1.

0 CAD Introduction
CAD if often defined in a variety of ways and includes a large range of activities. Very
broadly it can be said to be the integration of computer science (or software) techniques in
engineering design. At one end when we talk of modeling, it encompasses the following:
Use of computers (hardware & software) for designing products
Numerical method, optimizations etc.
2D/3D drafting
3D modeling for visualization
Modeling curves, surfaces, solids, mechanism, assemblies, etc.
The models thus developed are first visualized on display monitors using a variety of
techniques including wire frame display, shaded image display, and hidden surface removed
display and so on. Once the designer is satisfied, these models are then used for various
types of analysis / applications. Thus, at the other end it includes a number of analysis
activities. These could be:
Stress (or deflection) analysis, i.e. numerical methods meant for estimating the
behavior of an artifact with respect to these parameters. It includes tools like the
Finite Element Method (FEM).
Simulation of actual use
Optimization
Other applications like
o CAD/CAM integration
o Process planning
These are activities which normally use models developed using one or more of the
techniques mentioned above. These activities are often included in other umbrellas like
CAM or CAE. A term often used is CAx to include this broad set of activities. They all use CAD
models and often the kind of application they have to be used in determines the kind of a
model to be developed. In this course we will strive to give an overview of modelling
techniques followed by some applications, specifically CAM.
Thus there are three aspects to CAD.
Modeling
Display/ Visualization
Applications

1.1 MODELING
Modelling typically includes a set of activities like
Defining objects
Defining relation between objects
Defining properties of objects
Defining the orientations of the objects in suitable co-ordinate systems
Modification of existing definition (editing)
The figure below explains what a typical CAD model would need to define, what kind of
entities need to be defined and what relationships exist between them.

Figure 1 Data bases for CAD

At the highest level we have the volume which is defined by (or "delimited by") a set of
surfaces. These surfaces can be planar or curved / warped. A planar surface can be bounded
by a set of curves. A curved surface can be seen as a net of curves. These curves are typically
a succession of curve segments which define the complete the curve. The curve segment is
defined using a set of end points / control points which govern the nature of the curve. Thus
a relationship is defined between entities at each level.
Once such a relationship is defined, a geometric model of the artifact is available. In any
design there might be many such artifacts. One then has to define properties of each of
these artifacts and define a relationship between them. The properties and the relationships
needed are dependent on the application the model is to be used for subsequently. But one
common application that all models have to go through is visualization of the model (s).
1.2 DISPLAY / VISUALIZATION
Displaying the model requires the following:
Mapping objects onto screen coordinates: Models are typically made in a model
coordinate system. This could be the world coordinate system, or a coordinate
system local to the object. These coordinate systems are typically three dimensional
in nature. To display the object on a 2D screen, the object coordinates need to be
mapped on to the 2D coordinate system of the screen. This requires two steps:
o Viewing transformations: The coordinates of the object are transformed in a
manner as if one is looking at the object through the screen. This coordinate
system is referred to as the viewing coordinate system.
o Projections: The object in the viewing coordinate system is then projected
onto the two dimensional plane of the screen.
Surface display or shading / rendering: In displaying the objects on the screen one
often likes to get a shaded display of the object and get a good feel of the three
dimensional shape of the object. This requires special techniques to render the
surface based on its shape, lighting conditions and its texture.
Hidden line removal when multiple surfaces are displayed: In order to get a proper
feel of the three dimensional shape of an object, one often desires that the lines /
surfaces which are not visible should not be displayed. this is referred to as hidden
line / surface removal.

Once a model is visualized on the screen and approved by the conceptual designer, it has to
go through a number of analysis. Some of the kinds of usage this model might have to go
through are the following:
Estimating stresses / strains / deflections in the objects under various static loading
conditions
Estimating the same under dynamic loading conditions
Visualizing how a set of objects connected together would move when subject to
external loading. This leads to a whole set of activities under simulation. These
activities would vary depend upon the application the object is to be subject to.
Optimizing the objects for
Developing 2D engineering drawings of the object
Developing a process plan of the object
 Manufacturing the object using NC / CNC machines and generating the programs for
these machines so as to manufacture these objects.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN

