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April 2003
ISBN 9987-8891-4-X ������
Field Testing Manual - 2003
Field Testing
Manual - 2003
April 2003
ISBN 9987-8891-4-X
Preface
An important part of a quality assurance system in civil construction works is a complete description of test procedures. This
involves having a Laboratory Testing Manual and a Field Testing Manual comprising a precise and simple description of test
procedures and necessary forms for records and presentation of the test results. It is in this context that this Field Testing
Manual has been prepared. The Laboratory Testing Manual was prepared and launched in the year 2000 to form a complete
system of testing standards for road works. This system is complemented by the launching of the Pavement an Materials
Design Manual-1999 and the Standard Specifications for Road Works-2000 from where test limits for material quality and
extent of testing programmes are specified.
These manuals form part of the development of Tanzanian National Standards and Guidelines under the Institutional Co-
operation in the Road Sector Programme Agreement between the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania and the
Kingdom of Norway.
The Field Testing Manual describes techniques to be applied during testing in the field of geotechnique, material prospecting
and alignment surveys, construction control, pavement evaluation and axle load surveys. The testing and sampling proce-
dures are clearly specified and their fields of application and limitations are clearly described. Moreover, the test procedures
are simplified to a practical approach, without compromising the correct procedure to be followed for each test.
This Manual will provide an invaluable documentation of field techniques to the benefit of both engineers and technicians
working in the road construction industry in the country and also other areas related to foundations for structures.
Dar es Salaam,
April 2003
F. Marmo
a.g Chief Executive Officer
TANROADS
Acknowledgements
The Field Testing manual – 2003 has been prepared as a component under the Institutional Cooperation between TAN-
ROADS, CML and the Norwegian Public Roads administration (NPRA). The Government of Tanzania and the Norwegian
Agency for International Development (NORAD) have jointly financed the project, which forms a part of a programme to
establiosh technical standards and guidelines for highway engineering.
This Manual has been prepared by a Working Group consisting of the following members:
Mr. C. Overby NPRA Chairman
Mr. S. Rutajama CML Member
Mr. S. Nergaard Noteby, consultant Member
Mr. R. Johansen ViaNova, consultant Secretary
The Working Group wish to acknowledge engineers and technicians at CML for their valuable comments during the prepara-
tion of this Manual.
Summary of Terminology
Definitions of terms and abbreviations are presented in full in Appendix 7. Selected terms, definitions and abbreviations are
tabulated below for ease of reference in the use of this manual.
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Pavement Details
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Background, purpose and scope .............................................................................................................................3
1.2 Structure of the Field Testing Manual 2003 ...........................................................................................................4
1.3 Layout.....................................................................................................................................................................4
2 GEOTECHNIQUE .........................................................................................................................................................7
2.1 Planning of investigations - methodology..............................................................................................................7
2.2 Ground investigations.............................................................................................................................................9
2.3 Soundings ............................................................................................................................................................12
2.4 Borings .................................................................................................................................................................13
2.5 Sampling ..............................................................................................................................................................15
2.6 Handling, transport and storage of samples .........................................................................................................19
2.7 Recording ............................................................................................................................................................19
2.8 Geotechnical test methods....................................................................................................................................20
3 PAVEMENT EVALUATION .......................................................................................................................................39
3.1 Pavement distress .................................................................................................................................................39
3.2 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................................42
3.3 Detailed condition surveys .................................................................................................................................. 45
3.4 Pavement strength – structural surveys ............................................................................................................... 49
3.5 Test pit profiling and sampling ............................................................................................................................52
3.6 Homogenous sections...........................................................................................................................................55
4 AXLE LOAD SURVEYS..............................................................................................................................................58
4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................................58
4.2 Resources for axle load surveys ...........................................................................................................................58
4.3 Condition of survey sites......................................................................................................................................59
4.4 Weighing...............................................................................................................................................................62
4.5 Recording and reporting .......................................................................................................................................64
5 MATERIAL PROSPECTING AND ALIGNMENT SURVEYS...............................................................................71
5.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................................71
5.2 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................................71
5.3 Alignment soil surveys.........................................................................................................................................77
5.4 Soils and gravel sources .......................................................................................................................................80
5.5 Rock Sources ........................................................................................................................................................83
6 CONSTRUCTION CONTROL...................................................................................................................................89
6.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................................89
6.2 Earthworks and unbound layers ...........................................................................................................................89
6.3 Cemented Layers ..................................................................................................................................................94
6.4 Bituminous Layers ...............................................................................................................................................95
6.5 Bituminous Seals..................................................................................................................................................98
6.6 Concrete..............................................................................................................................................................101
6.7 Construction control test methods......................................................................................................................104
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Samples of soils or rock using various methods of sampling. Expected classifications. .....................................18
Table 3.1: Typical types of distress associated with pavement performance. .......................................................................39
Table 3.2: Possible causes of traffic-associated distress........................................................................................................41
Table 3.3: Possible causes of non-traffic-associated distress. ...............................................................................................41
Table 3.4: Minimum required test frequencies for pavement evaluation. ............................................................................44
Table 3.5: Data obtained in the detailed conditions survey. ..................................................................................................45
Table 3.6: Condition rating, visual evaluation. .....................................................................................................................46
Table 3.7: Condition rating, rut depth measurements. ..........................................................................................................47
Table 3.8: Condition rating, roughness measurements..........................................................................................................48
Table 3.9: Condition rating, maximum surface deflection, Benkelman Beam......................................................................52
Table 4.1: Heavy vehicle categories......................................................................................................................................62
Table 4.2 Traffic load distribution between lanes. ...............................................................................................................66
Table 4.3 Traffic Load Classes - TLC ..................................................................................................................................74
Table 5.1: Required size of sample. ......................................................................................................................................76
Table 5.2: Design depth measured from finished road level. ...............................................................................................78
Table 5.3: Sampling frequency. .............................................................................................................................................79
Table 5.4: Borrow pit investigations, minimum test frequency.............................................................................................82
Table 6.1: Methods and purposes of the field testing activities.............................................................................................90
Table 6.2: Sampling Frequencies, earthworks and layerwork. .............................................................................................90
Table 6.3: Density test methods. Inherent weakness of method and common operator errors. ............................................92
Table 6.4: Testing frequencies, field density for earthworks and layerwork.........................................................................93
Table 6.5: Test methods for moisture content. Features of each method ..............................................................................93
Table 6.6: Sampling frequencies for bituminous materials. ..................................................................................................95
Table 6.7: Testing frequencies for field density testing of bituminous materials..................................................................96
Table 6.8: Sampling frequencies for bituminous seals........................................................................................................100
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Pavement Details ...................................................................................................................................................vi
Figure 2.1: Example of areas influencing the works at a far distance from the site. ..............................................................10
Figure 2.2: Principle of vane testing. ......................................................................................................................................26
Figure 2.3: U100 (U4) core sampler assembly. ......................................................................................................................30
Figure 3.1: Sequence of pavement evaluation leading to rehabilitation design......................................................................43
Figure 3.2: Rebound deflection measurements using Benkelman Beam................................................................................51
Figure 3.3: Assessing data for determination of homogenous sections..................................................................................55
Figure 4.1: Sources of error at the weighing site – surface gradient. .....................................................................................60
Figure 4.2: Sources of error at the weighing site – surface evenness. ....................................................................................60
Figure 4.3: Sources of error at the weighing site – surface evenness by the scale. ................................................................61
Figure 4.4: Sources of error at the weighing site – surface evenness, consequences. ............................................................61
Figure 4.5: System for recording axle configurations.............................................................................................................64
Figure 5.1: Use of information from field surveys in pavement design. ................................................................................72
Figure 5.2: Principle of required quantity for material prospecting vs. theoretical quantity from the project drawings .......72
Figure 5.3: Minimum sample size of soils as a function of particle size................................................................................74
Figure 5.4: Method of sampling from trial pit.. ......................................................................................................................75
Figure 5.5: Reducing the sample size by quartering...............................................................................................................75
Figure 5.6: An example of good labelling. .............................................................................................................................76
Figure 5.7: Examples, longitudinal profile. Information from trial pits. ................................................................................78
Figure 5.8: Theoretical material volumes - without loss - in natural, loose and compacted states. ......................................81
Figure 5.9: Typical ‘loss’ of available material volumes during the process of winning natural gravel
for pavement layers. .............................................................................................................................................82
Figure 5.10: Core box before placing wooden rods for marking core loss...............................................................................86
1 INTRODUCTION
1 Introduction
2 Geotechnique
3 Pavement evaluation
6 Construction control
Appendices
It is vitally important that the documents are firmly based on the same platform
regarding methods of testing, interpretation of results and application in the pro-
cess for planning, design, construction and maintenance of roads. An important
part of this process is the work being carried out in the field, to form the basis
for road design, quality control and methods applied during construction and
maintenance.
The Field Testing Manual - 2003 serves the purpose of setting standards for
field investigations and field testing, and is a reference book providing advice
for engineers and technicians involved in such work. The Manual is prepared
with links to the above documents in respect of method and minimum require-
ments for investigations and data collection. This includes investigations for
new projects as well as evaluation of existing roads with the purpose of utilising
the pavement structure in rehabilitation and upgrading of the road. Appropriate
standards of workmanship in road construction and maintenance, as described
in the above documents, is reflected in the Field Testing Manual - 2003 in de-
scriptions of appropriate construction quality control.
The Manual is prepared with emphasis on being a practical handbook that
provides appropriate cost effective investigations of sufficient accuracy for the
purpose.
1 Introduction:
Purpose: Introduction to the Manual with backgraound and purpose and
scope.
2 Geotechnique:
Purpose: Investigations related to stability of foundations for e.g. bridges
and other structures, stability of embankments and cuttings.
3 Pavement evaluation:
Purpose: Assessment of the condition of existing pavements, to form
basis for optimal design of rehabilitation measures.
6 Construction control:
Purpose: Quality Control during construction.
1.3 Layout
Parts of the Manual are printed with the same layout as the method sheets of the
Laboratory Testing Manual - 2000. This is considered a superior layout where
a number of standardised methods are being described, but is not ideal way of
presenting large amounts of informative text. A mixed layout has therefore been
chosen for the Field Testing Manual - 2003 in order to make a user friendly
format and to capture the best of both layouts. Wherever practical, the method
sheet layout has been applied due to its more concise format.
1 Introduction
2 Geotechnique
3 Pavement evaluation
6 Construction control
Appendices
2.4 Borings............................................................................................. 13
2.4.1 General ................................................................................. 13
2.4.2 Boring methods .................................................................... 13
2.5 Sampling .......................................................................................... 15
2.5.1 Sampling techniques ............................................................ 15
2.5.2 Sample disturbance classes .................................................. 15
2.5.3 Disturbed samples ................................................................ 16
2.5.4 Un-disturbed samples........................................................... 17
2.5.5 Choice of sample method depending on soil conditions...... 17
2.5.6 Field classification and sample size ..................................... 18
2.6 Handling, transport and storage of samples ................................ 19
2.7 Recording ........................................................................................ 19
2.7.1 Field recording ..................................................................... 19
2.7.2 Reporting.............................................................................. 19
2.8 Geotechnical test methods ............................................................. 20
2.1.2 Objectives
The primary objective of most site investigations is to secure sufficient informa-
tion to enable a safe and economical design to be made. Thereby the construc-
tion can proceed without any difficulties and in-service performance or safety is
not adversely affected.
An important objective of site investigations is to determine the effect of
changes to the surroundings that will incur as a consequence of implementing
the project. E.g. the construction of high embankments may affect large areas
beyond the project location.
2.2.3 Requirements
To meet the primary objectives of the site investigation, the ground investiga-
tion should generally satisfy the following basic requirements:
● Clarify the geology of the site.
● Establish the soil and rock profile.
● Establish the ground water profile.
● Establish the engineering properties of the ground.
● Cover all ground which may be permanently or temporarily changed by the
project.
There may also be other requirements particular to each project, and the basic
requirements must be detailed.
2.2.4 Procedures
The general procedures for ground investigations are as follows, based on the
results of the desk study, site reconnaissance and an evaluation of the project
type and stage:
1. Define the objective of the investigation. The results should be continuously evaluated
2. Decide the extent of the investigation. to see if the objectives are met, and plans and
methods should be corrected if necessary.
3. Decide the method of investigation.
4. Carry out field and laboratory work, possibly by stages.
5. Reinstate all pits etc. by carefully backfilled, and any pits that have to be
left open and unattended should be fenced off or properly secured with
other appropriate methods.
Mass influenced by
the works
Figure 2.1: Example of areas influencing the works at a far distance from the site.
2.2.8 Personnel
Ground investigations should be planned and directed by a senior engineer or
geologist also responsible for assessing and interpreting the results. The supervi-
sion of field work may be delegated to qualified engineers or geologists assisted
by trained senior field technicians or drilling supervisors. This personnel should
be conversant with field description and classification of soils and rock and the
investigation methods used.
Borehole/test pits logging and field material descriptions are normally the respon-
sibility of the driller/technician and should be checked by the field supervisor.
2.3 Soundings
2.3.1 General
The sounding tests are purely empirical. They are simple to perform and have
been in use for many years. Consequently there is a wealth of experience,
data and correlations from all parts of the world, linking the test results to soil
parameters and performance of structures, to ensure a reasonably confident
interpretation of the results.
Soundings from the surface without sampling and without pre-boring, may be
carried out by several means; and consists in its simplest form of the driving
of a steel rod into the ground until hard stratum is located. However, standard
procedures have been developed to enable the systematic recording of relative
resistance of various soil layers and the accumulation of empirical relationships
between sounding resistance and soil engineering characteristics. Such meth-
ods are:
● Dynamic soundings.
● Static soundings.
● Weight- and Rotary soundings.
Both static and rotary sounding systems with electronic or hydraulic recording
of the resistance to penetration have lately been developed.
2.4 Borings
2.4.1 General
Borings are required for sampling the ground or to provide a hole in which to
conduct tests of the in-situ properties. The type of boring to be used depends on
the purpose and the ground conditions. The most important ground parameters
affecting the boring operations are:
● The self supporting ability of the ground.
● The content of larger particle size, cobbles etc.
In general cohesive soils are self supporting, so are some cemented sands and
silts, whereas granular materials below the ground water level are unstable.
The borehole sides may be supported by inserting linings of steel casing, or
by filling the borehole with a head of water or heavy liquids like a bentonite
suspension called mud or slurry. The worst ground conditions to drill through
are layers of boulders.
Percussion borings
Percussion borings loosens the ground with a drop chisel. The spoils are mixed
with water and lifted out of the hole by a shell or baler.
