Turbochargers for Diesel Engines [subscription] Page 1 of 10

DieselNet Technology Guide Air Induction for Diesel Engines

www.DieselNet.com. Copyright Ecopoint Inc. Revision 2004.11

Turbochargers for Diesel Engines

Magdi K. Khair

Abstract: Turbochargers are centrifugal compressors driven by exhaust gas turbine, employed in engines to
boost the charge air pressure. Several types of turbochargers have been developed, including the waste-
gated turbocharger, the variable geometry turbocharger, and the supercharger-aided turbocharger.
Turbocharger performance influences all important engine parameters, such as fuel economy, power, and
emissions.

Turbocharger Construction

Performance

Advanced Designs

Turbocharger Construction

Turbochargers are centrifugal compressors employed in many types of diesel engines to boost the charge
air pressure. The compressors are powered by exhaust gas turbines and, thus, can utilize some of the
exhaust gas energy. The energy is passed from the turbine to the compressor through a common shaft.
Typical configuration and the flow of gases in a turbocharger is shown in Figure 1 [Schwitzer 1991].

Figure 1. Turbocharger Construction and Flow of Gases

The turbine-compressor common shaft is supported on a bearing system. Rotational type journal
bearings are usually used, which float between an oil film (i.e., between bearing and shaft, and bearing
and its housing) rotating at about half shaft speed. The bearing clearance is very small, on the order of a
few hundredths of a millimeter. Turbochargers are typically lubricated using oil from the engine, but
water cooled housings are also possible. At both ends, piston ring seals keep the exhaust pressure and the
air pressure, respectively, out of the bearing housing. Impurities in the oil or blockages in the oil supply

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holes can quickly damage the turbocharger. Turbocharger failures, on the other hand, may result in
leakage of engine lubricating oil into the exhaust gas. In engines fitted with catalytic emission controls,
such oil leaks may irreversibly deactivate the catalyst.

Compressor. The compressor stage is composed of two sections, the impeller or wheel and the cover
or housing. Filtered air enters through the center of the compressor cover and proceeds through the
inducer into the compressor wheel. As air proceeds through the compressor wheel it makes a 90 turn
thus changing its flow from an axial to a radial direction. Air exiting the compressor enters stationary
diffuser passages arranged on a diffuser plate such as shown in Figure 2 [Heywood 1988]. From the diffuser
passages, the air is then discharged into a collector called the volute.

Figure 2. Segment of a Radial Compressor And Diffuser Plate

Figure 3 shows two volutes and their corresponding compressor wheels. The difference between these
volutes lies in the way in which they connect to the piping at the exit from the volutes. It is worth noting
that the cross-sectional area of the collector passage (volute) steadily increases until the air is discharged
in the pipe at the exit of the volute. This gradual cross-sectional area increase from a, to b, to c in Figure
3, helps convert kinetic energy into potential energy, or air velocity into pressure [Schwitzer 1991].
Together with increased pressure, the compressed air experiences an increase in its temperatureup to
approximately 200Cand therefore a reduction in its density. Although many applications use
turbocharged air, a majority of these also use aftercoolers for the purpose of increasing air density.

Figure 3. Two Volute Cover Designs in Radial Compressor

Compressor wheel blades are either straight (radial) from the center of the wheels hub or backward-
leaning (away from the direction of rotation). The blade form is designed to maximize efficiency by
minimizing turbulent flow within the channels formed by two consecutive blades. The compressor wheel
is made of aluminum and its blades have extremely close tolerances with the housing to minimize

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backflow.

Turbine. The turbine stage, which is the opposite of compressor, also comprises of two components: the
turbine wheel and the collector, often referred to as the housing. The turbine wheel is made of nickel
base alloy and rotates around the common shaft connecting it with the compressor wheel. The sole
purpose for the turbine section is to use exhaust gases during the blowdown process (discharge of
exhaust gases when the exhaust valve opens) to drive the compressor wheel. The turbine rotates inside a
housing that bolts on to the exhaust manifold via a flange, normally rectangular in shape.

It is worth noting that turbine housings serve as safety shields since they are designed with a generous
wall thickness to contain the turbine blades in case of a turbine burst. Turbine housings are also referred
to as hot housings by those in the trade.