In the field of product development there are often immense costs associated with the
testing of new products. Every new product must undergo at least a small measure of
physical testing not only to ensure that it meets minimum safety standards but also to
ensure that it will successfully operate under the range of conditions to which it can expect
to be exposed. For instance, the wing of an aeroplane must undergo stress tests to ensure
that it will retain its integrity even under the most grueling weather and turbulence
conditions before it is approved for use.
Unfortunately, this testing can be ruinously time-consuming and expensive. If an
aeronautical company has to physically build dozens of wings in the course of testing a new
design then the final cost and time scale of the project can be far higher than projected.
Fortunately, there is no need to physically test all of these designs. Instead, developers can
run virtual stress tests using computer-aided design, substituting a wind tunnel for a CAD
application that can simulate the same conditions.
The benefits of virtual simulations are obvious. In addition to a reduction in the cost of

product development and the time required to run tests there is also the advantage that
conceptual designs can be modified instantly as the tests progress.
Figure 2 Typical application of a CAD modeling
Perhaps one of the best examples of this versatility can be seen in the design of the
aeroplane wing. The science of aerodynamics is complex, and it is often the case that certain
wing shapes can create unexpected turbulence under certain conditions. When this occurs
during physical testing it can be a challenge to discover the problem and make alterations.
When running virtual tests using CAD, however, alterations to the design can be made
quickly and easily, so new designs can be tested and retested until the problem is resolved.
2.0 DISPLAY DEVICES
Video display systems (CRTs)
Raster-scan displays (refresh)
Random-scan displays (vector refresh)
Color CRT monitors
Flat-panel displays
Plasma panels
LCDs (Liquid Crystal Display)
Electroluminescent displays
Flat-panel characteristics
3D Viewing devices
VR-systems (Virtual Reality)
2.1 CRT principle
Fig. 3 below illustrates the basic operation of a CRT. A beam of electrons (cathode rays),
emitted by an electron gun, passes through focusing and deflection systems that direct the
beam towards specified position on the phosphor-coated screen. The phosphor then emits a
small spot of light at each position contacted by the electron beam. Because the light
emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly, some method is needed for maintaining the
screen picture. One way to keep the phosphor glowing is to redraw the picture repeatedly
by quickly directing the electron beam back over the same points. This type of display is
called a refresh CRT.
The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal cathode and a
control grid (Fig. 3). Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of
wire, called the filament, inside the cylindrical cathode structure. This causes electrons to be
boiled off the hot cathode surface. In the vacuum inside the CRT envelope, negatively
charged electrons are then accelerated toward the phosphor coating by a high positive
voltage. The accelerating voltage can be generated with a positively charged metal coating
on the in side of the CRT envelope near the phosphor screen, or an accelerating anode can
be used, a in fig below . Sometimes the electron gun is built to contain the accelerating
anode and focusing system within the same unit.
Spots of light are produced on the screen by the transfer of the CRT beam energy to the
phosphor. When the electrons in the beam collide with the phosphor coating, they are
stopped and there are stopped and their kinetic energy is absorbed by the phosphor. Part of
the beam energy s converted by friction into heat energy, and the remainder causes
electron in the phosphor atoms to move up to higher quantum-energy levels. After a short
time, the excited phosphor electrons begin dropping back to their stable ground state,
giving up their extra energy as small quantum of light energy. What we see on the screen is
the combined effect of all the electrons light emissions: a glowing spot that quickly fades
after all the excited phosphor electrons have returned to their ground energy level. The
frequency (or color ) of the light emitted by the phosphor is proportional to the energy
difference between the excited quantum state and the ground state.
Different kinds of phosphor are available for use in a CRT. Besides color, a major difference
between phosphors is their persistence: how long they continue to emit light (that is, have
excited electrons returning to the ground state) after the CRT beam is removed. Persistence
is defined as the time it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay to one-tenth of its
original intensity. Lower-persistence phosphors require higher refresh rates to maintain a
picture on the screen without flicker. A phosphor with low persistence is useful for
animation; a high-persistence phosphor is useful for displaying highly complex, static
pictures. Although some phosphor have a persistence greater than 1 second, graphics
monitor are usually constructed with a persistence in the range from 10 to 60 microseconds

Figure 3 CRT screen

2.2 Raster-scan technique
In a raster- scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time
from top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is
turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots. Picture definition is stored in
memory area called the refresh buffer or frame buffer. This memory area holds the set of
intensity values for all the screen points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the
refresh buffer and painted on the screen one row (scan line) at a time (Fig. 4). Each screen
point is referred to as a pixel or pel (shortened forms of picture element).
Refreshing on raster-scan displays is carried out at the rate of 60 to 80 frames per second,
although some systems are designed for higher refresh rates. Sometimes, refresh rates are
described in units of cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz), where a cycle corresponds to one
frame. At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen
to begin displaying the next scan line. The return to the left of the screen, after refreshing
each scan line, is called the horizontal retrace of the electron beam. And at the end of each
frame (displayed in 1/80th to 1/60th of a second), the electron beam returns (vertical
retrace) to the top left corner of the screen to begin the next frame.
On some raster-scan systems (and in TV sets), each frame is displayed in two passes using an
interlaced refresh procedure. In the first pass, the beam sweeps across every other scan line
from top to bottom. Then after the vertical retrace, the beam sweeps out the remaining
scan lines (fig.below). Interlacing of the scan lines in this way allows us to see the entire
screen displayed in one-half the time it would have taken to sweep across all the lines at
once from top to bottom

