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MASHKOOR HUSSAIN (M.Sc CHEMISTRY) CERTIFIED CHEMISTRY TEACHER FOR A LEVEL CHEMISTRY (JARIS)
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Ligand exchange reactions:- The ligands that bond more effectively to transition metal ions give more stable complexes.
The reaction results in a color change due to different amount of splitting between d orbitals.
Step 3 is not a redox process because chromate and dichromate both have same oxidation number (+6).
Reaction 1 is ligand exchange and reagent needed in concentrated HCl.
In Reaction 4, green ppte reacts to form green solution because NaOH is a strong alkali and [Cr(OH) 3 (H2O)3] loses three
protons because it is amphoteric. To reverse reaction 4, add acid.
In Reaction 6, entropy increases due to increase in number of particles.
The pH of aqueous solution of [Cu(H2O) 6]2+ ion is higher than [Cr(H2O) 6]3+ because concentration of oxonium ion is less
because Copper ion in Cu2+ and Chromium ion is Cr3+.
Sodium chromate (VI) is a yellow solid and Sodium dichromate (VI) is orange solid.
Redox titration of Potassium manganate (VII) and Iron (II) ions:- A burette was filled with Potassium manganate
(VII) solution up to 0.0cm3 mark. Using a pipette, 25cm3 of colourless Iron (II) solution was poured into a conical flask
and a test tube of Sulphuric acid is added. Sulfuric acid is added in large excess to ensure that the manganate (VII) ions
were fully reduced to manganese (II) and large number of H+ ions is required in titration. The potassium manganate (VII)
solution was added from the burette until first permanent pink color is seen. The titration is self indicating, so no
additional indicator is needed. It is incorrect to use Hydrochloric acid instead of dilute Sulfuric acid because HCl will be
oxidized to Chlorine by the manganate (VII). So, the reaction of the Iron (II) ions with manganate (VII) will not be
quantitative and titre will be too high.
Calculations:- MnO4- + 8H+ + 5Fe2+ Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O
Redox titration of Sodium dichromate (VI) and Iron (II) ions:- The concentration of a solution of sodium
dichromate(VI), Na2Cr2O7, can be found by titration with a solution containing Fe 2+ (aq) ions in acidic conditions. A 20.0
cm3 sample of a solution of sodium dichromate (VI), of unknown concentration, was titrated with a solution of Fe 2+(aq)
ions, of concentration 0.0500 mol dm3. An indicator, diphenylamine, was used. This turned an intense violet colour at the
end point.
MASHKOOR HUSSAIN (M.Sc CHEMISTRY) CERTIFIED CHEMISTRY TEACHER FOR A LEVEL CHEMISTRY (JARIS)
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Function of indicator:- The indicator makes end point more obvious, sharper and easier to see.
Effect of air bubble in the tip of burette:- Titre would appear to be greater because extra solution needed to fill ate air
gap. So, calculated concentration would be greater than actual value.
Pipette and measuring cylinder:- Pipette is used for exact measurement of solution and measuring cylinder is used for
approximate volume measurement.
Analysis of Copper content in old coins:- Some old coins with a high copper content were analyzed as follows.
Procedure:-
1. The coins were weighed and dissolved in concentrated nitric acid, producing a solution which contained copper(II)
nitrate.
2. The solution containing copper(II) nitrate was neutralized by adding sodium carbonate solution until a precipitate of
copper(II) carbonate just appeared. Dilute ethanoic acid was then added, drop by drop, until the copper (II) carbonate
precipitate just dissolved.
3. The solution containing copper(II) nitrate was transferred to a volumetric flask and made up to 250 cm 3 with distilled
water.
4. 25 cm3 portions of this solution were transferred to separate conical flasks. Then 10 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm 3 potassium
iodide (an excess) was added to each flask.
5. The liberated iodine was titrated with 0.125 mol dm3 sodium thiosulfate solution.
Redox titration of Iodine and Sodium thiosulphate:- A burette was filled with Sodium thiosulphate up to 0.0cm3 mark.
Using a pipette, 25cm3 of colourless aqueous Potassium iodate solution was poured into a conical flask. Excess Potassium
iodide and dilute Sulphuric acid were added to the flask and the mixture shaken. The chemicals reacted to form Iodine.
The Sodium thiosulphate solution was added from the burette 1cm3 at a time. When the color of mixture was pale
yellow, starch solution was added to the flask. Sodium thiosulphate solution was then added until the solution became
colourless. Starch is not added initially because it forms insoluble starch-iodine complex.
The burette is rinsed with solution to remove impurities. Starch indicator shows accurate colour change from blue-black to
colourless.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used to neutralize excess acid. The iodine concentration is proportional to the volume of
Sodium thiosulfate solution added. When titres are small, percentage error will be high.