The shell may be used as a boring tool in loose granular materials below the
ground water level. Other tools used are a clay cutter.
The clay cutter and shell bring up disturbed material that are sufficiently repre-
sentative to identify the strata. Samples may also be taken from the bottom of
the hole. However, some of the percussion boring procedures, such as adding
water to a dry hole in clay or working with a water level other than the ground
water level, may not be acceptable from a soil exploration point of view.
There is usually some disturbance of the soil below the bottom of the borehole,
from which samples are taken, and it is very difficult to detect thin layers of soil
and minor geological features with this method. Percussion boring can be em-
ployed in most types of soil, including those containing cobbles and boulders.
The rig for percussion boring is very versatile and can normally be fitted with a
hydraulic power unit and attachments for mechanical augering, rotary core drill-
ing and cone penetration testing.
Rotary drilling
Rotary drilling is the traditional drilling method for investigations of rock, but
the method is also used in soils. It is particularly useful in the kind of layered
hard/soft strata typical for the regions of volcanic rocks, tuff and ashes.
There are two forms of rotary drilling, open hole drilling and core drilling. Open
hole drilling, which is generally used in soils and weak rock, uses a cutting bit
to break down all the material within the diameter of the hole. Water or mud is
used to flush out the material. Open hole drilling can only be used as a means of
advancing the hole, the drilling rods can then be removed to allow tube samples
to be taken or in situ tests to be carried out. In core drilling, which is used in
rocks and hard clays, the bit cuts an annular hole in the material and an intact
core enters the barrel, to be removed as a sample. However, the natural water
content of the material is liable to be increased due to contact with the drilling
fluid. Typical core diameters are 41 mm, 54 mm and 76 mm, but can range up to
165 mm. The larger diameters are used in difficult rock.
The advantage of rotary drilling in soils is that progress is much faster than with
other investigation methods and disturbance of the soil below the borehole is
slight. The method is not suitable if the soil contains a high percentage of gravel
(or larger) particles as they tend to rotate beneath the bit and are not broken up.
2.5 Sampling
2.5.1 Sampling techniques
There are four main techniques for sampling the ground: The principal types of tube samplers are:
● Open tube samplers
● Taking disturbed samples from the drill tools or from excavating equipment ● Stationary piston samplers
in the course of boring or excavation. ● Continuous sampler
● Compressed air sampler
● Drive sampling, in which a tube or split tube sampler having a sharp cutting ● Rotary core sampler
edge at its lower end is forced into the ground either by a static thrust or by
dynamic impact.
● Rotary sampling, in which a tube with a cutter at its lower end is rotated
into the ground, thereby producing a core sample.
● Taking block samples specially cut by hand from a trial pit, shaft or heading.
Within the five classes there are two main categories for practically denoting the
samples:
● Disturbed samples.
● Undisturbed samples.
Class 1
Class 1 samples for precise determination of strength and deformation charac-
teristics may be impossible to obtain in sensitive cohesive soils, and of non-co-
hesive soils from below the water table.
Residual soils represent a particular problem for Class 1 sampling as they tend
to swell during sampling, often resulting in permanent damage to the soil struc-
ture. This swell is due to lack of internal suction in partly saturated soils, and
even in the case of saturated soils, an open structure with large voids will not be
able to maintain suction without volumetric expansion and desaturation.
Class 2
Class 2 is taking of disturbed samples with additional requirements to obtain
field/bulk density of the soils. Determination of the field density may be ex-
ecuted by:
● Block sampling.
● Core cutter method (shoe cutter).
● Split spoon sampler.
Classes 3 to 5
Classes 3 to 5 are the commonly called disturbed samples. Apart from the actual
sampling, the quality also depends on how the sample is sealed, transported,
stored, and treated in the laboratory. The most important consideration is to
observe that class 3 requres sealed packaging for measuring moisture content in
the laboratory.
Sampling methods
Disturbed samples can be excavated from trial pits or obtained from the tools
used to advance boreholes (e.g. from augers and the clay cutter) and from the
sampler of the SPT tests. The soil recovered from the shell in percussion boring
Safety precautions must be observed, esecially is deficient in fines and is therefore unsuitable for use as a disturbed sample.
sloping or supporting of the sides of deep pits be-
fore personnel are allowed to enter trial pits. Sam- Trial pits, shafts and headings supply the most detailed and reliable data on the
pling and inspection should be done immediately
upon excavation of unsupported pits. soil in-situ conditions, enabling visual examination of strata boundaries and soil
fabric.
Trial pits
Trial pits may be dug by hand or a light mechanical excavator in all soil types
above the ground water level. Excavation below the ground water level in
permeable soils will require dewatering, and the safe excavation depth is very
limited.
Sampling methods
Undisturbed samples can be cut by hand from trial pits or obtained by special The highest quality samples are obtained by block
samplers, refer sample techniques b), c) and d) above. However, the quality of sampling.
such samples can vary considerably, depending on the sampler, the sampling
technique used and the ground conditions.
Piston samplers
The standard 54 mm sampler (Geonor type) is designed to be driven down to U4 core sample.
undisturbed soil well below the bottom of the borehole, where the thin walled
cylinder is pressed down in one continuous movement. The sampler is used in
silt and clay and will give Class 1 samples in soft to medium ground.
42 mm penetration sampler for use with dynamic sounding equipment of the
percussion drill type, may give Class 3 samples for classification and natural
moisture content.
Other piston samplers of sample diameter up to 100 mm or greater may be used
in special cases, for example to obtain samples of research quality.
Table 2.1: Samples of soils or rock using various methods of sampling. Expected clas-
sifications.
2.7 Recording
2.7.1 Field recording
Sample description
Field sample description and classification is part of the sampling procedure and
shall be carried out as set out in Chapter 5 - Materials prospecting and align-
ment surveys.
The aims of field descriptions, in-situ testing and laboratory testing of samples
of soil and rock are:
1. To identify and classify the samples with a view to making use of past expe-
rience with materials of similar geological age, origin and condition; and
2. to obtain soil and rock parameters relevant to the technical objectives of the
investigation.
Recording
Proper field procedures include accurate setting out with reference to an identifi-
able permanent physical object which should also be shown on the plan draw-
ing of the investigation. Normally, the ground level of test pits, bore holes etc.
should be determined.
All samples must be labelled with a unique sample identification including:
1. Project name.
2. Date.
3. Location and elevation of borehole.
4. Depth.
5. Method of sampling.
6. Description.
7. Remarks etc.
2.7.2 Reporting
General
All field work should be reported on standardised forms, which will also serve
as check lists for the personnel, to ensure that all relevant data for interpreta-
tion of the results are collected. A copy of the report should always follow the
samples to the laboratory.
Objective
The uses of the CPT test have traditionally been to predict pile driving resistance,
skin friction and end bearing capacity of driven piles in non cohesive soils re-
gardless of the groundwater conditions. The test with continuous resistance ���������� ����
recording is also commonly used to investigate clays. As with other probing
systems, the test only gives an indication of the soil type, and traditional boring ���� ����
and sampling is required for a positive soil determination, using the CPT for
rapid interpolation between boreholes. � ����
Description of method
���
The basic test procedure is to record the resistance when pushing the cone a
fixed distance into the ground ahead of the outer rods, and then to push the
outer rods down into contact with the point and further advancing the cone and
outer rods together to the next test depth. The resistance when advancing the
� � � ����
outer rods may also be recorded. The latest equipment registers the point resist-
ance electrically by sensors inside the point, enabling the recording of a contin- Without friction sleeve
uous resistance profile, including the pore water pressures. This type of equip-
ment may detect very thin soil layers. The cone or penetrometer point is at the
end of a string of inner rods running inside hollow outer rods sleeve or shaft.
Use of the CPT test is limited by the safe load that can be carried by the cone,
and the force available for pushing the penetrometer into the ground. Pene-
tration will normally have to be terminated when dense sand or gravel, coarse
gravels, cobbles or rock is encountered. Going from soft ground directly into
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rock or cobbles may break the point.
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Note that although the results of the CPT test may be analysed by soil mecha- �����
nics theory, the correlations between cone resistance bearing capacity, settle-
ment and shear strength are partly based on experience with certain soil types �������� ������
and should thus be used with caution for other types of soil.
● BS 1377 : Part 9 : 1990 gives details on test procedure for CPT. ���� ����
� ����
● BS 5930 describes the procedure for a test variety called the Static
Dynamic Probing, combining the advantages of the CPT with the greater ���
penetration in firm ground of the dynamic penetration test.
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Witht friction sleeve
Field investigations
Central Materials Laboratory 2 Geotechnique
Test Method no F 2.02
Soundings:
Standard penetration test - SPT and
Continuous Cone Penetration Test - CCPT
The basis of the test consists of dropping with a free fall a hammer of mass
63.5 kg on to a drive head from a height of 760 mm. The number of such blows
necessary to achieve a penetration of the split-barrel sampler of 300 mm,
following a 150 mm seating drive, is regarded as the penetration resistance (N).
The SPT test may be carried out with a solid cone point suitable for hard
ground. This test is denoted Continuous Cone Penetration Test (CCPT).
CCPT
The Continuous Cone Penetration Test (CCPT) is performed in gravel and
coarse soils and is conducted in the usual way as for SPT except that the
SPT sampler. sampler is replaced by a solid steel cone of the same outside diameter, with a
60° apex cone. The continuation of this description refers to the SPT test.
Limitations
In conditions where the quality of the “undisturbed” ● Samples are disturbed, thus the soil strength parameters which can be in
sample is suspect, e.g. very silty or very sandy ferred are approximate.
clays, or hard clays, it is often advantageous to
alternate the sampling with standard penetration ● When the test is carried out in granular soils below groundwater level, the
tests to check the strength. soil may become loosened.
When boring in soil that will not allow a hole to remain stable, casing and/or
mud shall be used. The area that is exposed in the base of the borehole prior to ���� �����
� ����� � �� ��� �������� ���
testing may influence the result and consequently the borehole diameter shall
always be reported. � �� " ���
��������
��� ���
the same diameter, shall be made of steel with a smooth surface externally and
internally. The drive shoe shall be made of hardened steel. It shall be replaced
when it becomes damaged or distorted to avoid the test result being affected. ���� �����
The coupling shall contain a 25 mm nominal diameter ball check valve seated in �����
an orifice of not less than 22 mm nominal diameter which shall be located below
the venting. The ball and its seat shall be constructed and maintained to provide
a watertight seal when the sampler is withdrawn. Alternative designs of check
����� ������
valves are permitted provided they give equal or better performance.
��� ���
Drive rods
The rods used for driving the sampler assembly shall be tightly coupled by
screw joints and shall comply with BS 4019.
● Minimum stiffness, general:.............................. type AW drill rods
����� ����
�� " ���
● Minimum stiffness, holes deeper than 20 m: .... type BW drill rods �
● Maximum rod weight: ....................................... 10.0 kg/m
Only straight rods shall be used and, the relative deflections shall not be greater �� " ��� �
than 1 in 1000 when measured over the whole length of each rod. � �� " ��� ��� " ���
Drive assembly
The drive assembly of an overall mass not exceeding 115 kg shall comprise the
following.
● A hammer made of steel and weighing 63.5 + 0.5 kg.
● A pick-up and release mechanism which shall ensure that the hammer has a SPT slip barrel sampler assembly.
free fall of 760 + 20 mm, and shall not influence the acceleration and decel-
eration of the hammer or the rods. The velocity of the hammer shall be neg-
ligible when the hammer is released at its upper limit.
Periodic checks for rod straightness shall be
● A guide arrangement which shall permit the hammer to drop with minimal made on site, including the threaded connections
resistance and to ensure the hammer strikes the anvil squarely. between consecutive rods.
● A drive-head (anvil) made of steel, with a mass between 15 kg and 20 kg,
which shall be tightly screwed to the top of the drive rods.
Procedure
Preparing the borehole
Clean out the borehole carefully to the test elevation using equipment that will
ensure the soil to be tested is not disturbed. When boring below the ground-
water table maintain at all times the water or mud level in the borehole at a
sufficient distance above the groundwater level to minimize disturbance of the
Withdraw the drilling tools slowly from the ground soil at the base of the borehole. Maintain the water or mud level in the borehole
and up the borehole (when filled with water) to pre- throughout the test to ensure hydraulic balance at the test elevation.
vent suction and consequent loosening of the soil
to be tested. When casing is used, do not drive it
below the level at which the test is to commence. Executing the test
Lower the sampler assembly to the bottom of the borehole on the drive rods
with the drive assembly on top. Record the initial penetration under this total
dead-weight. Where this penetration exceeds 450 mm omit the seating drive
and test drive and record the’ N’ value as zero. After the initial penetration, carry
out the test in two stages:
The rate of application of hammer blows shall not 1. Seating drive: Using standard blows the seating drive shall be a penetration
be excessive such that there is the possibility of
not achieving the standard drop or preventing of 150 mm or 25 blows whichever is first reached.
equilibrium conditions prevailing between succes-
sive blows. 2. Test drive: The number of blows required for a further penetration of 300
mm and this is termed the penetration resistance (N). If the 300 mm pene-
tration cannot be achieved in 50 blows terminate the test drive. For test driv-
ing in soft rock the test drive should be terminated after 100 blows if a pene-
tration of 300 mm has not been achieved.
Interpretation
Interpretation is part of foundation design, that should contain an site investi-
gation report including interpretation of the data. There is a lack of enforced and
consistent international standardization for the drilling technique and SPT tests
equipment. SPT results and soil parameters derived from data outside Tanzania
may therefore not correlate with results from SPTs derived in accordance with
practices in the country.
References
● BS 5930 : 1999
● BS 1377 : Part 9 : 1990
● Review of relevant literature:
CLAYTON, C.R.I. The standard penetration test (SPT): Methods and use.
CIRIA Report no. 143. London: CIRIA 1995.
Objectives
Vane tests are used for determining the in-situ shear strength of fully saturated
cohesive soils (clays). The test can be extended to measure the re-moulded
strength of the soil.
Description of method
A steel vane at the end of a high tensile steel rod is pushed into the clay below
the bottom of the borehole and torque is subsequently applied to induce shear
failure of the clay cylinder contained by the blades of the vane. With this type it
is not always possible to penetrate to the desired stratum without the assistance
of pre-boring. The torque required to rotate the vane can be related to the shear
strength of the soil.
In soft to medium strength clays this test may be carried out independently of
a borehole by jacking the vane into the ground in a protective casing. At the
required depth, the vane is advanced ahead of the casing, the test conducted, Vane.
and the vane and casing forced to the next test depth.