Figure 4 Raster Scan Technique

2.3 Random-scan technique
Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and for this reason are also
referred to as vector displays (or stroke-writing or calligraphic displays). The component
lines of a picture can be drawn (Figure 5) and refreshed by a random-scan system in any
specified order.
Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to be displayed.
Picture definition is now stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory
referred to as the refresh display file. Sometimes the refresh display file is called the display
list, display program, or simply the refresh buffer. To display a specified picture, the system
cycles through the set of commands in the display file, drawing each component line in turn.
After all line- drawing commands have been processed, the system cycles back to the first
line command in the list. Random-scan displays are designed to draw al the component lines
of a picture 30 to 60times each second.

Figure 5 Random Scan Technique

2.4 Color CRT monitor

The beam penetration method for displaying color pictures has been used with random-
scan monitors. Two layers of phosphor, usually red and green, are coated on to theinside of
the CRT screen, and the displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates
into the phosphor layers.

2.5 Shadow-mask
Shadow-mask methods are commonly used in raster-scan systems (including color TV)
because they produce a much wider range of color than the beam penetration method. A
shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position. One phosphor dot
emits a red light, another emits a green light, and the third emits a blue light. This type of
CRT has three electron guns, one for each color dot, and a shadow- mask grid just behind
the phosphor coated screen. Figure 6 below illustrates the delta-delta shadow-mask
method, commonly used in color CRT systems. The three electron beam are deflected and
focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which contains a series of holes aligned with the
phosphor-dot patterns. When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask,
they activate a dot triangle, which appears as a small color spot the screen the phosphor
dots in the triangles are arranged so that each electron beam can activate only its
corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask
 Figure 6 Shadow Mask Technique

2.6 Flat panel

The term flatpanel displays refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,
weight, and power requirements compared to a CRT. A significant feature of flat-panel
displayed is that they are thinner than CRTs, and we can hang them on walls or wear them
on our wrists.
We can separate flat-panel displays into two categories: emissive displays and non-emissive
displays. The emissive displays (or emitters) are devices that displays and light-emitting
diodes are examples of emissive displays. Non-emissive displays (or non-emitters) use
optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns.
The most important example of a non-emissive flat-panel display is a liquid- crystal device.
Plasma panels, also called gas discharge displays, are constructed by filling the region
between two glass plates with a mixture of gases that usually include neon. A series of
vertical conducting ribbons is placed on one glass panel, and a set of horizontal ribbons is
built into the other glass panel. Firing voltages applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical
conductors cause the gas at the intersection of two conductors to break down into glowing
plasma of electrons and ions. Picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer, and the firing
voltages are applied to refresh the pixel positions (at the intersections of the conductors) 60
times per second.
Another type of emissive device is the light-emitting diode (LED). A matrix of diodes is
arranged to form the pixel positions in the display, and picture definition is stored in refresh
buffer. As in scan- line refreshing of a CRT, information is read from the refresh buffer and
converted to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light patterns in
the display.
2.7 Liquid- crystal displays
Liquid- crystal displays (LCDs) are commonly used in systems, such as calculators (Figure 7)
and portable, laptop computers. These non-emissive devices produce a picture by passing
polarized light from the surrounding or from an internal light source through a liquid- crystal
material that can be aligned to either block or transmit the light.
The term liquid crystal refers to the fact that these compounds have a crystalline
arrangement of molecules, yet they flow like a liquid. Flat-panel displays commonly use
nematic (threadlike) liquid-crystal compounds that tend to keep the long axes of the rod-
shaped molecules aligned. A flat-panel display can then be constructed with a nematic liquid
crystal, as demonstrated in fig. below. Two glass plates, each containing a light polarizer at
right angles to the other palate, sandwich the liquid-crystal material. Rows of horizontal
transparent conductors are built into one glass plate, and columns of vertical conductors are
put into the other plate. The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel position.
Normally, the molecules are aligned as shown in the on state of Figure 8. Polarized light
passing through the material is twisted so that it will pass through the opposite polarizer.
The light is reflected back to the viewer. To turn off the pixel, we apply voltage to the two
intersecting conductors to align the molecules so that the light is not twisted. This type of
flat-panel device is referred to as a passive matrix LCD. Picture definition is stored in a
refresh buffer, and the screen is refreshed at the rate of 60 frames per second, as in the
emissive devices. Back lighting is also commonly applied using solid-state electronic devices,
so that the system is not completely dependent on outside light sources. Colors can be
displayed by using different materials or dyes and by placing a triad of color pixels at each
screen location. Another method for constructing LCDs is to place a transistor at each pixel
location, using thin-film transistor technology.
The transistors are used to control the voltage at pixel locations and to prevent charge from
gradually leaking out of the liquid-crystal cells. These devices are called active-matrix
displays
Figure 7 Flat panel Display
3.0 Input devices
The various input devices found in the CAD modelingis given in the table below:

