Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Chelsea B. Metivier
4/26/2016
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 2
The appreciation of social diversity is a necessary but not sufficient step toward understanding
the inequalities experienced by peoples who are seen as belonging to marginalized social
groups. It is necessary to understand injustice if we are ever to dismantle the institutions and
policies that maintain injustice and to reconstruct institutions and policies based on fairness,
equity, and justice (Adams, Blumenfeld, Castaeda, Hackman, Peters, & Ziga, 2013, p.1).
As the American population and subsequently the college student population becomes
increasingly diverse, it is necessary for strategic enrollment management officers and/or college
admissions counselors to have cultural competency training to ensure they can best meet the
needs of the students and the intuitions for which they serve (Campbell, Sullivan, Sherman, &
Magee, 2010). Within the context of this paper, cultural competency will be defined as: a
prejudices and discrimination, in conjunction with the desire to understand the experiences of
others; all to work towards the goal of functioning adequately and effectively within a
multicultural context (Suh, 2004; Tervalon & Murray-Garca, 1998; Williams, 2007). In addition
to standardizing the training during their first few weeks in the position, there also needs to be an
admissions staff (Williams, 2007). Because as one article noted, college admissions counseling
remains more art than science, and training and professional development are haphazard across
This paper intends to call attention to a gap in the literature around undergraduate
admissions counselors and their training and continuing professional development by arguing the
need to establish an expectation of cultural competence training for all new admissions
counselors, continuing training for seasoned counselors, and then provide a possible model for
execution of those trainings. The argument for cultural competency training will include an
composition of current admissions counselors, then the multiple roles within the admissions
counselor job, and finally the professionalization of the admissions field. The argument for such
the medical and counseling professions. The methods employed by the medical and counseling
fields greatly inform the training model proposed for college admissions counselors. Finally,
limitations of the model and implications for strategic enrollment management will be discussed.
As the United States becomes increasingly racially diverse the number of college students
of color will continue to increase (Anderson, 2003); but the demographics of college admissions
professionals are not changing in tandem with the changing demographics of the United States
college student population. Admissions officers who identify as racial/ethnic minorities continue
to be under-represented at every level of the admissions profession, and the discrepancy becomes
increasingly evident as the position titles increase (NACAC, 2014). This leaves a disconnect
between the population admissions offices serve and the individuals providing the service.
Effectively recruiting and enrolling students of diverse backgrounds requires the institution to be
deliberate in training its admissions staff so they are aware of their potential implicit biases and
argue that admissions counselors must have a baseline understanding of systems of privilege and
systemic inequities and honoring the mission of their institution by enrolling a diverse class.
Enrolling a diverse class does not occur simply by reading and reviewing applications.
Another important part of the role of the admissions counselor is the development of
relationships with prospective students and their families to counsel them through the application
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 4
process for the institution (Mathis, 2010). Not only is this component an expectation of the
institution, but it is also the part of the role that provides a great amount of professional
satisfaction for the counselors. Hodum and James (2010) noted that admissions professionals are
most satisfied in their position when they are able to make an impact, work independently, and
develop and employ counseling skills. Again, as the college student population becomes
increasingly diverse, admissions counselors will not only be reviewing more applications from
students of color, but they will also increasingly provide admissions counseling and support for
students and families of color. As such, appreciation for the differences in experiences, the
possible unique challenges the students and families may have/continue to face, and an
understanding of the power dynamics at play, are essential to an admissions officers ability to
serve the best interests of the students and families as well as enroll a class that honors the
Admissions office staff and office policies and practices should be motivated by the
institutions mission (Conley, 1996; Hossler & Bontrager, 2015). The majority of college and
honoring diverse experiences as part of their mission. Furthermore, public consensus generally
indicates the belief that higher education is the best tool to combat systemic inequalities in
society (Espenshade & Radford, 2013; Sacks, 2007). Despite public commitment to increasing
diversity and public consensus that higher education is the best strategy to minimize social
inequalities, the training admissions counselors receive is limited and woefully outdated, which
does not prepare admissions counselors for success, especially as it relates to enrolling a diverse
class (Barnds, 2009; Gansemer-Topf, Holden, & Peggar, 2015; Hodum & James, 2010). In one
study exploring the onboarding of new admissions staff, over 80% of admissions counselors
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 5
indicated they received training that lasts less than two weeks (Hodum & James, 2010). Conley
(1996) explains that admissions offices rely on the director or dean of admissions to socialize and
train new staff members on the major principles of admission and how to ensure the mission of
Such training practices are problematic for a few reasons. First, it is discouragingly short
considering the importance and breadth of the admissions counselors roles. Second, the
information provided is at the discretion of the director at each institution, allowing for great
discretion is appropriate only so far as it relates to the specific mission and policies of the
institution. However, it does little to ensure that information concerning ethical guidelines and
practices are covered as part of that training and/or that issues of diversity and inclusion are
discussed (Hodum & James, 2010). This last point is also problematic because of the substantial
autonomy admissions counselors have in regard to how they execute their responsibilities
(Conley, 1996; Hodum & James, 2010). In a recent study of the competencies needed to be
successful in their role as admissions counselors, competency in equity, diversity, and inclusion,
was one of four emphasized by the admissions officers in the study (Gansemer-Topf et al., 2015).