Connection Method. The connection between the exhaust manifold and the turbine housing plays a very
important role in the dynamic operation of the turbocharger. By enlarging the volume of that connection
as well as the manifold, pulsations from the exhaust valves discharging into the manifold are dampened
and converted into pressure that is nearly constant. For this reason this method of connecting
turbochargers to exhaust manifolds is referred to as constant pressure. While this method ensures the
continuous flow of exhaust gas over the turbine blades, it results in relatively high exhaust pressure
which disrupts the positive flow of air through the engine and reduces its overall volumetric efficiency.
A second method of connecting the exhaust manifold to the turbine housing makes use of the pulsating
nature of exhaust emanating from each of the exhaust valves and is called the pulse method. A common
design couples the front cylinders in a single manifold that leads to one side of the connecting flange,
and the rear cylinders in another single manifold leading to the other side of the same connecting flange,
Figure 4a [Obert 1968].

Figure 4. Pulse Conservation and Pulse Converter Systems

This method is preferred for application where engine response is important (most of the on-highway
applications), since pulse energy dissipates through the turbine blades and keeps exhaust pressure low.
The third and last method of connecting the exhaust manifold to the turbine housing is called the pulse
converter. Figure 4b describes one embodiment of the pulse converter method showing a venturi box
that converts exhaust kinetic energy to potential energy or pressure, which is similar to that in the
constant pressure system. In general, constant pressure systems are common in two-stroke engine
applications and pulse conservation systems are popular in four-stroke on-highway applications [Obert
1968].

Performance

Compressor Performance Map

Modern turbochargers can reach speeds in excess of 150,000 rpm [Heywood 1988]. This speed is not
dependent on engine speed, but rather on the power balance between exhaust energy imparted to the

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turbine and the power required to drive the compressor. A compressor performance map is shown in
Figure 5 for several of the more common turbocharger applications [Bosch 1986].

Figure 5. Compressor Map Showing Example Engine Performance Lines

The compressor performance area is to the right of the surge line, where lines define the stable
compressor performance. Turbochargers cannot operate in the region of unstable performance located to
the left of the surge limit line.

Design Factors Influencing Performance

A/R Ratio. As explained earlier, the main purpose for using supercharging or turbocharging is to
improve power output through increased air capacity. It is reasonable then to have, as part of the design
objectives, to increase the air charge delivered by the centrifugal machinery. One of the important design
parameters considered to fulfill this task is the A/R ratio, defined as the smallest cross sectional area of
the passage leading to the turbine wheel divided by the distance between the center of area A and the
center of the turbine or compressor wheel (R). This basic relationship, illustrated in Figure 6, applies to
both turbine and compressor.

A small A/R ratio increases the turbine rotational speed and leads to higher compressor speeds. This
action usually leads to greater air inducted by the compressor. The opposite is also true. The larger the
A/R ratio the slower the rotational speed of both turbine and compressor wheels. Therefore, for greater
boost a smaller A/R ratio is required and for lower boost a greater A/R ratio is used.

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Figure 6. Illustration and Definition of A/R Ratio

For good engine performance, especially during fast or sudden accelerations, a fast delivery of charge air
is required. This helps reduce or even eliminate the diesels characteristic puff of smoke that results in
part due to the turbocharger lag. A smaller A/R ratio is able to spin sooner and accelerate faster, thus it
delivers air boost sooner and more rapidly. Of course, as more exhaust energy is imparted to the turbine
wheel, such as during high speed and high torque engine conditions, the turbocharger speed will
dramatically increase, causing the incoming air to distort the injector spray pattern, reducing combustion
efficiency. Faster turbocharger spin can also be accomplished by using ceramic turbines due to their
lower rotating mass.

The turbocharger performance is not only important during acceleration, but also during steady-state
operation. In Figures 9 and 10, the effect of inducting additional air at engine speeds below peak torque
speed is very evident, especially at full load conditions. In fact, optimizing the air inducted into the
engine at speeds below that of peak torque is one of the main objectives for turbocharger matching.
Figure 7 is another proof of the beneficial effect of additional air inducted below peak torque speed.
Figure 7 shows how smoke emissions were reduced as the engine was operated at constant speeds and
varying loads. Two speeds were used in this demonstration (1200 and 1400 rpm), while engine load was
increased in several steps. The turbocharger having the smaller A/R ratio helped reduce smoke emissions
at these two speeds by a substantial margin. Of course, one would expect these improvements to
decrease as engine speeds and load increased.

Figure 7. Effect of A/R Ratio on Smoke Characteristics

Tip Clearance. The radial clearance between the compressor blade and the housing, which might be a
source for backflow of air, is another important parameter in compressor design. Its significance can be
illustrated by the work performed by Engelhard researchers, who have coated the inside of the
compressor housing with an abradable coating in an attempt to eliminate tip clearances altogether. Figure
8 describes the observed improvement in fuel economy resulting from applying this coating to the inside
of the compressor housing [Sharp 1999]. Not only was fuel economy improved, but there were also
indications that compressor efficiency improvements were achieved leading to lower carbonaceous
particulate emissions during transient operation.