Keyboard Text, arrow keys

Mouse Optical/mech., picked up
Trackball Sphere rot., pot.meters
Joystick Pot.meters, buttons
Touch panel Optical/electr./acoustical
Light pen Senses electron beam
Digitizer Hand cursor
(graphics tablet)
Scanner Automatic
Data gloves Sensors
4.0 SOLID MODELLING

Definition: A 3-D model of an object that contains volumetric information

Mass can be represented
Interior surfaces are generated automatically as portions of an object are removed
Easily constructed using primitive shapes, extruding, and revolving

4.1 Solid Primitives

The standard solid model primitives available in the CAD modeling are:

Box (Parallelepiped)
Cylinder
Cone
Sphere
Wedge

Figure 8 Solid Modeling primitives

4.2 Extrude

Two dimensional closed objects can be extruded to give solid objects. The direction
of the extrusion is typically normal to the 2-D cross sectional sketch. The height of
extrusion can be specified as the third dimension of the solid.

Example 1 Example 2:
 Figure 9 Examples of Solid modeling

4.3 Sweep

In this technique, the path of the extrusion must be defined (trajectory). The extruded
cross section must be defined perpendicular to the path of extrusion. The extrusion path
will act as a guide for sweeping the cross section along it.

Figure 10 Examples of Sweep operation

4. 4 Revolve

To derive the third dimension of a solid model, two dimensional closed object is
 permitted to revolve about an axis. The axis of rotation must be defined before the
revolve operation is carried out. The angle of revolution must be specified in order to
control the shape of the volume; it means that a fully revolved solid is required or a
partial one. Figure 11 shows few examples of revolved components.

Figure 11 Examples for revolve operation

4.6 Blend

Smooth transition can be made between two closed shapes with similar geometry
(i.e. equal number of vertices)
The distance between sections must be defined
The angle of twist between sections must be specified

Figure 12 Examples of blended solids

5.0 SOLID MODELING OPERATORS

Subtract / Cut
Intersection
Union / Protrusion

Figure 13 Example models for showing solid modeling operations

5.1 Subtract / Cut

This operator subtracts one solid from another.

Solids A & B Solid C = A - B Solid D = B - A

5.2 Intersection

This operator creates a solid that represents the region that is in common to the
selected solids
 Solids A & B Solid C = A B

5.3 Union / Protrusion

Single solid model can be developed from two solids that intersect

Solids A & B Solid C = A B

Figure 14 Various solid modeling operations in CAD

6.0 GEOMETRIC MODELING
1 dimensional Geometric Model
2 dimensional Geometric Model
2.5 dimensional Geometric Model
3 dimensional Geometric Model

6.1 2D GEOMETRIC MODEL

A 2D geometric model is a geometric model of an object as two-dimensional figure, usually
on the Euclidean or Cartesian plane.

Even though all material objects are three-dimensional, a 2D geometric model is often
adequate for certain flat objects, such as paper cut-outs and machine parts made of sheet
metal.

2D geometric models are also convenient for describing certain types of artificial images,
such as technical diagrams, logos, the glyphs of a font, etc. They are an essential tool of 2D
computer graphics and often used as components of 3D geometric models, e.g. to describe
the decals to be applied to a car model.

Figure 15 Common 2D geometries in CAD modeling

6.2 2.5D GEOMETRIC MODEL
2.5D ("two-and-a-half-dimensional"), 3/4 perspective and pseudo-3D are terms used
to describe either:
Graphical projections and techniques which cause a series of images or scenes to
fake or appear to be three-dimensional (3D) when in fact they are not, or
Game play in an otherwise three-dimensional video game that is restricted to a
two-dimensional plane.
 (a) Front view (b) Oblique view (c) Side view

Figure 16 Illustration of 2.5 D solid models

Figure 16 illustrates a 2.5 D model being rotated through front, oblique and side views. The
arrangement of strokes in 3D is illustrated at the left in each view, while the 2D rendering
produced is shown at right. In this cartoon, the front and side views are manually drawn by
an artist, while the oblique view is generated automatically by rotating the strokes anchor
positions while interpolating the strokes 2D shapes.