Calculations:- I2 + 2Na2SO3 2NaI + Na2S4O6 IO3- + 5I- + 6H+ 3I2 + 3H2O
i) Moles of Sodium thiosulphate solution = Concentration volume
ii) Moles of Iodine = answer to (i) / 2
iii) Moles of Potassium iodate = answer to (ii) / 3
iv) Concentration of Potassium iodate (V) in mol dm-3= answer (iii) / volume in dm3
v) Concentration of Potassium iodate (V) in g. dm-3= answer (iv) molar mass
Methods to monitor change in concentration of Iodine:-
MASHKOOR HUSSAIN (M.Sc CHEMISTRY) CERTIFIED CHEMISTRY TEACHER FOR A LEVEL CHEMISTRY (JARIS)
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The titration is done immediately after they have been withdrawn from the reaction mixture because propanone only
slows down reaction but does not stop. So, if flask is left, titre would be too low.
MASHKOOR HUSSAIN (M.Sc CHEMISTRY) CERTIFIED CHEMISTRY TEACHER FOR A LEVEL CHEMISTRY (JARIS)
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Recrystallization:- Dissolve impure solid in minimum volume of hot solvent to prevent much of the product remaining
in solution on cooling. Filter whilst hot using preheated funnel to avoid crystallization, allow to cool and filter off product.
Wash with small amount of cold solvent to remove soluble impurities and then dry. Recrystallization reduces yield
because some product remains in solution, solid remaining on filter paper and in funnel.
Desiccator:- The solids can be dried in a desiccator to avoid decomposition of solid. The solid may decompose or melt if
heated in an oven.
Steam Distillation:- Steam is passed into the mixture and product vapors distilled off with the water and condensed. The
product distils at a lower temperature which prevents decomposition.
How to obtain dry oil from a mixture of water and clove oil:- Mix organic solvent and oil-water mixture in a separating
funnel and then separate. (Add saturated solution of Sodium chloride and separate in a separating funnel). Add anhydrous
Calcium chloride to clove oil and then filter.
Buchner funnel:- The solid can be dried by filtration under reduced pressure using Buchner funnel. The reduced pressure
is achieved by flow of water through pump. The suction filtration is faster than normal filtration.
Determination of melting and boiling temperatures:- The pure liquids boil within a range of 1-2oC. The boiling
temperature of liquid varies with the external pressure, so it is not satisfactory method to access purity of a substance. The
pure solid melt within a range of 1oC. The melting temperature is a reliable method to access purity because it will not
change. The pure substance has a sharp melting temperature, so compare experimental value to data book value.
Washing:- The unwanted impurities can be removed by shaking reaction products with water or sodium carbonate
solution. The carbonate reacts with excess acid present and releases Carbon dioxide gas. The acid will be neutralized
when no more fizz.
MASHKOOR HUSSAIN (M.Sc CHEMISTRY) CERTIFIED CHEMISTRY TEACHER FOR A LEVEL CHEMISTRY (JARIS)
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Drying:- The organic products contain traces of water from the aqueous reagents. The liquids can be dried by being left in
contact with drying agent like silica gel, anhydrous Calcium chloride, anhydrous Sodium sulfate and anhydrous
Magnesium sulfate. The dry product is separated by decanting.
Distillation:- It is used to separate solvent from a solution. The solvent boils off as a gas at its boiling point. The gas
condenses back to a liquid in the cool condenser. The solute remains n the flask. It is used to get pure water from salt
solution. e.g., Water from sea water, Water from Copper (II) sulphate solution and Water from Magnesium sulphate
solution. The liquid should be collected within a boiling range of 1-2 oC to remove impurities. The impurities are left
behind in the flask due to their high boiling point.
Anti-bumping granules:- These granules avoid formation of large bubbles, liquid rising up to the condenser, shooting
out of the top and uneven boiling.
Hydrolysis of Acyl chloride:- The reaction of acyl chloride with water produces carboxylic acid vigorously at room
temperature. The reaction route is not sensible because acyl chloride is more expensive than acid.
Fractional distillation:- It is used to separate two or more miscible liquids with different boiling points. . The organic
compound with a lower boiling point would be collected first in the beaker at its boiling point. The temperature of
thermometer would rise when organic compound with a higher boiling point began to be collected. e.g., To separate a
mixture of ethanol & water from fermented liquor, Nitrogen & Oxygen from liquid air, different petroleum fractions from
crude oil, methanol & ethanol. Electric heater is used to heat organic compounds because they are flammable.
Solvent extraction and separation of immiscible liquids by Separating Funnel:- Organic compounds have different
solubilities in different solvents. The products can be concentrated in one layer using two immiscible solvents. The layers
are separated by separating funnel. The iodine is more soluble in hexane than water, so it can be separated by this method.
Heat under Reflux:- It is used to increase speed of reaction because organic reactions are slow and involve breaking of
covalent bonds. Organic reactions require prolonged heating and refluxing allows organic mixtures to boil for a long time.
It also prevents loss of vapours by evaporation. The mixture being heated returns to the flask. The vapours are cooled and
condensed back in same flask.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
MASHKOOR HUSSAIN (M.Sc CHEMISTRY) CERTIFIED CHEMISTRY TEACHER FOR A LEVEL CHEMISTRY (JARIS)
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reaction.