The vane test is normally restricted to fully saturated clays of un-drained shear
strength up to about 100 kN/m2, and is particularly useful in soft, sensitive
clays where sample disturbance may influence laboratory results. It has little
applicability to partly saturated and cemented soils.
Apparatus
The vane test apparatus shall be either the borehole or penetration type, as
illustrated. Small hand held equipment is only suitable as indicator tests.
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The design of the vane shall be such that it causes as little remoulding and
disturbance as possible when inserted into the ground for a test. The blades
shall be as thin as possible, consistent with the strength requirements, and
have a cutting edge at the lower end. The rod on which the vane is mounted,
normally of high tensile steel, shall preferably not exceed 13 mm in diameter.
Rods
The vane rod shall be enclosed by a suitably designed sleeve from just above
the blades and throughout the length it penetrates the soil to exclude soil
particles and the effects of soil adhesion. The sleeve shall be packed with
grease. This sleeve shall commence above the blades at a distance equivalent
to about two diameters of the vane rod.
Instrument
Calibrated torque measuring instrument preferably with height adjustment and
capable of being clamped in the required position. The base of the instrument
shall be capable of being fixed to the ground. The instrument shall have a
torque capacity of approximately 100 Nm and an accuracy of 1 % or better of
the indicated torque from 10 Nm to the instrument’s maximum reading.
Procedure
The following is specified for performing the test.
● Place steady bearing minimum every 3 m in the case of tests in a borehole.
● Rotate the torque head throughout the test at a rate within the range 0.10°/
second to 0.20°/second (equal to 6° /minute to 12° /minute).
● Rotate the torque head until the soil is sheared by the vane. Read the
gauge at maximum deflection, thus indicating the torque required to shear
the soil.
Remoulding
Test of re-moulded strength of soils is done by removing the torque-measuring
instrument from the extension rods and turning the vane through six complete
rotations. A period of 5 min is permitted to elapse after which the vane test is
repeated in the normal way.
where
Assuming the distribution of the shear strength is uniform across the ends of a
cylinder and around the perimeter then:
� D2H (1+ D
) 10
2
K= -6
3H
where
K = 3.66D3 X 10 –6
References
• BS 5930 : 1999
• BS 1377 : Part 9 : 1990
Objectives
Undisturbed samples are required to determine the strength and volume Refer to Chapter 2.5.2 for definition of disturbance
stability characteristics of the soil. Undisturbed samples must preserve both the classes:
in-situ structure and water content of the soil. Class 1 (undisturbed)
Class 2 (classification, moisture, density)
Description of method and equipment Class 3 (classification, moisture)
Class 4 (classification only)
Open tube samplers: U100 core sampling Class 5 (none, sequence of strata only)
Open-tube samplers consist essentially of a tube that is open and made
sharp at one end and fitted at the other end with means for attachment to the
drill rods. General purpose 100 mm U100 (also called U4 after the imperial
measurements) diameter sampler is used in all cohesive soils and weak rock. A
sample catcher or core-catcher is used to aid the recovery of silty or sandy soil
which tend to fall out upon withdrawal of the sampler. The U100 sampler may
either be forced down in one continuous movement or be hammered down.
When forced down, samples of non-sensitive, fine cohesive soils of stiff or lower
consistency may give Class 1 samples (highest class, undisturbed). However,
the normal quality is Class 2 or even lower if hammered into hard ground.
Other open tube samplers of varying diameters, but of the same general
working principle as the U100 type, are also in use. Special thin walled
samplers have been developed to improve the sample quality, but piston
samplers are preferable.
Piston samplers
The standard 54 mm sampler (Geonor type) is designed to be driven down to U100 (U4) core sampler with extracted core.
undisturbed soil well below the bottom of the borehole, where the thin walled
cylinder is pressed down in one continuous movement. The sampler is used in
silt and clay and will give Class 1 samples in soft to medium ground.
42 mm penetration sampler for use with dynamic sounding equipment of the
percussion drill type, may give Class 3 samples for classification and natural
moisture content.
Piston samplers are currently not commonly used
in the country and for further detail refer to relevant
Other piston samplers of sample diameter up to 100 mm or greater may be literature and BS 5930:1999.
used in special cases, for example to obtain samples of research quality.
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References
● BS 5930:1999
Objective
One of the most important parts of any ground investigation is the determination
of ground water levels or ground water pressures. In layered ground, permeable
layers separated by impermeable stratum may have different ground water
pressures and some may be artesian. Seasonal variations in the ground water
pressures should also be determined or evaluated.
Description of methods
General
The ground water conditions should always be observed as part of any borehole
operation. However, borehole observations may not be correct due to the time
required for the water level to stabilize, particularly in ground of low permeability.
Furthermore, it may not be possible to determine the levels or strata from which
the water is entering the borehole. Use of casings or mud may also interfere
with the results.
Piezometers - general
To measure ground water pressures accurately it is generally necessary to install
special measuring devices called piezometers. Piezometers may be installed to
different depths in the same location to study pressures in various layers. There
are several types of piezometers in the market as described below. Piezometers
are important parts of pumping tests, and the standpipe and hydraulic type may
also be used for in-situ permeability tests as described for boreholes.
Standpipe piezometers
Standpipe piezometers consist of a porous filter tip sealed into the ground at the
appropriate level and with an open tube (standpipe) to the surface for plumbing
the water level. The response time of this type of piezometer is long in soils of
low permeability due to the large volumes of water in the system. Some piezo-
meters (e.g. type BAT) are designed to facilitate sampling.
Hydraulic piezometers
Hydraulic piezometers are closed systems where the pressure is measured by
a manometer, having a short response time.
References
Electrial ground water level detector.
● BS 5930:1999
Field investigations
Central Materials Laboratory 2 Geotechnique
Test Method no F 2.06
Groundwater:
Permeability tests for soils and rock
Objective
In-situ permeability testing is generally more Permeability tests are carried out for the purpose of measuring underground
reliable than tests performed on samples in flow characteristics of ground water through in-situ soils or rock. Pumping
the laboratory due to the large mass of ground
involved and the lack of sample disturbance. tests may be carried out to study the permeability, transmissivity and storage
However, permeability testing requires expert of an area of several square kilometres, as may be required in the evaluation
knowledge both to select the correct method and of ground water resources or the design of subterrain cut-off barriers in dam
to evaluate the results.
design.
Description of method
Of the variety of in-situ permeability tests in boreholes the common tests are:
A. Permeability of soils below the ground water level by the variable head
methods.
B. Permeability of soils below the ground water level by the constant head
methods.
C. Permeability of soils or rock by pumping tests.
D. Permeability of rock subjected to water pressure, Packer test.
As a rule, constant head borehole tests are likely Tests A and B both apply a hydraulic pressure in the borehole different from that
to give more accurate results than variable head in the ground and observe the effect in the borehole.
tests, but variable head tests are simpler to per-
form. The more elaborate and expensive pumping
tests with observation of the drawdown levels, give Test C - pumping test for the permeability of the ground - involves a steady
the most reliable results. flow pumping from a well and observation of the drawdown effect on ground
water levels in inspection wells (piezometers), at some distance away from the
pumped well. The drawdown in ground water level thus created is termed the
“cone of depression”.
References
● BS 5930:1999
Objective
Ground water sampling is carried out for the purpose of chemical analysis, either
for evaluation as a water source for consumption or use in the works. Water for
earthworks, layerworks or concrete requires testing against deleterious matter
such as e.g. soluble salts or other substances causing damage.
Description of method
A sample should be taken immediately the water bearing stratum is reached Some piezometers (e.g. type BAT) are designed to
during boring. It is preferable to obtain samples from the standpipe piezometers facilitate sampling.
if these have been installed. It is important to ensure that samples are not cont-
aminated or diluted.
References
● BS 5930:1999
Field investigations
Central Materials Laboratory 2 Geotechnique
Test Method no F 2.08
Deformation test:
Plate loading test
Objectives
The plate loading method is used for determination of the vertical deformation
and strength characteristics of soil, primarily for foundation footings, but may
also be requested for determination of in-situ E-modulus of pavement layers of
for support of the pavement.
Description of method
The test is conducted by penetrating a rigid, circular, plate into the soil in-
situ and measuring the force and deformation strength of density of soils and
compacted layers of primarily clay and soft materials. Core cutting gives volume
by predetermining the size of the excavated hole with a calibrated core of
known volume.
Limitations
● The test is slow to perform and requires a considerable input of resources.
The method is therefore not well suited for investigations of large areas.
● The results are only valid for the site conditions under which the test is
performed, e.g. with regards to moisture conditions.
Apparatus
General
The apparatus for determining penetration is normally the same as used for
Benkelman beam testing. A hydraulic jack is used for applying the force, that
is measured by aid of a calibrated manometer on the jack. Support to the jack
may be a truck or other heavy equipment. Quick-setting plaster is required for
preparation of the test site. Equipment for sampling and field density measurement
is required if such tests are requested at the same location as the plate loading
test.
The depth to which the measurement has effect is The test plate
approximately1,5 times the diameter of the plate,
as a rule of thumb.
The plate shall be circular and the diameter normally ranges between 150 and
300 mm. The plate diameter should be larger than five times the diameter of the
larges particles normally found in the soil. In case of measurement of fissured
clay the plate diameter should be larger than five times the spacing between the
fissures, and have a diameter of minimum 300 mm.
2. Apply a film of oil on the plate and place it in postion. Rotate and tap the The increment loading method gives the strength
plate to bed it properly, and remov all surplus plaster. characteristics under drained conditions.
4. Apply an initial load of 20 kN/m2 for a few secondes and thereafter set the
measurement gauge to zero.
5. Load the plate in five increments. The table below suggests increments to
use in the test. The load at each increment shall be maintaned intil deforma-
tion is negligible. Record the load and deformation at each load increment.
6. Off-load the plate slowly and repeat the test after the arm of the force gauge
has settled.
Increment Load (kN/m2) It is desirable to load the plate at equal increments
whereby the maximum load is near the design
1 50 pressure. This is possibly to obtain where site
2 180 conditions are familiar.
3 300
4 420
5 600
P1 = P70 – P30
S1 = S70 – S30
3 P1
E1 = x xD
4 S1
where:
P70 is the pressure (kN/m2) at 70% of the maximum pressure
P30 is the pressure (kN/m2) at 30% of the maximum pressure
S70 is the deformation (metres) at 70% of the maximum pressure
S30 is the deformation (metres) at 30% of the maximum pressure
D is the diameter of the plate (metres)
References
● BS 1377 : Part 9 : 1990
1 Introduction
2 Geotechnique
3 Pavement evaluation
6 Construction control
Appendices
References
● Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999, Ministry of Works,
Tanzania
● Guideline no. 2 Pavement Testing, Analysis and Interpretation of Test
Data. Roads Department, Botswana, 2000
The structural failure of a pavement is usually indicated by development in rut- The mode of distress and failure of pavements
is a function of the type of pavement, primarily
ting and cracking, and may eventually lead to surface disintegration, ravelling related to the subbase, base and surfacing type.
and/or shear failure in the pavement. However, failure may also be a result of I.e. stabilised materials behave in a different man-
surface defects that initiate other structural defects after ingress of moisture. ner to granular materials, and asphaltic concrete
behaves differently to thin bituminous seals. These
aspects are discussed at further depth in the
The functional performance of a structurally sound pavement is taken care of by Pavement and Materials Design Manual -1999.
regular maintenance. However, if structural defects are allowed to develop, they
will start affecting the functional pavement performance adversely.
The needs for a pavement evaluation usually arise as a result of one or more of
the following conditions:
● Poor functional performance that appears to be a result of structural defects.
● Poor structural performance, potentially requiring costly intervention in
order to arrest further deterioration.
● Εxpected dramatic increase in traffic in the short term.
● Strategic reasons related to the funding situation or network strategies. By carrying out visual inspection imme-
diately after rainfall, pavement defects such
Types of cracks as rutting/depression clearly shows up.
Development of cracking may be a primary cause of subsequent ingress of
moisture and weakening of structural layers, leading to rapid deterioration of a
pavement. This is why identification of cracking is a key element of any pave-
ment evaluation. Different forms of cracking can be due to different fundamen-
tal causes, so cracks can be a good indicator of the distress mechanism in the
pavement. It is therefore vital to be able to identify the various types of cracks
in the field, and for practical purposes, four different types are defined, as indi-
cated below.
Block cracking at an early stage.
Pumping in cracks
Pumping occurs when water pressures generated in the pavement by traffic
loading, causing water containing fine material to be pumped to the surface
through cracks. It indicates loss of fine material from the pavement materials,
leading to loss of support to cemented layers in particular and distress.
Type of Distress
Possible cause
distress indicators
Cracking: • Subgrade problems.
Longitudinal in the • Poor construction.
wheeltracks • Start of failure in stabilised base course.
• Fatigue failure of surfacing or base.
Structural Cracking: Crocodile • Poor drainage/high moisture content.
• Poor bond under bituminous surfacing.
Pumping in cracks • Moisture/drainage problems with significant movement in upper pavement layers.
• Insufficient or dry binder.
Ravelling of surface
• Poor aggregate adhesion.
• Insufficient compaction of subgrade.
• Insufficient compaction of pavement layers.
Rutting
• Insufficient pavement strength.
• Shear failure of bituminous surfacing or granular base course.
Structural • Poor bonding surfacing/base course.
(functional • Disintegration of weak aggregates.
when severe) Surface potholes • Damage caused by soluble salts.
• Vehicular damage.
• Spalling around cracks.
Deep potholes (into • Insufficient shear strength of base course or subbase.
the base course) • Excessive moisture.
• Excessive application of bitumen.
Functional Bleeding/flushing
• Soft base resulting in punching of aggregate.
3.2 Methodology
3.2.1 Purpose of pavement evaluation
General
The purpose of pavement evaluation is to determine why the present condition
prevails so that appropriate rehabilitation measures can be identified, i.e. to
provide the input for pavement rehabilitation designs. Before embarking on any
pavement evaluation it is essential to understand its objective in each case, and
to make use of evaluation techniques that will best achieve this objective. Plan-
ning of pavement evaluations must be aimed at satisfying the requirements of
the specific evaluation, which normally calls for a functional evaluation as well
as a structural evaluation.
Functional evaluation
Functional evaluations identify the capability of the pavement structure to
provide a comfortable and safe service to the road user. The primary parameters
determined in functional evaluations are the riding quality, skid resistance and a
visual evaluation of aspects such as potholes and edge break.
Structural evaluation
Structural evaluations are carried out to determine whether the pavement will
carry the traffic it has been designed for and can be carried out at any time in
the pavement’s life. The remaining structural capacity can be determined and
compared with the traffic that the pavement has carried, or is expected to carry,
over the remainder of its life.