6.3 3D GEOMETRIC MODEL

3D models represent a 3D object using a collection of points in 3D space, connected by
various geometric entities such as triangles, lines, curved surfaces, etc. Being a collection of
data (points and other information), 3D models can be created by
hand, algorithmically (procedural modeling), or scanned.

3D models are widely used anywhere in 3D graphics. Actually, their use predates the
widespread use of 3D graphics on personal computers. Many computer games used pre-
rendered images of 3D models as sprites before computers could render them in real-time.

Figure 17 Standard 3D geometries in CAD modeling

6.3.1 Representation
Almost all 3D models can be divided into two categories.
 Solid - These models define the volume of the object they represent (like a rock). These
are more realistic, but more difficult to build. Solid models are mostly used for nonvisual
simulations such as medical and engineering simulations, for CAD and specialized visual
applications such as ray tracing and constructive solid geometry
Shell/boundary - these models represent the surface, e.g. the boundary of the object,
not its volume (like an infinitesimally thin eggshell). These are easier to work with than
solid models. Almost all visual models used in games and film are shell models.
6.3.2 Compared to 2D Methods

3D photorealistic effects are often achieved without wireframe modeling and are
sometimes indistinguishable in the final form. Somegraphic art software includes filters that
can be applied to 2D vector graphics or 2D raster graphics on transparent layers.
Advantages of wireframe 3D modeling over exclusively 2D methods include:
Flexibility, ability to change angles or animate images with quicker rendering of the
changes;
Ease of rendering, automatic calculation and rendering photorealistic effects rather than
mentally visualizing or estimating;
Accurate photorealism, less chance of human error in misplacing, overdoing, or
forgetting to include a visual effect.
Disadvantages compare to 2D photorealistic rendering may include a software learning
curve and difficulty achieving certain photorealistic effects. Some photorealistic effects may
be achieved with special rendering filters included in the 3D modeling software. For the best
of both worlds, some artists use a combination of 3D modeling followed by editing the 2D
computer-rendered images from the 3D model.
1.0 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM)
Since the age of the Industrial Revolution, the manufacturing process has undergone many
dramatic changes. One of the most dramatic of these changes is the introduction of Computer
Aided Manufacturing (CAM), a system of using computer technology to assist the
manufacturing process.
Through the use of CAM, a factory can become highly automated, through systems such as
real-time control and robotics. A CAM system usually seeks to control the production process
through varying degrees of automation. Because each of the many manufacturing processes
in a CAM system is computer controlled, a high degree of precision can be achieved that is
not possible with a human interface.
The CAM system, for example, sets the tool path and executes precision machine operations
based on the imported design. Some CAM systems bring in additional automation by also
keeping track of materials and automating the ordering process, as well as tasks such as tool
replacement.
Computer Aided Manufacturing is commonly linked to Computer Aided Design (CAD)
systems. The resulting integrated CAD/CAM system then takes the computer-generated
design, and feeds it directly into the manufacturing system; the design is then converted into
multiple computer-controlled processes, such as drilling or turning.
Another advantage of Computer Aided Manufacturing is that it can be used to facilitate mass
customization: the process of creating small batches of products that are custom designed to
suit each particular client. Without CAM, and the CAD process that precedes it,
customization would be a time-consuming, manual and costly process. However, CAD
software allows for easy customization and rapid design changes: the automatic controls of
the CAM system make it possible to adjust the machinery automatically for each different
order.
The specter of robots replacing workers, however, is currently a fallacy. Robotic arms and
machines are commonly used in factories, but these do still require human workers. The
nature of those workers' jobs change however. The repetitive tasks are delegated to machines;
the human workers' job descriptions then move more towards set-up, quality control, using
CAD systems to create the initial designs, and machine maintenance.

1.1 Overcoming the historical shortcomings of CAM

Over time, the historical shortcomings of CAM are being attenuated, both by providers of
niche solutions and by providers of high-end solutions. This is occurring primarily in three
arenas:
1. Ease of use
2. Manufacturing complexity
3. Integration with PLM and the extended enterprise

1.1.1 Ease in use:

For the user who is just getting started as a CAM user, out-of-the-box capabilities providing
Process Wizards, templates, libraries, machine tool kits, automated feature based machining
and job function specific tailorable user interfaces build user confidence and speed the
learning curve.
User confidence is further built on 3D visualization through a closer integration with the 3D
CAD environment, including error-avoiding simulations and optimizations.