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Figure 8. Turbocharger Abradable Coating Influence on Fuel Economy

Performance Issues
Turbocharger Lag. Even though good attributes have been assigned to turbochargers, they have some
undesirable characteristics. An example of these is the phenomenon called turbocharger lag. Since
turbocharger are driven by the pulse power from the exhaust blowdown, it is necessary to form generous
amounts of exhaust before we can expect the turbocharger to rotate at speeds that would be beneficial to
charging the engine. For instance, when a driver demands more power by stepping on the accelerator
pedal, more fuel would be injected into the cylinder. However, this acceleration fuel needs to combust
and produce exhaust first before the turbine can accelerate and drive the compressor to deliver more air
into the cylinder. The time lapse between introducing additional fuel into the cylinder and when more
charge air is delivered by the compressor is generally referred to as turbocharger lag. Combustion during
turbocharger lag is characterized by a momentary dip in A/F ratio, causing the release of a visible puff of
smoke.

Engine-Turbo Mismatch. Another problem encountered with turbocharger design is its matching to a
particular engine over its entire speed and load range. In reciprocating diesel engines, the air demand is
directly proportional to power. The output of a conventional turbocharger, on the other hand, is an
exponential function of power. Thus, in diesel engines operating over a wide power range, there is an
inherent mismatch between the turbocharger and the engine.

At low engine speeds and loads, exhaust pulse power is rather low due to the low intake air flow and fuel
rate. In these cases, engine designers may be forced into turbocharger designs that incorporate smaller
turbine wheel moments of inertia to allow them to achieve faster accelerations and rotational speeds even
when exposed to low exhaust pulse power. Such designs may be favored for low engine speeds and
loads, but can be detrimental to high speed/high load operation. If this is the case in a given application,
serious consideration is given to other turbocharger design modifications to avoid developing extremely
high charging pressure during high engine output operating regimes. In addition to the potential
problems associated with high charging pressures, serious combustion quality problems may be faced
due to distorting the fuel spray pattern in the combustion chamber.

Volumetric Efficiency. Diesel engines perform best when their inlet and exhaust systems are not
restricted. Placing a turbine wheel in the path of exhaust gases restricts their flow and may cause a drop
in volumetric efficiency. However, in most designs if not all, this drop in volumetric efficiency is more

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than compensated for through the added charge air inducted into the engine thanks to turbocharging.
This is especially evident when engines/vehicles operate in high altitude environments where
atmospheric ambient pressure is lower than near sea level. In these cases, naturally aspirated engine
performance suffers tremendous deficits through lower smoke-limited power outputs (opacity-limited
output), that may even force derating the engine. Thus turbocharging can be used as a form of altitude
compensation that maintains rated output power and avoids derating the engine.

Advanced Designs

Introduction
Most turbochargers share the common single-flow turbine-shaft-radial compressor design. However,
with the proliferation of applications requiring turbocharging for various reasons, including emissions
control, new designs/types of turbochargers have become necessary. Some of these designs are not new
concepts, but involve modifications to the base fixed-geometry turbocharger described so far. The main
premise for the modern use of turbochargers is that they achieve nearly constant charge-air pressure over
a wide range of operating conditions. Achieving this goal requires controlling the turbocharger operation
in a flexible manner. This process is usually achieved through regulation at the exhaust gas end,
principally through (1) waste-gating and (2) variable-geometry turbocharging.

In some cases, regulating charge air is achieved on the cold side (compressor). The system is often
referred to as the air gas regulator. This method of bypassing air after it has been compressed is not as
popular as the exhaust bypass (waste-gated turbocharger). The reason for this is the loss of energy used
to compress the air that is bypassed rather than used in the engine.

Waste-Gated Turbochargers
Figure 9 is a schematic representation of a waste-gated turbocharger that illustrates a mechanism of
bypassing exhaust around the turbine [Foulkes 1995]. Waste-gated turbochargers are generally actuated
pneumatically, based on an inlet system pressure signal. Regulation of the bypass is achieved via a
spring-loaded diaphragm actuating a poppet valve. This entire assembly constitutes the body of the
waste-gate.

Figure 9. Waste-Gated Turbocharger

In practical embodiments, a pressure signal from the intake manifold is applied to the waste-gate
diaphragm [Bosch 1986]. The force generated by the pressure application depresses the spring at the
prescribed design point thus opening the bypass (poppet) valve which routes exhaust around the turbine

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and dissipates pulse energy directly into the ambient air via the exhaust pipe.