Structural evaluations involve the use of field testing and detailed investiga-
tions. Structural surveys may consist of pit excavations with associated labo-
ratory testing, deflection measurements and probing by e.g. Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer (DCP).
Structural evaluations require an investigation of the strengths and thicknesses
of the individual pavement layers as well as the overall interaction of the layers
within the pavement structure. These evaluations may require testing of param-
eters such as:
● Probing with Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP).
● Profiles or test pits.
● Deflection.
● Deflection bowl parameters may give additional information to explain e.g.
the mode of distress when assessed together with layer thicknesses.
Visual evaluations of cracking, disintegration and potholing are necessary inputs
for a structural evaluation. It is possible to obtain a preliminary indication of the
possible causes of distress in a pavement from a simple visual evaluation.
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The parameters in Table 3.5 can be grouped into the following categories that
practically are being measured or observed at the same time or with similar
types of resources.
● Visual evaluation.
● Rut depth measurements.
● Roughness measurements.
Reference points
It is of utmost importance to tie in the measured data with fixed physical
features along the road, as there is likely to be a difference between vehicle
distance and project road distance. Established chainages may also be changed
over time, rendering measured data unusable due to lack of reference. Any dif-
ference in reference points should be accommodated during data processing to
ensure all field data can be directly correlated to fixed field features.
Some of the data are not rated, as indicated above, as they do not
directly form part of the input to the rehabilitation design. These data are
nevertheless useful, providing the designer with valuable information as a
basis for deciding on appropriate rehabilitation measures.
Test procedure
It is recommended to use a standard 2-metre straight edge with a calibrated
wedge for rut depth measurements. Where no 2-metre straight edge is available,
it is possible that a length of string be substituted, however this technique is not
generally recommended as it requires considerable practice to avoid over-reading.
Normally it is sufficient to measure the maximum rut in the outside wheel paths, For single carriageway (two lane) roads, the
which in most cases have the greater rut depth. On most roads, it is usually remedial action will be governed by the worst
case, while for dual carriageways it may be pos-
found that the heaviest trafficking occurs in one direction but ruts should never- sible to have different remedial actions for each
theless be recorded for both directions. carriageway.
Equipment types
The following types of equipment are use for roughness measurements:
● Measurement of surface geometry, e.g. MERLIN.
● High speed equipment operating on vehicle motion, e.g. Bump Integrator.
● High speed equipment for measurement of surface geometry operating with
laser or ultrasound.
All alternative equipment shall be calibrated against the MERLIN.
MERLIN
The MERLIN is a simple equipment for measuring surface roughness by manu-
al methods, providing reliable data without input of expensive technology, albeit
at a rather low output. The MERLIN should be used for research and monitor-
ing purposes, or routine evaluations of short pavement sections, preferably less
Own established chainage needs to be tied
to fixed features such as culverts, for suf-
than 20 km. The equipment can be maintained - and even manufactured - from
ficiently secure identification of the site. readily available materials using moderately skilled artisans. The time and effort
required for longer sections will normally make high speed devices more cost
effective and practical.
Before use, the MERLIN shall be calibrated using a standard piece of steel,
6 mm thick placed under the measuring foot on a flat surface (floor). Further
detail on the procedure is given in Appendix 4.
Calibration of MERLIN.
The roughness measurement unit shall be reported as the International Rough-
ness Index (IRI) in metres per km over each section. The distress criteria for
roughness measurements are given in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8: Condition rating, roughness measurements.
Condition rating (sound/warning/severe).
Threshold values ( IRI value m/km )
Parameter
All traffic classes
Sound Warning Severe
Roughness, IRI <3 3-6 >6
Equipment
The simplest methods for deflection measurement is the Benkelman Beam. The
principle operation of the equipment is by measurement of surface deflection
between the dual wheels of an axle loaded to 8175 kg. If this axle load cannot
be applied for any reason, the readings shall be adjusted linearly to the values of
a 8175 kg load.
The following should be adhered to if possible, with regards to the wheels on
the rear axle of the truck: Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) measure-
ments are obtained faster than with the Benkelman
● 11.00 x 20 or 10.00 x 20 tyre dimensions. Beam, but requires a considerably higher level of
● Road contact length: 200 mm. mechanical skills and cost in operating hardware.
● Spacing between the walls of the tyres in the dual wheel combination:
75 – 90 mm.
● Tyre pressure 590 kN/m2 (85 psi)
The deflection values obtained using alternative test methods such as Falling
Weight Deflectometer (FWD) differ significantly, and each manufacture of
FWD may give different results.
Test procedure
Two methods for measuring deflection with the Benkelman Beam are in use,
respectively rebound and transient deflection, that give slightly different re-
sponses.
● Rebound: Should normally be used, is easy and quick. The wheel is
stationary at the tip of the beam and measurement is taken
after it has moved away.
● Transient: The method is only required on newly constructed pave-
ments (less than 3 years). The method is more difficult and
with higher risk of damage to the equipment compared to Measuring temperature of asphaltic layers.
the rebound method. The loaded wheel moves towards past the
tip of the beam, and the maximum value is measured.
1. Zero-reading under the static load. 2. Reading after the truck has moved for-
wards, and the beam moved to the next
location.
Frequency
The frequency of the sample pits shall be minimum that given in Table 3.4 in
Chapter 3.2.3, i.e. for trunk roads and other important roads the frequency is
higher than other roads. The given frequency is however the minimum accept-
able, and additional tests are likely to be required in order to form a proper
basis for the rehabilitation design. No hard and fast rules can be laid down for
Location
The location of test pits should be carried out once sufficient information is
available to divide the road into a number of preliminary uniform sections. At
each location, test pits are usually excavated in the outer wheel path of the more
heavily loaded lane.
Depth
Test pits shall be excavated to the following depth, whichever is smaller:
● Μinimum to the full depth of the existing pavement.
● Μinimum to the depth as defined in Table 5.2 in Chapter 5.3.3.
At least one test pit at each site should be excavated to a depth at which the in-
situ material can be inspected and sampled.
Sample size
Minimum sample size depending on particle size of the material and laboratory
test programme is given in Chapter 5.2.3. The required sample size may well
be exceeded if the laboratory testing programme that the samples will undergo
includes specialised testing.
Procedure
Reference is made to Figure 5.4 and Figure 5.5 in Chapter 5.2.3, where the pro-
cedures for taking samples in a trial pit, and quartering of samples is illustrated.
The procedure having direct reference to sampling of an existing pavement is as
follows:
1. The surfacing should be carefully removed causing minimal disturbance of
the upper base course.
2. Immediately on exposure of the base course to the atmosphere, an in situ
density determination should be carried out on the base course using either
a nuclear method or sand replacement. With both methods, it is essential
ects and within individual projects. This chapter however sets out a proposed
procedure that is found useful in most cases and includes the use of CUSUM as
a rational means of assessing a set of measurement data along the road to delin-
eate into sections having approximately similar values.
3.6.2 Procedure
Figure 3.3 sets out the procedure for assessing data from the pavement evalu-
ation for the purpose of establishing homogenous sections. The procedure for
carrying out CUSUM calculations for each individual set of measured data is
given in Appendix 3 where also an example is presented, showing a set of data
where CUSUM has been used for delineation into homogenous sections.
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2 Geotechnique
3 Pavement evaluation
6 Construction control
Appendices
References
● Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999, Ministry of Works, Tanzania
● Guideline no. 4 Axle Load Surveys. Road Department, Botswana - 2000
4.2.2 Equipment
The following equipment is required to conduct an axle load survey. Personal
equipment, water and fuel is not included in the listing:
General, for all surveys
● flatbed truck .....................................................(no 1)
● pick-ups ...........................................................(no 2)
● reflective traffic safety vests ............................(no 15)
● traffic cones .....................................................(no 20)
● red stop flags ....................................................(no 2
● road signs ..................................................... (no 10)
● generator for lights ....................................... (no 1)
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Figure 4.3: Sources of error at the weighing site – surface evenness by the scale.
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Figure 4.4: Sources of error at the weighing site – surface evenness, consequences.
4.4 Weighing
4.4.1 Duration of the survey
Axle load surveys should be carried out for seven consecutive days and for 24
hours a day. This is done to ensure a representative sample of the traffic loading
over each of the days in the week, and axle load surveys less than seven days
duration are not recommended. If the axle load survey is carried out in conjunc-
tion with a border gate station, the hours of the survey should be in accordance
with the opening hours of the border gate.
Weighing at night requires preparation
of light systems, power supplies, torches, 4.4.2 Origin and Destination (O/D) surveys
reflective vests etc. for safe operations.
Conducting an O/D (origin and destination) survey by interviewing the
driver in parallel with an axle load survey will not involve extra resources or
disturbance to the traffic. The type of load the vehicle is carrying should also
be recorded. Normally the O/D information is not reported in the axle load
survey report, however the information remains on the field worksheets and
can be useful for future feasibility studies or for other purposes.
All vehicles that are defined as heavy vehicles shall be included in the axle load
survey, whether they are loaded or not. I.e. there shall be no selection of loaded
vehicles over empty ones for inclusion in the survey, as this will give a distorted
value for the average Vehicle Equivalence Factor for the category of vehicle.
4.4.4 Accuracy
The accuracy of weighed individual axles depends greatly on the issues dis-
cussed above, thus every effort should be made to have all the wheel of a
vehicle to rest on an equally level plane. If the weighing plane raises, or alter-
natively lowers, the level of the wheels to be weighted compared to the plane of
the remaining wheels of a vehicle, the measured weight will be inaccurate.
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General
The following estimations of future growth are required: There is a considerable uncertainty and risk of
making large errors in estimations of traffic growth
● Growth in the number of heavy vehicles. since a number of individually uncertain factors
are brought together in the analysis. Where little
● Growth in the number of E80 per vehicle (Vehicle Equivalency Factor). information is available Historical data, origindesti-
nation surveys and records from Ministry of Works
Tanroads and Statistical Bureau are among the
sources of information for assessment of traffic
Types of traffic growth. The designer may have to resort to the
The forecasting of traffic growth shall include separate estimates for the 4 ve- use of growth figures for GDP in the estimation of
movement of goods.
hicle categories. It is necessary to assess future traffic in respect of the following
types:
● normal traffic:
that would use the route regardless of the condition of the road
● diverted traffic:
that moves from an alternative route due to the improvement of the
road, but at otherwise unchanged origin and destination
● generated traffic:
additional traffic occurring due to the improvement of the road
2 Geotechnique
3 Pavement evaluation
5 Material prospecting
and alignment surveys
6 Construction control
Appendices
References
● Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999, Ministry of Works,
Tanzania
● Guideline no. 2 Pavement Testing, Analysis and Interpretation of Test Data.
Road Department, Botswana - 2000
● Guideline no. 3 Methods and Procedures for Prospecting for Road Con-
struction Materials. Road Depratment, Botswana - 2000.
5.2 Methodology
5.2.1 Planning
General
The parameters pavement layer thickness and
It important to gather as much information as available about the intended con- pavement material types are not determined
struction project where alignment surveys or material surveys are to be carried on the basis of the alignment soils survey, but
out. Large amounts of time consuming and expensive field work may be carried by the availability of pavement materials, traffic
loading and climate. Ref. the pavement design
out unnecessarily if the planning in advance has not been properly undertaken. method of the Pavement and Materials Design
Manual-1999.
The following general points should be given attention in the planning of align-
ment soils surveys and surveys for pavement and earthworks materials:
1. Establish the type of road (bituminised/gravel/earth), whether trunk road or
not, road width, design traffic loading and the designers’ preliminary views
on alternative pavement types and material quantities for pavement con-
struction.
2. Establish whether the horizontal alignment is fixed, or can be moved, or is
likely to be moved after the soil survey has been carried out.
3. Obtain as much information as possible about the vertical alignment and ar-
eas of likely cut or fill, and the likely depth of cut and fill and locate these
areas on maps for use in the field.
4. Estimate the need for earthworks fills and their likely position along the
road line.
As shown in Figure 5.1, the alignment soils survey does not determine the pave-
ment structure, i.e. the layer thickness and required material type in subbase,
base course and surfacing. The pavement structure is determined by traffic load-
ing and climate. The availability of pavement materials in the area is important
for choice of the most economical pavement structure within a range determined
by the traffic loading and climate.
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Figure 5.2: Principle of required quantity for material prospecting vs. theoretical quan-
tity from the project drawings.
Borrow pits
The data obtained from trial pit logs should be used to subdivide borrow pits Overburden should always be sampled.
into areas comprising materials of similar characteristics. At least one sample
should be taken from each different material unless they are clearly unusable.
When profiling the pit, the following factors should be taken into consideration:
● Colour
● Soil type
● Origin
Colour
The colour of the material may reflect the gravel type, and the colours should be
based on a standardised colour chart.
Soil type
The grain size proportion of the material determines the engineering properties
of the material and its behaviour within the pavement. The particle shape is also
important in this regard.
Origin
Where the origin of the material can be clearly defined, especially in terms of The material could be described as boulders,
residual, transported or pedogenic materials, then it should be used to refine the gravel, sand, silt, clay or some combination of
these e.g. clayey gravel with boulders, gravelly
grouping further. This should e.g. include the parent material if possible. The sandy clay, etc. In addition, the prospector’s
degree of induration or development of pedogenic materials should be noted e.g. knowledge of the local soil types in terms of
performance should be used.
calcified sand or nodular calcrete.
5.2.3 Sampling
Representative samples and sample size
It is particularly important to ensure that the sample is representative for the
material. A common source of error is to sample in a vertical profile, but not
take the same amount of material from each depth over the layer that is being
sampled. E.g. by sampling more of the material that easier to excavate rather
than a fully equal amount at all depths.
Sufficient size of sample is important in order for the sample to accurately rep-
resent the original material and to enable the required laboratory tests to be per-
formed. The larger the grain size the larger sample is required in order to repre- Sampling with excavator.
sent the original material and because more material will be discarded as over-
size in the laboratory. See Figure 5.3. The required minimum sample size given
in Figure 5.3 does not take account of the laboratory test programme. Additional
quantities of sample material may be required depending on the requirements of
the tests to be carried out. Table 5.1 indicates the approximately required sample
size depending on tests to be carried out.
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Figure 5.3: Minimum sample size of soils as a function of particle size.
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Guideline no. 3, Roads Department, Botswana
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Figure 5.4: Method of sampling from trial pit.
Quartering
If necessary, collect a large sample and quarter it down to the required size
((Figure 5.5).