Procedure
1. Transfer 9 cm3 of concentrated sulfuric acid into a 100 cm3 conical flask and cool it to below 10 oC in an ice bath. Add
5.0 g of methyl benzoate, swirling the flask. Mix 3 cm3 of concentrated nitric acid with 3 cm3 of concentrated sulfuric
acid in another small flask and cool it in ice.
2. Add the mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids, drop by drop, to the methyl benzoate solution, making sure that the
temperature stays below 15oC.
3. Take the mixture out of the ice bath and leave it to stand for 10 minutes at room temperature. Pour the mixture over 40
g of crushed ice and collect the solid product by filtering the mixture under suction. Wash the precipitate, first with cold
water, then with ice-cold ethanol. Keep the washings obtained with the ethanol for a further experiment.
4. Purify the impure methyl 3-nitrobenzoate by recrystallization, using ethanol as the solvent, cooling the solution in an
ice bath to assist recrystallization.
5. Dry the recrystallized product and determine the yield.
Preparation of N-phenylethanamide:- N-phenylethanamide may be prepared in the laboratory by reacting ethanoic
anhydride with phenylamine; both the reactants and the products are flammable. The equation for the reaction is shown
below.
Preparation of Azo dye:- Azo dyes are made in large quantities from benzene, C6H6, via nitrobenzene, C6H5NO2, and
phenylamine, C6H5NH2. The preparation of nitrobenzene requires benzene to be warmed under reflux at about
55C with a mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids. Some information about these substances is given below:
Benzene: immiscible with water; highly flammable; extremely toxic by ingestion or inhalation; known carcinogen.
MASHKOOR HUSSAIN (M.Sc CHEMISTRY) CERTIFIED CHEMISTRY TEACHER FOR A LEVEL CHEMISTRY (JARIS)
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Concentrated nitric acid: miscible with water; causes severe burns to eyes and skin; strong oxidizing agent. The acid
contains about 30% water by volume.
Concentrated sulfuric acid: miscible with water; causes severe burns to eyes and skin; strong oxidizing agent; dilution
with water is very exothermic and can be dangerous.
Nitrobenzene is then reduced to phenylamine, C 6H5NH2, and the phenylamine is diazotized by reaction with nitrous acid
at a temperature between 0C and 10C. Nitrous acid is generated in the reaction mixture from sodium nitrite and
hydrochloric acid. Reaction of the diazonium compound with an alkaline solution of a phenol will produce a solid azo
dye, which is purified by recrystallization.
Purification by recrystallization requires the following steps:
1. The azo dye is dissolved in a minimum volume of hot solvent.
2. The solution is filtered hot through a pre-heated funnel.
3. The solution is cooled and filtered using a Buchner funnel.
4. The solid is washed with a small amount of cold solvent.
5. The solid is dried in a desiccator.
Conversion of Phenylamine into benzenediazonium cation:- The reagents used are Sodium nitrite and Hydrochloric
acid to make Nitrous acid. The nitrous acid is made in this reaction because it is untable and decomposes at room
temperature, so it cant be stored. The reaction is carried out at a temperature of 0-10 oC. The rate of reaction will be too
slow at a lower temperature and diazonium ion decomposes at higher temperature.
Esterification:- Propyl ethanoate is an ester which has a smell similar to that of bananas or pears. It
can be made in the laboratory from propan-1-ol and ethanoic acid. The equation for the
reaction is
Procedure
1. Propan-1-ol (50 cm3) and ethanoic acid (50 cm3) are mixed thoroughly in a 250 cm3 round-bottomed flask.
2. Concentrated sulfuric acid catalyst (10 cm3) is added drop by drop to the mixture, keeping the contents of the flask
well-shaken and cooled in an ice-water bath to prevent splashing of acid, getting mixture too hot and loss of volatile
compounds.
3. When the acid has all been added, a reflux condenser is fitted to the flask to prevent loss of volatile substances and the
mixture gently boiled over an electric heating mantle for about 30 minutes because reaction is slow.
4. The mixture is cooled, and the apparatus rearranged for distillation. The crude ester (about 60 cm 3) is distilled off. The
impurities can be water, propan-1-ol, ethanoic acid and sulfuric acid.
5. The distillate is placed in a separating funnel and shaken with about half its volume of 30% sodium carbonate solution,
with the pressure being released at intervals. The pressure is due to Carbon dioxide gas produced by the neutralization of
acid with sodium carbonate solution. The lower aqueous layer (due to higher density) is then discarded.
6. The crude ester is shaken in a separating funnel with about half its volume of 50% calcium chloride solution, which
removes unreacted alcohol. The lower layer is discarded.
7. The ester is run into a clean, dry flask containing some anhydrous calcium chloride and swirled. The drying agent
removes water and product becomes clear.
8. The ester is filtered into a clean, dry flask, with a few anti-bumping granules, and distilled. The fraction boiling
between 100C and 103C is collected.
MASHKOOR HUSSAIN (M.Sc CHEMISTRY) CERTIFIED CHEMISTRY TEACHER FOR A LEVEL CHEMISTRY (JARIS)