This process allows the design of turbochargers that are particularly well suited to accommodate engine
air flow requirements at engine speeds below peak torque. Thus, the turbocharger can easily accelerate
and develop adequate inlet pressure (intake manifold pressure) when exposed to low exhaust energy.
Above peak torque speeds, some of the exhaust flow to the turbocharger is usually bypassed to avoid
excessive inlet pressure when exposed to high exhaust flow, in order to preserve fuel spray and air
mixing quality in the combustion chamber.

Variable Geometry Turbochargers

In waste-gated turbochargers some of the exhaust pulsating energy is not used to rotate the turbine, as
described earlier. Dissipating this energy directly into the atmosphere rather than making use of it may
be viewed as waste that can reduce the potential overall powerplant efficiency. An alternative to this
method is the variable geometry turbocharger which is shown schematically in Figure 10 [Foulkes 1995].

Figure 10. Variable Geometry Turbocharger

Shown in Figure 10 is the hot housing of a variable geometry turbocharger (VGT), variable angle vanes,
and a saw-toothed adjusting ring (items 1, 2, and 3 in Figure 10, respectively). The variable angle vanes
are sandwiched between the exhaust manifold and the turbine. At low energy exhaust conditions, the
variable angle vanes reduce the flow area between two consecutive vanes thus converting the exhaust
potential energy (pressure) into kinetic energy (speed). Faster exhaust impacts the turbine blades causing
them to rotate faster and providing the compressor with more energy to move more charge air into the
cylinder. Conversely at high engine output conditions, the vanes are positioned such that little conversion
of potential energy is experienced. This condition prevents the compressor from achieving too high a
rotating speed, and thus leads to reduced (correct) additional charge air inducted into the cylinder.

More details on the VGT construction (and somewhat different design) are shown in Figure 11 [Hawley
1999]. An annular ring holds a number of variable vanes through individual pivots in an assembly that
intercepts exhaust on its way from the exhaust manifold to the turbine wheel. An electronically
controlled actuator is responsible for the positioning of the vanes to direct the exhaust onto the turbine
blades. Again, the turbocharger speed depends on the angular position of the variable vanesthe turbine
speed increases as the vanes are turned towards their closed position and vice versa. As turbine speed
increases so does the resultant boost, thus increasing airflow into the intake manifold.

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Figure 11. Operation of Variable Geometry Turbocharger

Variable geometry turbochargers offer a great deal of flexibility in controlling engine performance as
well as reducing emissions, especially in modern engines where the use of electronics is more prevalent.
For instance, sensing a driver demand for fast acceleration, the electronic control module could be
programmed to position the variable angle vanes in a VGT to reduce the exhaust flow area and increase
turbine speed, thus providing additional charge air. Additional charge air could also be scheduled to
occur prior to the arrival of the bulk of acceleration fuel into the combustion chamber. This control
methodology helps eliminate the momentary smoke puff that usually occurs during sudden accelerations.
In addition to this control methodology, one can think of other advantages of variable geometry
turbocharging. Among them is controlling the pressure between the exhaust and intake manifolds. By
positioning the variable angle vanes to reduce exhaust flow area, exhaust manifold pressure increases
while intake manifold pressure may not increase by the same proportion. Emissions control engineers
use this feature to achieve more exhaust gas recirculation thus lowering NOx emissions. Experiments
conducted at Ford Tractor Operations in the mid-eighties provided a comparison between the
performance of a fixed-geometry and a variable-geometry turbocharger. Figure 12 gives the relationship
between intake manifold pressure and brake specific smoke for a VGT, at constant engine speeds. The
performance of the fixed-geometry turbocharger is also indicated in the same graph.

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Figure 12. Relationship Between Intake Manifold Pressure and Smoke Emission

Several conclusions can be derived from Figure 12:

Using a VGT can substantially lower brake specific smoke which is defined as smoke (measured
in Bosch No.) divided by the engine power output and multiplied by 100.
Using a VGT is more effective at low engine speeds, which corresponds to low intake manifold
pressure, compared to fixed-geometry turbocharging.
Using a VGT at high engine output conditions, versus a well-matched fixed-geometry
turbocharger, may not be justified.

Gains in torque and power output as well as fuel economy corresponding to those achieved in smoke
control have also been demonstrated. Figure 13 is an example of the superior performance achieved with
VGT at speeds below peak torque, as indicated by the dashed lines in the graph.

Figure 13. Effect of VGT On Torque, Power, and BSFC at below Peak Torque Speeds for a Small Diesel
Engine

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