Labelling
Whenever there is doubt about the identity of a sample it shall be discarded and
any laboratory testing is a waste of resources. There is often great cost and time
spent on obtaining the sample in the field, and re-sampling on account of poor
practice in handling and marking should never occur. It is therefore of great
importance that labels must be clearly written with permanent ink and contain
all necessary information and minimum the following:
● Name of project.
● Chainage or borrow pit number.
● Sample pit number.
● Sample depths from/to.
● Sampling date and name of responsible officer.
Alignment surveys as basis for gravel surveys The test pits excavated in the alignment survey
The alignment soil survey often gives one of the most important clues for start- gives the field staff knowledge of material types
available in the area and clues to their location.
ing the survey for construction materials. This information can prove to be vital
knowledge when surveying for construction materials outside the alignment.
It is impossible to know the depth measured from GROUND LEVEL to the depth of
sampling unless there is knowledge about the approximate vertical alignment
of the project road. E.g. the values in Table 5.2 may translate into prohibitively
large pit depths in a cut, making sampling impossible, or the design depth may
Field sampling of centreline. be entirely within the depth of an embankment fill, where quality of available
fill materials decide the required pavement design rather than in-situ soils. Spe-
cial consideration should however be made where there is occurrence of expan-
sive soils. In such cases
Chap ter 5 it is necessary to also sample below design depth. I.e.
expansiveness of soils deeper than the design depth will have an effect on the
Subgrade
Chap ter 5
performance of the pavement due to seasonal movement rather than strength,
Subgrade s Design Manual - 1999
Pavement and Material
General
and this information is an important design input affecting project cost.
5.0 e evaluation for structur
al
Comments: es the methods for subgrad g and laboratory
This chapter describ samplin
new roads, conventional basis of CBR values. Strength
pavement design of is classified on the tely
testing. Subgrade strength may be used provided they are adequa
CBR Works at
indicators other than and are approve d by the Ministry of
correlated to CBR values
project level. ne subgrade strength
ation methods to determi overlay
Alternative field investig purpose of pavement rehabilitation or
Road type
pavement and earthwo
type.
relation to design road
TLC05-H to TLC50-H
Paved trunk road 0.8 1.2
Other roads 0.6 1.0
one through a fill area and one through deep cut area. Common for both
climate
ations, topography, c load
about previous investig d and expected traffi
type, design standar are likely).
material sources, road large number of very heavy axle loads
conditions (i.e. whethe
r
foundat ion of structures shall be
stability and
Issues related to slope
these examples is that NONE OF THE TEST PITS GIVE INFORMATION FOR THE PUR-
addressed separately.
General classified
5.2.0 g strength, shall be
their properties, includin excavated along the road 5.3
Subgrade soils and
by the use of trial pits
5.2
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Conflict of interest
The conduct of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a mandatory re-
Borrow pit of natural gravel. Careful quirement in Tanzania, for new roads and road up-grading, as for other sub-
stockpiling is essential to obtain good stantial developments. The purpose of EIA is to ensure that a project does not
quality material. achieve its own goals at the expense of loss or inconvenience to non-beneficia-
ries or future generations.
It is important to foresee potential conflicts of interest with the environment and
occupants of land in the area already at the time of prospecting for materials.
The responsible field staff is required to obtain all required permissions accord-
ing to legislations before starting their work. Wherever possible occupied land
and sensitive areas should be avoided even though permission to prospect has
been granted. Such areas are likely to be banned from full material exploitation
at the time of construction and it does not gain the project to have its design
based on material sources that are unlikely to be available.
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Figure 5.8: Theoretical material volumes - without loss - in natural, loose and compacted
states.
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Figure 5.9: Typical ‘loss’ of available material volumes during the process of winning
natural gravel for pavement layers.
As a rule, the gravel prospecting should realistically AIM FOR THE DOUBLE
QUANTITY of the theoretical requirements from the crossection. Even doubling
the theoretical quantity may be insufficient in areas where:
● The material quality is marginal, thereby increasing the loss after laboratory
testing.
● Τhe sources are small and scattered or appearing in thin layers, thereby
increasing the loss during borrow pit operations.
● Τhere is a large proportion of oversize material, thereby increasing the loss
due to removal during processing on the road.
The selection of hard rock sources for road projects is a major consideration,
and the engineer and geologist must be aware of all the factors which together
produce a satisfactory hard rock source for full scale production. The nature,
extent and accessibility of rock sources play an important role in construction
costs. Transport of material is a major cost factor in all road construction, and to
ensure economical construction it is important that sources of suitable rock are
found in one, or preferably several, locations along the alignment.
What might first have appeared as an extensive It is in the interest of both Employer and Contractor that an adequate volume of
body of rock, could prove to be a confined body,
limited in size, when quarrying commences. For rock meeting the specifications is available. There is a significant expansion in
some volcanic rocks, unsuitable soft ash may be material volume from the in-situ quarry to blasted and crushed material ready
located underneath a hard rock cover of consider- for road construction as shown in Figure 5.8. However, when making quantity
able thickness.
estimates, wastage and loss must be considered, due to e.g. unrevealed substan-
dard material. At the time of prospecting, a volume of minimum 50 % in excess
of the required quantities of construction materials should be proven in all cases
of rock quarry investigations, in order to take account for wastage, loss and
rejected materials. This safety factor in respect of available rock quantity is nec-
essary due to the severe consequences for implementation of the project if the
source runs out during construction. If the quarry shall solely be used for single
sized aggregate production, the proven volume should preferably be double the
required quantities, due to production of undesired fines.
Representative samples
Only samples considered representative of the material which is considered
usable shall be taken. Selected material of the site of better quality but low
Quarry waste should always be sampled in quantity shall be avoided. Samples should preferably be taken at several
and tested. Depending on the properties of locations of the potential quarry site.Where overburden is encountered pits or
the material, the material may be used in the trenches must be excavated down to the hard rock surface. Sampling is usually
pavement layers or as surfacing aggregate.
performed by chiselling out pieces of fresh rock using a chisel or a pickaxe. It
is recommended, however, to excavate samples by means of blasting. Holes for
For security reasons it may be difficult to obtain the required explosives can be drilled by petrol propelled hand held equipment,
permission for use of dynamite required for e.g. a Pioneer or Cobra percussion drill.
blasting.
Weathered/fresh
Weathering is a general term referring to the breaking down of rocks into smaller
particles. The process can involve chemical and/or physical breakdown. Weath-
ering typical results in an accumulation of natural gravel and soil. Weathered
rock are usually rippable with bulldozers and excavators. When prospecting
for a rock source it is important to sample fresh and hard rock and to avoid the
weathered material.
Sample size
The size of samples will depend on the number and type of tests to be performed
Boulders and oversize material in coarse on the material. Typically a normal sized sample shall be approximately 40 kg.
gravel should not be overlooked as a source However, for an extensive testing programme samples of 100 kg or more are
for e.g. surfacing aggregate.
required.
Proof drilling
Proof drilling using rotary percussion drilling equipment may be used to deter-
mine overburden, weathered rock and the depth to hard rock. By drilling into
hard rock one may also get an indication of the relative quality of the rock in
depth. Core drilling should, however, be regarded as the preferred method for Rock cores.
the latter purpose. For determination of overburden and extent of weathered
rock, both pit excavation and seismic profiling may be employed.
Core drilling
Core drilling is a costly, but the most effective method of confirming geology
and obtaining information of the bedrock below the hard rock profile. Core
drilling is rotary boring with core extraction where core samples are taken from
progressively increasing depth in order to obtain a complete record of the sub-
surface rock, and samples for laboratory testing of the rock mechanical properties.
Generally, drilling is helped with water as a circulating medium. Double extrac-
tor “swivel type” core barrels with bottom discharge are recommended for good
core recovery. For drilling in solid and stable rock core sizes down to 45 mm
may be used, but larger diameter gives better samples. A core size of 76 mm is
usually satisfactory, but 100 to 50 mm and the triple barrel technique give the
best results in weak, weathered or fractured rock. Refer to BS 5930 and BS 4019. Core sampler with extracted rock core
box for storage and transportation of core
samples.
Core recovery is seldom complete over the length of the borehole. In such cases,
experience is employed in assessing the nature and quality of the rock that has
not been recovered.
Logging
The logging and description of core samples varies considerably, and the meth-
ods employed are always dependant on the type of information required for a
particular project. The logging should be given a graphical presentation. For
rock source prospecting the following are the most important data required by
the engineer.
1. Drilling date. Type of machine, drilling method, size of core and depth of
casing installed. Elevation of the borehole and its coordinates. Its orienta-
tion - vertical or inclined in degrees and direction.
2. Core recovery. The percentage length of core recovered in relation to the
length of the drill run. The volume of the sample recovered in relation to the
volume drilled.
3. Rock quality designation (RQD). The length of core sections greater than
10 cm as a percentage of the total length drilled.
4. Rock weathering grade. Usually shown on a scale of 1-5, where 1 is fresh
and unaltered hard rock and 5 is very weak weathered rock. Assessments
are subjectively based on the degree of weathering and fracturing.
5. Discontinuities. Faults, shear zones and jointing are indicated, and their
orientation.
6. Fracture index. The number of fractures or joints per meter of core recovered.
7. Geological description of strata. Individual rock horizons are described in
terms of consistency, structure, colour and type; e.g. unweathered, steeply
dipping (giving degrees and direction) pale brown granitoid gneiss. Rock
horizons shall be described and not the rock in each drill run.
8. Symbolic log. A log in which easily recognizable symbols are used to desig-
nate various rock types.
9. Sampling. Rock types or areas from which samples have been taken for
laboratory testing.
The extracted cores should be placed in core boxes, see Figure 5.10. It is good
practice on completion of an investigation to photograph the cores recovered
from each borehole. This provides both a permanent record for each borehole,
as well as being a useful reference in conjunction with the study of core logs.
Figure 5.10: Core box before placing wooden rods for marking core loss.
Reporting
After the rock sources have been delineated and sampled, a geometric surveyed
should be carried out to locate, the pits and drill holes. The results should be
recorded on a plan including borehole/pit elevation. Similarly the geologist
should incorporate all relevant information on the plan, i.e. depth of overburden,
volume of usable material, test results and pit and drill hole logs.
This information forms the basis for assessing the necessity for carrying out fur-
ther exploration in order to locate additional sources or increase those already
located.
1 Introduction
2 Geotechnique
3 Pavement evaluation
6 Construction control
Appendices
References
● Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999. Ministry of Works, Tanzania.
● Standard Specifications for Road Works - 2000. Ministry of Works,
Tanzania.
● Guideline no. 2 Pavement Testing, Analysis and Interpretation of Test Data.
Roads Department, Botswana - 2000
● Guideline no. 3. Methods and Procedures for Prospecting for Road Con-
struction Materials, Roads Department, Botswana - 2000.
Table 6.1 shows the main methods and purposes of the field testing activities
during quality control on the road.
Table 6.1: Methods and purposes of the field testing activities.
Sampling frequency
The sampling frequency depends on the layer under construction and tests
intended to be carried out. Table 6.2 shows the minimum frequency for accep-
tance control on trunk road contracts. A lower frequency of sampling may be
employed on contracts for construction of secondary roads.
Table 6.2: Sampling Frequencies, earthworks and layerwork.
Layer and nominal class of material Tests to be carried out Sampling frequency, minimum
CBR 10000 m2
Roadbed 1 sample per
MDD, PI, grading 5000 m2
CBR, PI, grading 2000 Cu.m.
Earthworks fill using soils: (G3) 1 sample per
MDD 1000 Cu.m.
CBR, PI, grading 500 Cu.m.
Backfill to culverts and structures 1 sample per
MDD 200 Cu.m.
Improved subgrade (G7, G15) or CBR, PI, grading 10000 m2
1 sample per
Gravel wearing course (GW) MDD 5000 m2
CBR, PI, grading
Subbase: (G25, G45) 1 sample per 5000 m2
MDD
UCS, PI
Subbase: (CM, C1) 1 sample per 5000 m2
MDD
CBR, PI, grading 5000 m2
Base course: (G60, G80) 1 sample per
MDD 2500 m2
UCS, PI 5000 m2
Base course: (CM, C1, C2) 1 sample per
MDD 2500 m2
LS, grading 5000 m2
Base course using crushed aggregate: (CRS) 1 sample per
MDD 2500 m2
LS, grading 5000 m2
Base course using crushed aggregate: (CRR) 1 sample per
Apparent density, TFV 10000 m2
Choice of method
In Table 6.3 the weaknesses and common errors of the various methods are
described, and the consequences of errors are described in broad terms. Core drilling in existing pavement.
Table 6.3: Density test methods. Inherent weakness of method and common operator
errors.
Consequences
Inherent weakness of the test Common operator error while
Method for the test
method performing the test
results
• Small sample size
• Variation in the density of refe- Variable
rence medium (sand or water)
Wrong shape of the hole, usually Varies, usually too
narrower towards the bottom high density
Irregular sides of the hole, especially
Sand replacement or in materials with high content of Too high density
water balloon coarse particles
• Leaving out stones when
measuring moisture content of
the excavated material
Too low density
• Failure to take account of irre-
gularities in the surface of the
layer
• Failure to compensate for
inherent statistical variation
Depth of measurement does not in nuclear radiation counts by
coincide with thickness of measured repeating the counts
Variable
layer • Failure to carry out regular
calibration and service of the
instrument
Wrong or inaccurate reference counts
Nuclear gauge
Location near vertical structures while measuring Too high density
• Location near vertical structures
while taking daily standard
counts
• Failure to apply moisture Too low density
correction
• Air gap between source and
measured material
Small sample size Variable
Varies, usually too
Change of soil density during coring
high density
Core cutting
Leaving out stones when measuring
moisture content of the excavated Too low density
material
Test frequency
Table 6.4 shows the minimum frequency of field density testing for acceptance
control on trunk road contracts. A lower frequency of density testing may be
employed on contracts for construction of secondary roads. The frequencies in
the Table 6.4 are set out for conventional methods such as sand replacement and
water balloon. Required test frequency will depend on e.g. the capacity of the
equipment in use, and one should take advantage of high capacity equipment
such as nuclear gauges by increasing the frequency well above the minimum set
out in Table 6.4.
Table 6.5: Test methods for moisture content. Features of each method.
6.3.2 Sampling
Reference is made to Chapter 6.2.2 - Sampling on the road as procedures for
sampling are similar for cemented as for unbound layers. There are however
additional precautions when sampling fresh cemented materials. Samples for
compaction in the laboratory shall be tested not later than the time limit set for
compacting and finishing off the layer on the road. This time limit depends on
the type of layer and the type of stabiliser in use and is measured from the time
the stabiliser gets into contact with the material. In certain cases the Engineer
may direct that compaction of the sample in the laboratory shall be delayed
until the latest possible allowed time for compaction and finishing on the road
according to the Specifications.