1.1.2 Manufacturing complexity:

The manufacturing environment is increasingly complex. The need for CAM and PLM tools
by the manufacturing engineer, NC programmer or machinist is similar to the need for
computer assistance by the pilot of modern aircraft systems. The modern machinery cannot
be properly used without this assistance.
Today's CAM systems support the full range of machine tools including: turning, 5 axis
machining and wire EDM. Todays CAM user can easily generate streamlined tool paths,
optimized tool axis tilt for higher feed rates and optimized Z axis depth cuts as well as
driving non-cutting operations such as the specification of probing motions.
Integration with PLM and the extended enterprise LM to integrate manufacturing with
enterprise operations from concept through field support of the finished product:
To ensure ease of use appropriate to user objectives, modern CAM solutions are scalable
from a stand-alone CAM system to a fully integrated multi-CAD 3D solution-set. These
solutions are created to meet the full needs of manufacturing personnel including part
planning, shop documentation, resource management and data management and exchange.

1.2 Components of Computer Aided Manufacturing

A part created in CAD can be downloaded and manufactured, without a human hand
touching the part. The process is called CAM, and involves CAD, Networking, and NC
programming, as shown below.

Figure 1.1: Components of Computer Aided Manufacturing

The implementation of the CAM process on CAD/CAM systems is shown in Fig. The
geometric model developed during the CAD process forms the basis of the CAM activities.
CAM activities may require various CAD information. Interface algorithms are usually
utilized to extract such information from CAD databases. In case of process planning,
features that are utilized in manufacturing (e.g., holes, slots, etc.) must be recognized to
enable efficient planning of manufacturing. NC programmes, along with ordering tools and
fixtures, result from process planning. Once parts are produced, CAD software can be used to
inspect them. This is achieved by superposing an image of the real part with a master image
stored in its model database. After passing inspection, CAM software can be utilised to
instruct robot systems to assemble the parts to produce the final product.
 Figure 1.2: Implementation of a typical CAM process on a CAD/CAM system

1.3 Computer and Numeric Control (CNC)

Conventionally, an operator decides and adjusts various machines parameters like
feed, depth of cut etc depending on type of job, and controls the slide movements by hand. In
a CNC Machine functions and slide movements are controlled by motors using computer
programs.
1.3.1 Numeric Control NC:
A numerical control, or NC, system controls many machine functions and
movements which were traditionally performed by skilled machinists.
Numerical control developed out of the need to meet the requirements of high
production rates, uniformity and consistent part quality.
 Programmed instructions are converted into output signals which in turn control
machine operations such as spindle speeds, tool selection, tool movement, and cutting
fluid flow.

Figure 1.3: Basic Components of NC system

By integrating a computer processor, computer numerical control, or CNC as it is
now known, allows part machining programs to be edited and stored in the computer
memory as well as permitting diagnostics and quality control functions during the
actual machining.
All CNC machining begins with a part program, which is a sequential instructions
or coded commands that direct the specific machine functions.
The part program may be manually generated or, more commonly, generated by
computer aided part programming systems.

1.3.2 Basic CNC Principles

All computer controlled machines are able to accurately and repeatedly control motion in
various directions. Each of these directions of motion is called an axis. Depending on the
machine type there are commonly two to five axes. Additionally, a CNC axis may be either a
linear axis in which movement is in a straight line or a rotary axis with motion following a
circular path.
 (a) Flat and prismatic work (b) rotational work

Figure 1.4: Coordinate systems used in NC

1.3.3 Motion control - the heart of CNC

The most basic function of any CNC machine is automatic, precise, and consistent
motion control.
Rather than applying completely mechanical devices to cause motion as is required on
most conventional machine tools, CNC machines allow motion control in a
revolutionary manner.
All forms of CNC equipment have two or more directions of motion, called axes.
These axes can be precisely and automatically positioned along their lengths of travel.
Three Basic Categories of Motion Systems
Point to Point - No contouring capability
Straight cut control - one axis motion at a time is controlled for machining
Contouring - multiple axiss controlled simultaneously

1.3.4 Types of Motion Control in NC

The motion control in NC systems have been divided in to two categories such as open
loop system and closed loop systems as illustrated in Figures 1.5 and 1.6
 Figure 1.5: Open loop control system

Figure 1.6: Closed loop control system

1.3.5 Basic CNC Principles Coordinates System

Figure 1.7: Absolute Coordinate System

 Figure 1.8: Incremental Coordinate System

1.3.6 CNC Working

Each axis consists of a mechanical component, such as a slide that moves a servo
drive motor that powers the mechanical movement, and a ball screw to transfer the
power from the servo drive motor to the mechanical component.
These components, along with the computer controls that govern them, are referred
to as an axis drive system.
 Figure 1.9: Motor and lead screw arrangement in an NC positioning system

Using a vertical mill machining center as an example, there are typically three linear
axes of motion. Each is given an alphabetic designation or address. The machine table
motion side to side is called the X axis. Table movement in and out is the Y axis,
while head movement up and down the column is the Z axis.
 Figure: Servo Mechanism
Servo drives are
Tolerant to tool cutting forces
Insensitive to load mass inertias (stiffness)
Insensitive to running friction forces
Linear to high degree
If a rotary table is added to the machine table, then the fourth axis is designated the
b axis.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.10: (a) Four-axis CNC horizontal milling machine with safety panels
installed and (b) with safety panels removed to show typical axis configuration for the
horizontal spindle.

