true
for
the
colloidal
forces
responsible
for
agglomera:on
of
cement
par:cles.
If
we
now
s:ck
a
thin
cardboard
layer
on
the
magnet,
there
will
s:ll
be
an
aRrac:on
between
the
magnet
and
the
metal.
However,
its
magnitude
will
be
lower.
It
will
be
easier
to
separate
both.
A
thicker
cardboard
layer
would
further
reduce
the
force.
In
rst
approxima:on,
superplas:cizers
can
be
thought
of
as
being
this
cardboard
layer.
Once
adsorbed
on
the
cement
par:cles,
they
prevent
other
cement
par:cles
from
making
close
contact.
The
result
is
a
reduced
cohesion
force,
which
in
turn
means
par:cles
can
more
easily
move
independently
one
from
the
other.
The
system
can
begin
to
ow.
A
last
comment
is
about
dimension.
The
superplasicizer
layer
is
on
the
order
of
4nm,
while
the
radius
of
cement
par:cle
is
on
the
order
of
4
microns.
So
there
is
about
a
factor
1000.
This
is
more
or
less
the
ra:o
between
a
human
head
(20cm?)
and
the
diameter
of
hair
(~20micorns)
80
The
superplas:cizers
most
used
today
are
referred
to
as
comb-copolymers.
There
structure
is
essen:ally
that
of
a
comb.
They
have
a
backbone
that
interacts
with
the
surface,
It
is
responsible
for
adsorp:on.
The
teeth
of
this
comb
are
called
side-chains.
They
do
not
interact
with
the
surface
and
are
said
to
be
non-adsorbing.
These
side
chains
tend
to
coil,
The
coiled
dimension
of
the
side
chains
largely
determines
the
thickness
of
the
adsorbed
layer.
Referring
to
before
that
would
be
the
cardboard
layer
thickness.
This
adsorbed
polymer
layer
is
however
extremely
porous.
It
does
not
prevent
water
from
being
in
contact
with
the
surface.
Rather
the
side
chains
prevent
approach
by
shacking
around.
81
This
picture
reemphasizes
the
role
of
the
adsorbed
layer
in
keeping
the
enemy
at
a
fair
distance.
However,
polymers
are
not
sta:c.
You
should
rather
thick
of
this
brave
Brit
shacking
is
weapon
around
at
a
very
high
speed
and
dening
an
excluded
volume
in
which
the
aggressor
cannot
penetrate
durably.
82
Slump
=
Setzmass
Slump
ow
=
Setsiesmass
Slump
ow
test
=
Setzieversuch
As
explained
in
the
rst
lecture
very
simple
tests
are
used
to
evaluate
the
rheological
proper:es
of
concrete.
The
slump
and
slump
ow
are
the
most
used
are
are
represented
above.
The
two
tables
give
classes
according
to
EU
norm
206-1
83
Flow
table
spread
=
Ausbreitmass
Flow
table
spread
is
another
widely
used
test.
It
is
for
concrete
too
s:
for
slump
ow
measurements.
AGer
the
cone
has
been
removed,
the
base
table
on
which
the
test
is
done
is
liGed
slightly
(couple
cm)
and
dropped
15
:mes.
At
the
end
of
these
15
shocks
the
base
diameter
of
the
sample
is
measured
and
reported
as
ow
table
spread
(FTS)
The
table
above
gives
classes
of
workability
from
the
FTS
measurement
according
to
the
European
Norm
EN
197-1
84
85
86
Setziemaprfung
mit
Blockierring
(Ring
=
300
mm,
Stbe:
16
mit
18
mm,
h
=
125
mm),
smb
=
700
mm
Slump
ow
test
with
J-ring
(ring
=
300
mm,
16
rods
-
18
mm,
h
=
125
mm),
smb
=
700
mm
In
the
J-ring
test,
a
slump
ow
test
is
done
with
a
ring
on
which
rebars
are
mounted
at
selected
spacing.
This
is
meant
to
give
an
indica:on
on
how
easily
the
concrete
can
ow
through
rebars
AuslauKrichter
fr
SVB
zur
BesMmmung
der
Trichterauslaufzeit
T
Flow
funnel
for
SCC
for
determining
the
V-funnel
ow
Gme
T
The
V-Funnel
is
used
to
measure
the
:me
needed
by
a
self
compac:ng
concrete
to
ow
through
a
sec:on
of
square
sec:on.
This
:me
is
mostly
related
to
the
plas:c
viscosity
of
concrete.
The
L-box
consists
in
a
ver:cal
sec:on
at
the
boRom
of
which
there
is
a
trap.
The
trap
communicates
to
an
open
horizontal
sec:on
at
the
beginning
of
which
some
rebars
can
be
placed.
AGer
opening
the
trap,
the
material
ows
through
the
rebar.
What
is
then
measured
is
he
height
dierence
from
one
side
to
the
other
of
the
horizontal
sec:on.
There
are
various
fundamental
cri:cisms
that
can
be
made
about
this
test,
but
it
is
nevertheless
very
much
used
in
prac:ce.
87
The
capacity
of
concrete
to
ow
through
rebars
depends:
- Con:nuum
proper:es
Yield
stress
has
a
big
impact.
The
capacity
to
self-level
in
a
formwork
is
linked
to
the
dimension
of
the
formwork
and
the
yield
stress
In
a
reinforced
structure,
the
rebars
can
be
seen
as
reducing
the
characteris:c
size
of
the
system,
- Finite
size
eects
Finite
size
eects
occur
if
the
size
of
the
aggregates
are
too
large
with
respect
to
the
gap.
Here
the
role
of
par:cle
size
distribu:on
has
also
an
important
role.
However,
as
a
rule
of
thumb,
one
states
in
general
that
the
largest
aggregates
should
be
at
least
1/5
of
the
smallest
gap
in
the
reinforcement.
The
1/5
rule
is
more
use
for
object
dimensions,
for
rebar
spacing,
one
speaks
of
1/3
of
the
sp
88
The
design
of
reinforcement
should
therefore
be
preferably
by
taking
nite
size
eect
of
concrete.
In
any
case
the
mix
design
of
concrete
should
not
be
done
overlooking
the
spacing
of
rebars
in
the
structure
to
be
cast.
It
is
a
present
area
of
research
to
develop
design
tools
that
can
assist
in
beRer
compa:bility
between
rebars
structure
and
concrete
mix
design
89
90
91
92
The
formula:on
of
concrete
can
lead
to
very
dierent
performances.
The
slide
above
shows
cross
sec:ons
of
beams
having
equivalent
load
baring
capacity,
along
with
their
weight
per
unit
length.
It
can
be
seen
that
from
normal
reinforced
concrete
to
prestressed
concrete
there
is
a
reduc:on
in
weight.
The
dierence
to
the
high
performance
ber
reinforced
concrete
of
brand
name
Ducatal
(produced
by
Lafarge)
is
tremendous.
This
material
relies
heavily
on
packing
op:miza:on
of
all
the
granular
frac:ons
as
well
as
on
reduc:on
of
the
water
to
cement
ra:o
and
on
the
inclusion
of
metallic
bers.
Metallic
bers
greatly
increase
the
tensile
strength
of
concrete.
Here
this
translates
by
a
much
reduced
need
for
rebars.
The
weight
of
Ductal
per
unit
length
is
in
the
same
range
as
a
pure
steel
beam.
93
94
95