6.3.3 Density
Reference is made to Chapter 6.2.3 - Density measurement as procedures for
density measurements are similar for cemented as for unbound layers.
Stabiliser content
Laboratory testing of stabiliser content should be avoided by help of measure-
ment records of operations on site. The Contractor’s production control can be
utilised for this purpose under the supervision of the Engineer if the procedure
are to the satisfaction of the Engineer. In the cases where control of quantities
6.3.5 Coring
Coring is normally not part of the acceptance control as the results will become
available too late to make decisions whether the material is acceptable and also
too late for remedial work to be carried out. In particular situations on site the
Engineer may however use tests on cores to satisfy himself that a layer meets
the required technical quality and make decisions whether the material needs to
be rejected and removed on this basis.
Interpretation of the coring results are however at the Engineers discretion as
coring is normally not part of the requirements investigated by the acceptance
control, that the Contractor is required to fulfil. The following tests are normally
carried out on cores taken from cemented layers.
● Density
● Compressive strength (UCS)
● Specialied tests, e.g. durability ref.
6.4.2 Sampling
Frequency
Table 6.6 gives the minimum sampling frequencies for layers made of bitumi- Cores from stabilied pavement layers.
nous materials.
Table 6.6: Sampling frequencies for bituminous materials.
Coring
Cores can be taken from the completed layer after some time after compac-
tion depending on material type. Hot mixed material can be cored as soon as
the layer has cooled, whereas cold mixes require a considerable length of time
before cores can be retrieved. This period may vary from a few weeks to several
months depending the mix properties.
6.4.3 Temperature
Correct temperature at the time of compaction is essential to achieve a good
result for hot types of bituminous mixes, and requires that all loads arriving on
site are being checked. Where there has been delays during the paving opera-
tion, additional measurements may be taken from the hopper of the paver.
Thermometers with a sufficiently long and pointy measurement device shall by
penetrated into the load at three locations maximum 300mm apart and the aver-
age value shall be the reported temperature at this location. Several temperature
measurements should be taken from each load where variable results are experi-
enced or the operation procedures are unsatisfactory for any reason.
6.4.4 Density
To achieve sufficient density at the time of construction is essential for the
strength and durability of the layer. Most types of bituminous mixes will show
increased density after some time under traffic. However excessive densification
by traffic loading will lead to poor riding quality and rutting, and is a sign of
insufficient compaction during construction or instability in the mix. In the case
of instability of the mix, shoving, excessive rutting and damage may result.
Measurement of field density is normally carried out by the nuclear gauge
method, but in cold mixes a volumetric method such as sand replacement may
be employed. See Chapter 6.2.3-Density measurement.
Table 6.7 gives the minimum testing frequencies for layers made of bituminous
materials.
Table 6.7: Testing frequencies for field density testing of bituminous materials.
The density of the layer immediately after the It is important for obtaining a good riding quality that as much as possible of the
paver, but before rolling, is normally not measured.
The density at this position is however decisive for
densification of the layer is carried out by the screed of the paver before rolling.
the riding quality and close control of paver opera- The condition of the paver and maximum uncompacted layer thickness placed
tion and maintenance is essential. in one operation are essential parameters in this regard.
where:
wN is moisture content where bitumen is NOT present in the mate-
rial, i.e. before adding of bitumen (in % )
mW is mass of water (in g )
mS is mass of dry material (in g )
The following is the definition of moisture content for cold bituminous materi- If moisture content of materials containing bitumen
als, i.e. AFTER BITUMEN IS ADDED: was calculated on the basis of dry aggregate
weight without bitumen, one would have to carry
out bitumen extraction test every time moisture
mW content was to be determined.
wB = x 100
mSB
where:
wB is moisture content where bitumen is present in the material,
(in % )
mW is mass of water (in g )
mSB is mass of dry material including bitumen (in g)
This means the dry density of a cold bituminous mix is defined as the density of
the material including bitumen, but excluding water.
mB
B = x 100
mSB
Spraying tack coat. ● Where aimed (specified) application rate is given in kg/m2:
RM = MVH x ρH
correction.
MM
RVH =
ρH
MM
RVC =
ρC
Application of aggregate. Site measurement of spread rate for starting up and special control is best car-
ried out with a plate of known area and weighing of aggregate that is covering
the plate. Aggregate spread rate is commonly specified and paid for by volume
and this method requires that a reliable bulk density of the aggregate is applied
in the calculations following weighing of the sample plates.
Aggregates
Sampling of aggregate is carried out for the purpose of confirming the validity
of the surfacing design and quality of materials. Table 6.8 gives the minimum
sampling frequencies for sprayed bituminous seals.
Useful equipment can be obtained for con-
trol of aggregate spread rate. Table 6.8: Sampling frequencies for bituminous seals.
Sampling of bituminous binders is normally carried Layer Test Sampling frequency, minimum
out before start of operations and whenever there
is a change in the supplies or there has been Aggregate strength
events of suspected overheating or contamination 20 000 m2
(TFV)
on site. Surface treatments 1 Sample per
Grading, flakiness 5 000 m2
6.6 Concrete
6.6.1 Introduction
The main objective of concrete control is to prove that the concrete itself or
structural members meet given requirements. In order to do so, representative
sampling and uniform test performances are of great importance. This chapter
describes procedures for appropriate sampling and testing methods of fresh and
hardened concrete in the field.
Moulding
Moulds shall have a non-absorbent surface and be substantial enough to hold
their shape during the moulding of the specimens. Re-usable steel moulds cov-
ered with a thin layer of mineral oil as a form release material are preferred. The
moulds shall be watertight and made of a rigid material. The cross-section of
the specimen shall be at least three times the maximum size of the aggregates.
Commonly used sizes are 100 mm cubes or 150 mm cubes. The concrete shall
be placed in either two or three layers depending on the sizes, using a scoop or
blunted trowel. Each layer is consolidated by tamping, 25 strokes per layer for
100 mm cubes and respectively 35 strokes per layer for 150 mm cubes. The
required method for consolidation of the concrete is a tamping rod, 16 mm in
diameter and length 450 mm with a hemispherical tip. Finishing shall be per-
formed, to produce a flat, even surface, level with the rim of the mould.
Curing
Concrete cube moulds. Moulds shall be placed on a rigid horizontal surface, free from vibration and
other disturbances. Initial curing shall be performed in a controlled environment
that maintains the temperature preferably at about 25°C and prevents loss of
moisture. Under final curing, the specimens shall be stored under moist condi-
tions with free water maintained on all surfaces, preferably at a temperature of
about 25°C.
Carbonation
Carbonation is a natural reaction between the lime, Ca(OH)2 in the cement and
the surrounding carbon dioxide, CO2 in the air. A consequence is a reduction of
the alkaline level in the pore water from pH 13 to below 12.4, which may result
in reinforcement corrosion. The depth of carbonation (front) will vary for one
particular surface.
The test is preferably applied on split cores or The test method is based on the use of an indicator fluid, consisting of 1
concrete pieces that have been chiselled out.
gramme of phenolphthalein, dissolved in 50 ml ethanol and diluted with 50 ml
water. The carbonation front is shown as the boundary between original colour
and a pinkish taint representative for the un-carbonated concrete after applying
the fluid.
Objectives
The sand replacement method is used for measurement of the in-situ density The water balloon method utilizes similar principles
of soils and pavement layers. The test is very common in control of density in of measurement as the sand replacement method,
but is not recommended due to practical difficul-
compacted layers on construction sites. ties in obtaining reliable results, and commonly
problems with the equipment.
Description of method
The principle of the sand replacement method is to excavate a hole in the layer
- which gives the weight of material and moisture content - and to subsequently
measure the volume of the hole by filling it with a medium (sand) of known bulk
density
Test cone.
Advantages and limitations BS-type:
The sand replacement method has long merits in control of density in
compacted layers on construction sites, and is often the reference method that
most contract specifications revert to in case of disputes. The test assumes
careful adherence to procedure, and its accuracy depends heavily on good
workmanship.
Advantages
● There is a general confidence in the test, that is justified when performed
properly and in suitable types of material (i.e. not too coarse grained).
● No advanced instrument and special skills are required.
Container for calibration
Limitations
● The test is slow to perform.
● Sensitive to workmanship and material type being tested, e.g. irregular
sides of the hole in materials with high content of coarse particles gives
inaccurate results (too high density).
Apparatus
The equipment for sand replacement testing varies in size and type. The BS
type is described her, however the principles are valid also for alternative types
of approved equipment. The BS type of equipment is available in a large and a
small type that is chosen according to the following guideline:
● Small type for testing layers with thickness maximum 150 mm.
● Large type for testing layers with thickness 150 mm to 250 mm.
In addition suitable tools are required for excavating and sampling the hole
(spoons, chisel, hammer, airtight containers for samples).
Sand
The density-sand shall be a clean closely graded silica sand which provides a
bulk density that is reasonably consistent. It shall be free from flaky particles,
silt, clay and organic matter. The grading of the sand shall be such that:
�������� ��������
● 100% passes a 600 µm test sieve and
● 100% is retained on a 63 µm test sieve.
������� �� ������
�������
���� �� ���
�� ���� Before use it shall have been oven dried and stored in a loosely covered con-
�������
tainer for minimum 7 days to allow its moisture content to reach equilibrium with
atmospheric humidity. The sand should not be stored in airtight containers and
should be mixed thoroughly before use.
Sand salvaged from holes in compacted soils after carrying out this test shall
be sieved, dried and stored as described above before it is used in further sand
�������� �� ����� ������ �� replacement tests.
����������� ���������
Fill the calibrating container from the pouring cylinder, subsequently strike off
the top and determine the weight of sand. Repeat these measurements at least
three times and calculate the mean weight. Calculate the mean density of the
sand by use of the calibrated volume of the container.
Determine the weight of sand in the cone by placing the base plate on a flat
surface, preferably a glass plate, fill sand from the pouring cylinder and weigh
Measurement cylinder, large type. before and after. Repeat these measurements at least three times and calculate
the mean weight of sand in the cone.
Sand replacement equipment, BS - type.
Measurements on site
Expose a flat area, approximately 600 mm square, of the soil to be tested and
trim it down to a level surface. Brush away any loose extraneous material. Lay
the metal tray on the prepared surface and nail it to the surface. Excavate a
round hole to the perimeter of the base plate and to the full depth of the layer
or as limited by the size of the equipment. Make sure that e.g. the chisel is not
levered against the sides of the hole. NB: Make sure the hole has:
● Vertical walls.
● As smooth walls as possible.
● Flat surface at the bottom.
Carefully collect ALL the excavated material from the hole and keep it in an air-
tight container for determination of moisture content. It is important that no
material, stones etc. is thrown away during field testing or laboratory testing of
the excavated material.
Fill with sand from the pouring cylinder and determine the total weight of sand in
hole and cone by weighing before and after.
m1 = m2 - m3 - m4
where:
m2 is the mass of sand and pouring cylinder before pouring (in g)
m3 is the mass of sand and pouring cylinder after pouring (in g)
m4 is the mass of sand in the cone, determined by previous calibration (in g)
where:
m1 is the mass of sand in the hole (in g)
ρS is the density of the sand, determined by previous calibration (in Mg/m3)
3. Calculate the bulk density of the soil, ρ (in Mg/m3), from the equation:
mS
ρ=
V
where:
mS is the mass of all the soil in the hole (in g)
V is the volume of the hole (in mL)
where:
w is the moisture content of the material in the hole (in %)
References
● BS 1377 : Part 9 : 1990
Field investigations
Central Materials Laboratory 6 Construction control
Test Method no F 6.02
Density tests:
Nuclear gauge method
Objectives
General
There is a variety of manufactures and designs of The objective of this method is determination of the in-situ density and moisture
the nuclear gauges. It is therefore impossible to content of fine-, medium-, and coarse-grained soils by means of a nuclear gauge.
detail fully the operation of the gauge and refer-
ence is made to the manufacturer’s handbook.
Such gauges provide a rapid non-destructive technique for determining in-situ
bulk and dry density as well as the moisture content.
Bituminous materials
Problems caused by the effect of underlying
materials often occur in construction of new roads The nuclear gauge method is also suitable for determination of bulk density of
Also overlays where vastly different aggregate bituminous layers. For bituminous layers, with thickness up to maximum 75 mm,
sources have been used in the underlying pave- measurement in ‘backscatter’ mode is common. Layers thicker than 75 mm
ment compared to the new bituminous layer may
give the same errors. require ‘direct transmission’ mode. See figure. Errors may occur when measuring
the bulk density of thin bituminous layers overlying a pavement layer with a
considerably different density. When measuring bituminous materials containing
water (e.g. cold mixes), the moisture content needs to be determined using
conventional sampling and laboratory testing in each location.
Safety
The equipment used in this test utilizes radioactive materials emitting ionising
radiations which may be hazardous to health unless proper precautions are
Transportation of radioactive material in e.g. air- taken. Before testing starts it is essential that users of this equipment are aware
craft is restricted. of the potential hazards and comply with all applicable government regulations
A manufacturer’s handbook and an approved concerning the precautions to be taken and routine procedures to be followed
transport case shall be kept with the gauge. with this type of equipment. This includes regular tests for radioactive leakage
according to manufacturer´s specification.
The following are general guidelines that are valid in handling of nuclear gauges
in order to minimize radiation effects:
Routinely move back a couple of steps while tak-
ing counts with the gauge.
● Keep at a distance to the gauge when it is not necessary to be near during
operation of the equipment.
● Keep the time spent near the gauge to a minimum.
● Store the equipment away from people, i.e. use a locked store room and not
a room used regularly by personnel.
������
������
������
� � � � � � � � � �
�
������
�������
������
� �������
● Bulk density: In most types of equipment the sensor for density is located The moisture content is derived from measure-
ments of the presence of hydrogen nuclei.
inside the gauge, while the nuclear source can be either operated while Therefore, any presence of hydrogen that is
exposed at the surface of the gauge (‘backscatter’
backscatter’ mode) or inserted into not in the form of water that can be evaporated
the soil on the tip of a rod (‘direct transmission’ mode). by standard laboratory tests causes errors that
must be corrected in proper calibration proce-
dures for each type of soil. See below.
● Moisture: In most types of equipment the source and sensor for moisture
are both located inside the gauge (always ‘backscatter’).
backscatter’). The effective
backscatter
depth of measurement of moisture content varies with the moisture content.