1.3.7 Work Positioning

The method of accurate work positioning in relation to the cutting tool is called the
rectangular coordinate system. On the vertical mill, the horizontal base line is
designated the X axis, while the vertical base line is designated the Y axis. The
Z axis is at a right angle, perpendicular to both the X and Y axes.
Increments for all base lines are specified in linear measurements, for most machines
the smallest increment is one ten-thousandth of an inch (.0001). If the machine is
graduated in metric the smallest increment is usually one thousandth of a millimeter
(.001mm).
 The rectangular coordinate system allows the mathematical plotting of points in
space. These points or locations are called coordinates. The coordinates in turn
relate to the tool center and dictate the tool path through the work.

1.3.8 CNC Machines- Advantages / Disadvantages

Advantages:
High Repeatability and Precision e.g. Aircraft parts
Volume of production is very high
Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined. E.g. Turbines
Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less scrap
More safe, higher productivity, better quality
Less paper work, faster prototype production, reduction in lead times
Disadvantages:
Costly setup, skilled operators
Computers, programming knowledge required
Maintenance is difficult
2.0 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS (FMS)
A Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) is a reprogrammable manufacturing system
capable of producing a variety of products automatically. Conventional manufacturing
systems have been marked by one of two distinct features:
The capability of producing a variety of different product types, but at a high cost (e.g., job
shops).
The capability of producing large volumes of a product at a lower cost, but very inflexible in
terms of the product types which can be produced (e.g., transfer lines).
An FMS is designed to provide both of these features.

Figure 2.1: Flexible Manufacturing System

FMS Components
Numerical Control (NC) machine tools
Automated material handling system (AMHS)
Automated guided vehicles (AGV)
Conveyors
Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS)
Industrial Robots
Control Software

2.1 Equipment of FMS

 Primary equipment
Work centers
Universal machining centers (prismatic FMSs)
Turning centers (rotational FMSs)
Grinding machines
Nibbling machines
Process centers
Wash machines
Coordinate measuring machines
Robotic work stations
Manual workstations

Secondary equipment
Support stations
Pallet/fixture load/unload stations
Tool commissioning/setting area
Support equipment
Robots
Pallet/fixture/stillage stores
Pallet buffer stations
Tools stores
Raw material stores
Transport system(AGVs,RGVs,robots)
Transport units(pallets/stillages)

2.2 Classification of FMS-related Problems

Strategic analysis and economic justification, which provides long-range, strategic
business plans.
Facility design, in which strategic business plans are integrated into a specific facility
design to accomplish long-term managerial objectives.
Intermediate-range planning, which encompasses decisions related to master
production scheduling and deals with a planning horizon from several days to several
months in duration.
 Dynamic operations planning, which is concerned with the dynamic, minute-to-
minute operations of FMS.

2.3 Types of FMS

Sequential FMS
Random FMS
Dedicated FMS
Engineered FMS
Modular FMS

2.4 Application of FMS

Metal-cutting machining
Metal forming
Assembly
Joining-welding (arc , spot), glueing
Surface treatment
Inspection
Testing

2.5 FMS different approaches

The capability of producing different parts without major retooling
A measure of how fast the company converts its processes from making an old line of
products to produce a new product
The ability to change a production schedule, to modify a part, or to handle multiple
parts

2.6 Advantages of using FMS

To reduce set up and queue times
Improve efficiency
Reduce time for product completion
Utilize human workers better
Improve product routing
Produce a variety of Items under one roof
 Improve product quality
Serve a variety of vendors simultaneously
Produce more product more quickly

2.7 Disadvantage of using FMS

Limited ability to adapt to changes in product or product mix (ex:machines are of
limited capacity and the tooling necessary for products, even of the same family,
is not always feasible in a given FMS)
Substantial pre-planning activity
Expensive, costing millions of dollars
Technological problems of exact component positioning and precise timing
necessary to process a component
Sophisticated manufacturing systems

Figure 2.2: Illustration example of a FMS cell

2.8 FMS Layouts

Progressive Layout:
 o Best for producing a variety of parts
Closed Loop Layout:
o Parts can skip stations for flexibility
o Used for large part sizes
o Best for long process times
Ladder Layout:
o Parts can be sent to any machine in any sequence
o Parts not limited to particular part families
Open Field Layout:
o Most complex FMS layout
o Includes several support stations

2.9 FMS Problems

Part type selection - selecting parts that will be produced in the FMS over some
relatively long planning horizon.
Part selection - from the set of parts that have current production requirements and
have been selected for processing in the FMS, select a subset for immediate and
simultaneous processing.
Machine grouping - partition machines into groups where each machine in a group
can perform the same set of operations.
Loading - allocate the operations and required tools of the selected part types among
the machine groups.
Control - provide instructions for, and monitor the equipment in the FMS so that the
production goals identified by the above problems are met.
3.0 AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE SYSTEM (AGVS)
AGVS is a Computer-Controlled, Non-manned, Electric Powered Vehicle Capable of
Handling Material.

Figure 3.1: Advantages of an automated guided vehicle system

Clear floor space
No floor deck construction
Simple installation
High availability/reliability
Flexible performance increments
Short installation times
Simple expansion

3.1 Vehicle functions

Man / vehicle functions
o Inputs made via operator panel with its keyboard and display
o Destination input to the vehicle
o Plug-in manual control and diagnosis module
Route (destination) finding
o High vehicle intelligence
o Travel route topology stored in the vehicle
o Destination code processing
o Load-sensing and empty location recognition
 Guide track following
Guided movements using:
o optical track
o inductive track
o "free-flight" (partly guide-trackless)
o "free-navigation" (guide-trackless
Data exchange
o Infrared
o Radio
Special functions
o Battery reserve monitoring
o Control of battery charging
o Obstacle recognition
Load handling
o Load acceptance
o Load depositing
o Load monitoring
o Load transfer synchronization
Travel control
o Speed
o Safety gap maintenance
o Collision protection

3.2 Control concept

 Figure 3.2: Control concept of AGVS

3.3 Different Types of AGVS

Fork
Tow/Tugger
Unit Load
Custom

(a) (b)
 (c) (d)
Figure 3.3: Vehicles type: (a) Fork (b) Tow/Tugger (c) Unit Load (d) Custom

3.4 Guidance Methods

Optical Tracks contrasting color
Wire Embedded in floor
Inertial Gyro with magnets in floor
Laser Triangulation from reflective target

3.5 Charging Method

Standard Charging (Battery swap)
In-Vehicle (Opportunity) Charging
Inductive Charging

3.6 Safety elements

Figure 3.4: Safety elements in AGVS

3.7 AGVS task allocation

Figure 3.5: Task allocation of AGVS

4.0 COMPUTERIZED INVENTORY CONTROL (CIC)
Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II)
Determines what resources (people, equipment, materials) and quantities
of each should be used to meet inventory levels
Plans production materials and inventory levels
Coordinates data from all departments
Determines when to order and deliver materials based on need
Note:
MRP II (It is called MRP II because the first type of inventory control was
called manufacturing requirement planning and did not use the
computerized methods that II uses. Since the anagram is the same (MRP),
the II was just added.
MRP II revolves around the planning of inventory levels by coordinating with
all the departments in the company in order to determine when inventory
should be ordered based on when they need it. This avoids having too little
when they need it, and having too much that has to be paid for and stored.
Just-in-time (JIT)
Another type of computerized inventory control is called Just-in-time.
Executes the plan of MRP II
Reduces costs
o Less storage
o Less accounting
o Less investment
Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
Still another type of computerized inventory control is enterprise resource
planning. This type of planning goes one step further in that it coordinates ALL
elements of the distribution channel from manufacturing to retailing, helping all
members (suppliers to customers) be more profitable.
ERP allows for what-if models to determine how to control their inventories,
depending on situations.
What situations would the factories or retailers might want to look at (economic
downturns, changes in consumer demand, price changes along the channel, loss of
suppliers, etc.)
5.0 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)
MIS refers broadly to a computer-based system that provides managers with the tools
for organizing, evaluating and efficiently running their departments
What is MIS?
o Right Information
o To the right person
o At the right place
o At the right time
o In the right form
o At the right cost

The three sub-components of MIS

Management, Information and System - together bring out the focus clearly &
effectively.
System emphasizing a fair degree of integration and a holistic view;
Information stressing on processed data in the context in which it is used by end
users;
Management focusing on the ultimate use of such information systems for
managerial decision making

5.1 The Concept of MIS

Figure 5.1: concept of FMS

5.2 Functional Uses of MIS

Enhance
Quality of our operations
Quality of our services
We achieve
Efficiency
Transparency
Speedy Decision making

5.2.1 Strategic Uses of MIS

Precise development of strategies, planning, forecasting and monitoring
Problem solving
Decision-making
Separate work from location