The manufacturers handbook refers for further detail to quantify the depth
of influence. General:
Normal procedure for use of the nuclear gauge in construction control of layer
work and earthworks is as shown in the flowchart, with further details given in
the text.
Advantage
Chapter 6.2.4 presents the relative advantages/ The main advantage of measurements with nuclear gauges is that the results
limitations of various types of methods for measur- are obtained very fast. The accuracy of the results depends on applying correct
ing field density.
procedure including moisture correction against oven-drying for each new
tested type of material. Measurement of bulk density is generally far more
reliable than for moisture content.
Field measurements include all particles present in the material at the test
location. It is important to observe that material with larger amounts of over-
sized particles than given in the above table will give field test results that do
not correspond with the reference value for Maximum Dry Density found in
the laboratory. In such case the relative density measured in the field will be
incorrect (normally too high). The presence of occasional over-sized particles in
the soil will also give unusually high field density results when encountered at
the test location. Inspection holes should be excavated in case of doubt.
Limitations
Use of direct transmission instead of backscatter Measurements on materials with special chemical composition of soil, such as
mode gives a better result in respect of density
measurements, especially where the material is
blast furnace, is unsuitable for testing with nuclear gauges. Material that is very
inhomogeneous. inhomogeneous and having large variation in density or moisture at different
depths is not suitable for testing with nuclear gauges because the zone of
influence of the nuclear rays is not exactly defined.
● Βitumen.
● Large amounts of organic matter.
● Οther materials where the moisture correction shows large variation.
Periodic calibration
This calibration is necessary in order to compen- Minimum every 24 months the nuclear gauge shall be serviced and calibrated in
sate for the normal long-term ageing of the nuclear accordance with ASTM D2922 and ASTM D3017 at a workshop facility with
sources and to check the stability of electronics
besides carrying out mechanical service under appropriate equipment and skilled staff, preferably approved by the manufacturer
safe conditions by specially trained personnel. of the equipment. A valid certificate of calibrations less than 24 months old shall
be kept with the gauge.
After switching on the gauge, a normalization period of minimum 15 minute is Four-minute counts are normally used for standard
normally required, confer with the manufacturer’s handbook. Do not switch the counts, however the manufacturer’s guidelines
apply.
gauge off if the gauge shall be used during the day.
������ ���������
���������
�� �����������
������ ���������
���� �
��� �
Moisture correction
FrequencyNo measurements of moisture content are reliable unless moisture
correction has been carried out. Moisture correction shall be carried out when:
Procedure
Select 5 locations on a smooth, newly (same day) compacted layer
constructed with the material for which moisture correction shall be
determined. In each of the 5 locations carry out the following procedure:
Validation: 1. Place the gauge in a location with an even surface.
If the correction shows that the nuclear gauge
gives a substantially lower moisture content 2. Carve a line on the surface along the outline of the gauge.
than the laboratory test results, there is a great
possibility of errors in the procedure. Most likely 3. Measure moisture content using the nuclear gauge as described under
the error is with the handling of the sample for Field measurements below. Use backscatter mode (direct transmission
laboratory testing. Do check in particular that the
large particles have not been removed from the mode only applies to density measurements and is not of interest for this
material sample by field- or laboratory staff prior procedure).
to testing moisture content.
4. Remove the gauge from the surface.
5. Take a sample in the centre of the outline of the gauge for the purpose of
measuring field moisture content by oven drying in the laboratory, i.e. the
sample shall be placed in a water tight container immediately. The sample
shall be taken from a circular hole approximately 100 mm in diameter and
cylindrical approximately 100 mm deep. Where the material has a con-
siderable proportion of particles larger than 20 mm the size of the hole
should be widened to 150 mm diameter. If a single, large, particle is en-
countered, then abandon the measurement and find an alternative
location.
6. Test the sample for moisture content in the laboratory by standard oven dry-
ing of the entire sample including all large particles. Test no. 1.1. of the Lab-
oratory Testing Manual-2000 shall be applied.
After the above procedure is completed for all 5 locations, calculate the mois-
ture correction factor for the material by combining the laboratory test results
with the results from the nuclear gauge in accordance with procedures set out in
the manufacturer’s handbook. Apply the correction factor in all subsequent field
measurements of materials from the same source unless determination of a
new moisture correction factor is required for reasons given above.
Use suitable tools, such as trowel, straightedge and scraping plate for levelling
the surface at the site of the test as required. Make a hole for the direct
transmission measurement by use of a hammer and a steel drive pin to produce
a hole with diameter up to 3 mm larger than the gauge probe. The hole should
be slightly deeper than the depth to which the gauge probe will be inserted. It is
important to use a suitable guide tool made from a pipe welded on a steel plate
to direct the drive pin accurately true to the surface without disturbing the sides
of the hole. Take particular care not disturb the hole and the surface when the
drive pin is extracted. Use spanners to turn the drive pin at the same time as it
is gradually withdrawn from the hole.
������ ������
�� ������ �� ����
Measurement counts
After the gauge is properly positioned, take a one-minute measurement count One-minute counts are normally used for field
and record the results for density and moisture. Repeat the measurement count, measurements, however the manufacturer’s
guidelines apply. Longer count duration statisti-
record the result and use the average of the two results as the reported value at cally improves the test result, thereby the accuracy
the location. If there is considerable difference between the two measurements, increases.
take two more counts and use the average value. Retract the extendable probe
into the gauge, ensure the shutter is closed and check that the radioactive
source is safely housed. A procedure whereby the gauge is rotated and reposi- By repeating the count and using the average
tioned between each repeated measurement at the same location, should be value with the gauge in the same position, one
does improve the accuracy of the measurement
avoided because it may increase the risk of errors. considerably.
Apply the relevant moisture correction if the gauge does not provide calculation
of corrected values on the basis of user-determined calibration values.
Patch the hole by pouring fine sand in the hole and tamp with a steel rod until
level with the surface of the layer.
Reporting
The attached worksheet shall be filled in and the test report shall contain the
following information:
Equipment
● Μodel and serial number of the gauge.
● Date of last calibration, reference to certificate.
● Μethod of test being used (backscatter or direct transmission, depth of
measurement and whether trench procedures have been applied).
● Standard count values.
Location
● Τype of layer (e.g. earthworks, type of pavement layer, material type).
● Μaterial source being used.
● Μoisture correction value and date of its determination.
● Τime since compaction was completed (in the case of construction control).
Test
● Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content (CML test no 1.9)
in the respective locations where measurements are carried out.
● Average percentage over-sized particles larger than 20 mm and 37.5 mm
respectively.
● Τest results from the field density and moisture tests using the nuclear gauge.
In the case of construction control the field density and moisture content values
shall be calculated and reported using statistical methods as appropriate to
meet the requirements of the Standard Specification for Road Works-2000.
References
● BS 1377:Part 9:1990
● ASTM D2922
● ASTM D2950-91
● ASTM D3717
Objectives
The core cutting method is used for measurement of the in-situ density of soils
and compacted layers of primarily clay and soft materials.
Description of method
Core cutting gives volume by predetermining the size of the excavated hole with
����
a calibrated core of known volume.
��
Advantages
The core cutting method is fast and simple to perform in soft materials.
� ���
Limitations
● In coarse materials the test is difficult to perform. �
● The method is less accurate than e.g. the sand replacement test and should
only be used as an indicator of in-situ density. �� � ���
������
Apparatus ����� ��� � ���
The apparatus is a 100 mm diameter steel cylinder, a steel dolly and a steel � ���
rammer, as shown in the figure.
Procedure
1. Expose a small area, approximately 300 mm square, of the soil layer to be
tested and level it. Remove loose extraneous material. Place the core cutter
with its cutting edge on the prepared surface. Place the steel dolly on top of
��
the cutter, and ram the latter down into the soil layer until only about 10 mm
of the dolly protrudes above the surface, care being taken not to rock the
cutter. Dig the cutter out of the surrounding soil taking care to allow some � �
��������
soil to project from the lower end of the cutter. Trim the ends of the core flat ������� ����
to the ends of the cutter by means of the straightedge.
2. Determine the mass of the cutter containing the core to the nearest 1 g. Core cutting assembly.
3. Remove the core from the cutter, crumble it and place a representative
sample in an airtight tin and determine its moisture content w, using the
method specified in the Laboratory Testing Manual-2000 method 1.1.
Where driving causes shortening of the sample
in the cutter, or there is difficulty in digging out
Calculations and reporting the cutter, it may be found preferable to remove
1. Calculate the internal volume of the core cutter in cubic centimetres from its the soil from around the outside of the cutter and
slightly in advance of the cutting edge as it is
dimensions which shall be measured to the nearest 0.5 mm. driven down.
2. Weigh the cutter to the nearest 1 g.
Calculate the bulk density of the soil, ρ (in Mg/m3), from the equation:
mS - mC
ρ=
VC
where:
mS is the mass of soil and core cutter (in g)
mC is the mass of core cutter (in g)
VC is the internal volume of core cutter (in mL)
where:
w is the moisture content in the soil (in %)
References
● BS 1377 : Part 9 : 1990
Objectives
The objective of the method is to measure the texture depth of a road surface The sand patch test result is not directly referred
for the purpose of establishing correction of binder spray rate for subsequent to in the design method for surface dressings in
the Pavement and Materials Design Manual-1999
application of surface dressing. and is therefore not a requirement for surfacing
design.
Description of method
The method describes the procedure for spreading a known volume of sand, on
the surface and measuring the area covered.
Apparatus
● A container with a known volume, when filled, of approximately 500 ml.
● A rubber squeegee Alternatively, a simple apparatus made from
readily available materials, consisting of a 300
● Measuring tape mm wide sledge with rubber blades for spreading
sand is described in TMH6, method ST1. The
● A board measuring 500 mm x 1500 mm apparatus is convenient if a large number of tests
● A carpet brush, a spatula and strait edge is required.
Procedure
Choose a test site which is representative of the section of road to be tested.
Chalk two parallel lines, 500 mm apart and approximately 3 m long, using the If several tests are to be done in the field, it is more
convenient to determine the mass of the known
board. Fill the 500 ml container with sand, without jarring it to prevent compac- volume of sand in the laboratory and then to weigh
tion of the sand, and level it off with a spatula or straight-edge. Pour the sand off in clean containers as many separate portions
in a zig-zag pattern between the parallel lines. Spread the sand with the rubber as are needed for field work.
squeegee between the lines to as great a length as possible. The spreading
should be done in such a manner that the surface voids are filled without leav-
ing an excess or a continuous layer of sand. Try not to let the last bit of sand tail
off but keep the finishing line as straight and regular as possible. Measure the
length of the patch covered with sand and record it to the nearest 5 mm on a
suitable recording sheet. If a tail of sand is formed, the area of the tail should be
calculated and added to the area of the rectangular portion of the patch.
Field investigations
Central Materials Laboratory 6 Construction control
Test Method no F 6.05
Preparation for bituminous sealing:
Ball penetration test
Objective
The ball penetration test result is not directly The objective of the method is to obtain a measure for estimating the depth
referred to in the design method for surface dress-
ings in the Pavement and Materials Design
to which surface dressing aggregate can be expected to penetrate into the
Manual-1999 and is therefore not a requirement underlying surface and thereby give valuable input for design of surface
for surfacing design. dressings.
Description of method
It should be noted that the relationship is valid This method describes a test for measuring the penetration resistance of a road
for all road surfaces and temperatures (T,) lying
between 25 and 55 °C.
surface using a steel ball with a diameter of 19,0 mm. The result may be used
when designing a surface treatment for a road.
Place the circular tripod stand over the ball at the point where it comes to rest
so that the ball is in the centre of the circular frame. Place the cross-bar in the
slots provided on the stand so that the forward edge of the bar is vertically
above the centre of the ball. Take an initial reading by means of a depth gauge
from the top of the cross-bar to the top of the ball and remove the bar without
disturbing the tripod stand.
Give the ball one blow with the Marshall hammer and replace the cross-bar in
the same position as before. Take a second reading as above. The depth of
penetration is the difference between the two readings. Repeat the procedure at
least 10 times at each site and report the mean depth of penetration of the steel
ball.
Take the temperature of the road surface at each site for each set of penetration
readings.
Where:
Pen T0 = penetration depth at suggested road surface temperature (mm)
Pen T1 = penetration depth at measured road surface temperature (mm)
T1 = temperature of road at time of ball test ( 0C)
T0 = temperature of road suggested for particular location ( 0C)
K = temperature-susceptibility of penetration (mm/OC).
References
● NITRR, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Republic og South
Africa, 1984. Technical Methods for Highways (TMH) no. 6: Special
methods for testing roads
APPENDICES
1 Introduction
2 Geotechnique
3 Pavement evaluation
6 Construction control
Appendices
References
● Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999, Ministry of Works, Tanzania
● Laboratory Testing Manual - 2000, Ministry of Works
● Guideline no 2 Pavement Testing, Analysis and Interpretation of Test Data, Roads Department,
Botswana - 2000
● Guideline no 3 Methods and Procedures for Prospecting for Road Construction Materials, Roads
Department, Botswana - 2000
● Guideline no 4 Axle Load Surveys, Roads Department, Botswana - 2000
Field Tests
B51377: Part 9: 1990
F2.01 Soundings Cone penetration - CPT
B55930: 1999
Standard penetration test - SPT and continuous core B51377: Part 9: 1990
F2.02 Soundings
penetration test - CCPT B55930: 1999
B51377: Part 9: 1990
F2.03 Soundings Vane test
B55930: 1999
F2.04 Boring U100 (U4) sampling, undisturbed samples B55930: 1999
F2.05 Ground water Pore pressure, ground water level B55930: 1999
F2.06 Ground water Permeability tests for soils and rocks B55930: 1999
F2.07 Ground water Ground water sampling B55930: 1999
BS 1377:
F2.08 Deformation test Plate loading test
Part 9: 1990
F6.01 Density Sand replacement B51377: Part 9: 1990
F6.02 Density Nuclear gauge B51377: Part 9: 1990
ASTM D2922
ASTM D 2950 - 91
ASTM D3717
F6.03 Density Core cutting BS 1377: Part 9: 1990
Preparation for bituminous
F6.04 Sand patch test TMH 6: Method ST 1
sealing
Preparation for bituminous
F6.05 Ball penetration test TMH 6: Method ST 4
sealing
Pavement evaluation Visual evaluation Chapter 3.3.3
Rut depth measurements Chapter 3.3.4
Roughness measurements Chapter 3.3.5
DCP measurements Chapter 3.4.2
Deflection measurements Chapter 3.4.3
Test pit profiling and sampling in existing pavements Chepter 3.5
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The figure below shows a realistic example of a CUSUM plot for rut depth measurements on a project:
The MERLIN has a rear footing, 1.8 metres apart from the front wheel made of a bicycle wheel. A moveable probe is placed on the
road surface mid-way between the resting point of the wheel and the rear footing, that measures the vertical distance ‘y’ between the
road surface under the probe and the centre point of an imaginary line joining the resting point of the wheel and the footing.
It is assumed that the MERLIN has a mechanical amplification factor of 10. up to the pointer where the deviation from a true line of
the road surface is marked.
Pointer
Chart
Handles
For earth, gravel, surfaced dressed and asphaltic concrete roads, the
IRI can be determined using the following equation.
IRI = 0.593 + 0.0471 D
10 T
Scaling factor =
S
When 200 measurements are taken using a MERLIN with a wheel having an outer diameter of 26-inches (660 mm), then the length
of the surveyed section will be 415 metres (one measurement at each wheel revolution). For shorter or longer sections, a different
procedure will be required. The guiding principles are:
Tally box
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1
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20
50 m
100 m PREPARE
TO STOP
Left Right
150 m
200 m WEIGHBRIDGE-
AHEAD
300 m
500 m
Direction 1 Direction 2
Vehicle category/counts Vehicle category/counts
Buses MGV HGV VHGH Buses MGV HGV VHGH
Day 1 0 13 11 24 13 24 11 9
Day 2 11 17 5 17 14 26 9 12
Day 3 15 28 11 20 15 13 16 20
Day 4 13 19 15 24 10 29 9 26
Day 5 11 36 9 26 15 30 10 38
Day 6 14 18 15 33 13 25 12 21
Day 7 16 9 8 11 13 16 13 28
Day 8 17 11 4 2 0 5 7 9
Total 92 151 78 157 93 168 87 163
Daily 13 19 10 20 13 21 11 20
Summary of axle load survey and equivalency factors. Assessment of axles heavier than 13
tonnes. (Chapters 4.5.2, 4.2.3 and 4.5.4 in the Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999)
Direction 1 Direction 2
Vehicle Avg. Avg. Total E80 from all E80 from Avg. Avg. Total E80 from all E80 from
category Gross VEF No. of axles axles heavier Gross VEF No. of axles axles heavier
wt.(ton) (80 kN) veh. than 13 tonnes wt.(ton) (80kN) veh. than 13 tonnes
Buses 17.396 3.922 92 360.824 0 17.265 4.033 93 375.069 13.25
MGV 12.217 3.705 151 559.455 280.19 12.615 3.262 168 548.016 220.93
HGV 23.146 8.959 78 698.802 282.40 22.480 8.557 87 744.459 359.15
VHGV-SEMI 39.196 8.087 114 921.918 133.57 45.160 13.81 131 1809.11 128.35
-TR
40.548 10.031 43 431.333 204.72 33.987 7.936 32 253.952 173.58
-ST
0.000 0.000 0 0 0 0.000 0.000 0 0 0
Avg. of all 39.566 8.620 42.966 12.657
VHGV’s
SUM of 157 1353.25 338.29 163 2063.06 301.93
VHGV’s
Total 478 a=2972.33 b=900.88 511 a=3730.60 b=895.26
From the heaviest loaded direction, proportion of E80 made up from axles heavier than 13tonnes (in direction 2):
= (b/a) x 100 = (895.26/3730.60) x 100 = 24%
This value is less than 50%, thus the Traffic Load Class will not be denoted heavy (-H) and no special measures are required
in the pavement design or design of improved subgrade.
Traffic growth and design traffic loading (Chapters 4.5.5 and 4.5 in the Pavement and Materials
Design Manual - 1999)
Direction 1 Direction 2
Buses MGV HGV VHGV Buses MGV HGV VHGV
Daily counts 13 19 10 20 13 21 11 20
VEF 3.922 3.705 8.959 8.620 4.033 3.262 8.557 12.657
E80/day 50.986 70.395 89.590 172.400 52.429 68.502 94.127 253.140
Total E80/day 383 468
Use the heaviest direction in axle loading for calculating the traffic loading, in this case direction 2. The cumulative
number of standard axles, E80 = 365 x t1 x (1 + I)N - 1
i
where: t1 = average daily number of standard axles in the year of traffic survey
i = annual growth rate expressed as a decimal fraction
N = calculated period in years
Substituting: t1 = 468
i = 0.035 for all heavy vehicle categories
The cumulative number of E80 for the design period and the time from present until completed pavement construction is
calculated using (20 + 3) = 23 years, and let be denoted as E8023.
E8023 = 365 x 468 x (1 + 0.035)23 –1 = 5.9 million E80
0.035
The cumulative E80 for the time from present to completion of pavement construction is calculated using 3 years, and let be
denoted as E803.
E803 = 365 x 468 x (1 + 0.035)3 –1 = 0.5 million E80
0.035
Construction traffic (Chapter 4.5.7 in the Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999)
On the completed pavement 90,000 m3 of construction materials is expected to be transported using trucks of a capacity of
15 m3 and having an equivalency factor (VEF) of 12.5 when fully loaded.
Therefore 6000 loads will be required.
E80construction = 6000 x 12.5 = 0.075 million E80
Hence Total E80design = 5.4 + 0.075 = 5.475 i.e. say 5.5 million E80
Traffic Load Classes (TLC) (Chapter 4.5.8 ) in the Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999.
Design traffic loading of 5.5 million E80 puts the project road into TLC 10. (Table 4.3 Pavement and Materials Design
Manual - 1999)
Base course The layer(s) occurring immediately below the surfacing and above the subbase or, if there
is no subbase, above the improved subgrade layers.
Behaviour The function of the condition of the pavement with time (see also performance).
Binder course, bituminous The surfacing layer immediately below the bituminous wearing course above the base
course.
Bitumen emulsion A binder in which bitumen has been dispersed in finely divided droplets in water by the
aid of mechanical means and an emulsifying agent. Bitumen emulsion is made in an
anionic and a cationic type depending on the particle charge of the bitumen droplets in
solution. Bitumen emulsions are classified according to percentage of bitumen in the
material and the physical properties related to their behaviour during construction, (See
also break).
Bitumen stabilised material A material made of natural- or crushed aggregate with a bituminous binder admixed. Used
in pavement layers - primarily for base course.
Bitumen-rubber A binder in which bitumen is modified with more than 15% ground rubber. (See also
modified binder).
Bituminous binders Petroleum derived adhesives used for sealing of surfaces and binding of aggregates in
pavement layers. Classified according to their composition and physical properties. (See
also penetration grade bitumen, cutback bitumen, bitumen emulsion, bitumen rubber, and
modified binders).
Bituminous seals A general term for thin bituminous wearing courses made of surface treatments or slurry
seals, or a combination of these.
Borrow pit A borrow pit is a site from which natural material, other than solid stone, is removed for
use in construction of the works. The term borrow area is also used.
Break of emulsions ‘Break’ of a bitumen emulsion is when the water and bitumen separates so that the water
will evaporate, leaving behind the bitumen to perform its function.
Cement- or lime modified Naturally occurring gravel and soils which are modified by the addition of either lime or
material (CM) Portland cement so that their engineering properties such as strength and plasticity are im
proved, but the materials still remain flexible. Used in pavement- and improved subgrade
layers. (See also Cement- or lime stabilised material).
Cement- or lime stabilised A material that consists of snatural- or crushed gravel stabilised with ordinary Port
material (C4, C2, C1) land cement or lime such that a semirigid material is produced. Classified according
to their minimum unconfined compressive strength. Used in pavement layers. (See
also Cement- or lime modified material).
Crushed rock (CRR) Crushed material made from fresh quarried rock or clean, un-weathered boulders of
min 0.3 m diameter. All particles shall be crushed. The material is compacted to a
specified percentage of the aggregate’s apparent density.
Crushed stone (CRS) Crushed stones. Min 50% by mass of particles larger than 5 mm shall have at least
one crushed face. Made from crushing of stones, boulders or oversize from natural
gravel. Max 30% of the fraction passing the 4.75 mm sieve can be soil fines. The
material is compacted to a specified relative density of BS-Heavy.
Curing membrane A bituminous binder, usually made of bitumen emulsion, applied immediately after
construction of a completed surface of modified or stabilised materials with lime or
cement. Its purpose is to prevent early drying out of the cemented layer and to mini-
mise adverse effects of the stabiliser’s contact with CO2 in the air.
Cutback bitumen A penetration bitumen which viscosity has been temporarily reduced by blending
with solvents. The solvents are expected to evaporate during the early part of the
pavement’s service life. Classified according to their viscosity.
Cutting A cutting is a section of the road where the formation level is below the original
ground level.
Deflection (surface) The recoverable vertical movements of the pavement surface caused by the applica-
tion of a wheel load.
Distress The visible manifestation of deterioration of the pavement with respect to either the
serviceability of the structural capacity.
Dry Density and Moisture Con- The moisture content, in %, to use for calculation of dry density of materials that
tent of bituminous materials contain both bitumen and water, e.g. FBMIX and BEMIX, is defined as follows:
(weight of water)
MC = x 100
(weight of aggregate + weight of bitumen)
Dump rock (DR) Un-graded rock or boulder material with a sufficiently low fines content so that the
large particles are in contact with each other when placed in earthworks layers. Used
in fill and improved subgrade layers.
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer An instrument for assessing the in-situ CBR strength of granular materials/soils.
(DCP)
Shrinkage Limit The saturated moisture content corresponding to the void ratio of a dried sample. In
practise this is the moisture content below which little or no further volume change
occurs in a soil being dried.
Skid resistance The general ability of a particular road surface to prevent skidding of vehicles.
Slurry seal A cold premixed material of creamy consistency in a fresh state, made of crusher-
dust, bitumen emulsion and cement filler. Water is added for adjustments of the con
sistency. If constructed in combination with a new surface dressing, it is named a
Cape seal.
Structural capacity The ability of the pavement to withstand the effects of climate and traffic loading.
Structural design The design of the pavement layers for adequate structural strength under the design
conditions of traffic loading, environment and subgrade support.
Structural distress Distress pertaining to the load bearing capacity of the pavement.
Structural evaluation The assessment of the structural capacity of a pavement.
Subbase The layer(s) occurring below the base course and above the improved subgrade
layer.
Subgrade The completed earthworks within the road prism before the construction of the
pavement layers.
Surface dressing A surface treatment made of single sized aggregates of crushed material. Can be
constructed in single- or multiple layers.
Surface treatment A general term for thin bituminous wearing courses made by lightly rolling aggre-
gate into a sprayed thin film of bitumen. Aggregates can alternatively be made of
crushed or natural material with a grading depending on the desired type of surface
treatment to be produced. Can be constructed in single- or multiple layers.
Surfacing integrity A measure of the condition of the surfacing as an intact and durable matrix (it in-
cludes values of porosity and texture).
Surfacing, bituminous The uppermost pavement layer(s), which provides the riding surface for vehicles.
Includes bituminous wearing course and bituminous binder course where used.
Vehicle Equivalency Factor (VEF) The total number of equivalent standard axles calculated for one vehicle.
The average of all these values within one vehicle category is subsequently
calculated for ease of reference to traffic count data.
Very Heavy Goods Vehicles (VHGV) All goods vehicles having 4 axles or more.
Wearing course, bituminous The uppermost surfacing layer. Can consist of a bituminous mix or a bituminous
seal, or both in combination.
Prefixes
The standard units of measurement to be used are based on the International System (SI) units. However, the units appli-
cable to road design also include some units which are not strictly part of SI. Multiples and sub-multiples of SI units are
formed either by the use of the indices or prefixes. Definition of prefixes
Basic units
Basic units, multiples and sub-multiples
Quantity Unit Symbols Recommended Multiples
and Sub-Multiples
Length metre M km, mm
Mass kilogram KG Mg, g, mg, t (1t = 103kg)
Time second S day(d), hour (h), minute(m)
Area square metre m 2
km2, mm2, hectare
(1ha = 10,000 m2)
Volume(solids) cubic metre m3 cm3, mm3
Volume (liquid) litre l ml, (1 ml = 1 cm3)
Density kilogram per Cubic metre kg/ m 3
Mg/ m3 (1 mg/ m3 = 1 kg/l)
Force Newton N MN, kN (1N = 1 kgm/s2)
Pressure and Stress Pascal (N/m2) Pa MPa, kPa
Electric conductivity Siemens per metre S/m mS/cm
Angle degree or o
minute (‘), second (‘’)
grade g (3600 circle), (400g circle)
Temperature degree Celsius o
C
Viscosity (dynamic) Pascal.second Pa.s mPa.s
Kinematic viscosity m /s2
mm2/s, St (stokes)
1 cSt = 1 mm2/s
Appendix 8: ABBREVIATIONS
10%FACT kN See TFV
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic
AASHO Former name of AASHTO
AASHO-Road Test Pavement research project conducted by AASHO to test the performance of
various pavements on a full scale
AASHTO® American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AC Asphalt Concrete
ALD mm Average Least Dimension
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BEMIX Classification of a material stabilised with bitumen emulsion (Bitumen
Emulsion MIX)
BS British Standard
BS-Heavy Compaction effort for soils, standardised by the CML test method 1.9
BS-Light Compaction effort for soils, standardised by the CML test method 1.9
Cx Classification of cement- or lime stabilised material, ‘x’ denoting the minimum
UCS value (7 days, at 97% MDD of BS-Heavy)
CBR [%] California Bearing Ratio, described by the CML test method 1.11
CBRdesign [%] CBR value for a homogenous section of subgrade, calculated
statistically or by subjective judgement, to use in pavement design
CBRsoaked [%] California Bearing Ratio measured after standardised 4 days soaking of
specimens in water, described by the CML test method 1.11
CI Coarseness Index, used for classification of materials for gravel wearing
courses.
CM Classification of cement- or lime modified material (low UCS strength)
CML Central Materials Laboratory, Dar es Salaam
CRR Material denotation for blasted, crushed, rock
CRS Material denotation for crushed stones
CUSUM Cumulative sum, statistical calculation method
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DBM x Classification of a hot mixed bituminous base course material (Dense Bitumen
Macadam) ‘x’ denoting the upper nominal particle size in the material
dMAX [mm] Maximum particle size of soils and aggregates
Appendix 9: Worksheets
BORE LOG
DCP
BORE LOG
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FIELD DENSITY
Sand replacement test
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FIELD DENSITY
Nuclear gauge method
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AVERAGE:
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Sign. Technician:...............................................................................
Roughness measurments
MERLIN
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Tally box
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DEFLECTION
Benkelman Beam
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April 2003
ISBN 9987-8891-4-X ������