In order to honor the admissions professionals commitment to the profession and best set them
up for success, the admissions profession and individual institutions must provide effective and
professional development.
has already been established in other professional fields. The undergraduate admissions
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 6
profession is decades behind the medical field and the school counseling profession (in this paper
this refers to K-12 school counselors), in establishing a set curricula and/or explicit standards for
cultural competencies within their respective professions (Campbell et al., 2010; Holcomb-
McCoy & Myers, 1999; Nelson, Bustamante, Wilson, & Onwuegbuzie, 2008; Suh, 2004).
Currently, the two professional associations for undergraduate admissions staff have only
The associations lack congruence between their expectations, as well as any curricula for training
or even any explicit expectations of cultural competency as a critical part of any admissions
In their 2015 Statement of Principles of Good Practice (SPGP), the National Association
for College Admission Counseling (NACAC) expects that the high school counselors,
undergraduate admissions counselors, and enrollment professionals who are members or work at
member institutions will subscribe to and practice the ethical behaviors outlined in the SPGP.
The 2015 SPGP lists fairness and equity and social responsibility as two of their Core Values
(NACAC, 2015). Additionally, they list the following member convention: members will
evaluate students on the basis of their individual qualifications and strive for inclusion of all
members of society in the admissions process (NACAC, 2015). This convention further
AACRAOs Statement of Professional Practices and Ethical Standards includes the following
statements relating to their commitment to diversity and inclusion within college admissions:
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 7
2010).
Despite the expectations for ethical behavior outlined above and the research of Gansemer-Topf
et al., (2015), indicating that many admissions counselors already recognize the importance of
competency around issues of diversity, inclusion, and equity, a model for cultural competency
In response to recognizing the increasingly diverse patient population, there has been a
significant push to ensure cultural competency training for physicians (Kripalani, Bussey-Jones,
Katz, & Genao, 2006; Suh, 2004). The research indicates health care providers who are more
knowledgeable about their patients backgrounds, who have more positive attitudes towards their
patients, and who have the skills to communicate and apply a patient-centered approach are
likely to provide better care to their patients (Beach et al., 2005 p. 356). Although a variety of
frameworks exist to guide their cultural competency training, there is a general consensus about
the goals for providing culturally competent healthcare. These include: improved clinical
educating oneself and striving to work more effectively with patients within the context of their
cultural backgrounds (Beach et al., 2005; Campbell et al., 2010; Suh, 2004). Like the improved
care physicians provide when they have an increased understanding of the population they are
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 8
serving, it is possible that admissions counselors would provide better customer service and more
Recent literature on K-12 school counseling practices has also emphasized the
importance of cultural competency, arguing that the entire profession must embrace a
commitment to the empowerment of school counselors for the purpose of systemic change in
school environments (Nelson et al., 2008, p. 208). Furthermore, arguing that school counselors
(defined as K-12 counselors) are perfectly positioned within the institution to ensure all student
can access a quality education. Subsequently, the counseling profession has increased its
emphasis on the importance of infusing cultural competency into its graduate program
curriculum (Holcomb-McCoy & Myers, 1999; Sabnani, Ponterotto, & Borodovsky, 1991). Like
the medical profession, a variety of frameworks exist but they have common themes to describe
cultural competency for school counselors. Such themes include: understanding racism and
student racial identity development, multicultural counseling techniques, and continuous self-
evaluation and reflection (Nelson et al., 2008; Sabnani et al., 1991). Undergraduate admissions
counselors are similarly well positioned, like K-12 counselors, to advocate for systemic change
within the system and directly support students in pursuit of quality education. Therefore,
management teams should emphasize the importance of developing such competencies, and then
Recognizing the lack of a model for cultural competency training within the
undergraduate admissions field in contrast to the variety of models for cultural competency
training in both the school counseling and medical fields, the following is an attempt to address
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 9
this gap in the literature and provide a starting point for the development of such a model. The
proposed model was informed and constructed as a result of cultural competency trainings for k-
12 school counseling, the medical profession, and with supplemental reading from higher
education student affairs cultural competency trainings. It is important to note that the model
was constructed largely from the perspective and admissions cycle of selective/highly selective
institutions, which is congruent with the fact that most the literature on college admissions is
from the perspective of selective institutions. Selective institutions are of primary focus in the
majority of the literature not because it is assumed they are representative of all of higher
education but rather that the more elite institutions are better positioned to influence policy and
are often in the vanguard of innovative change in higher education and because they have the
latitude in choosing whom to recruit, admit, enroll, and graduate (Espenshade & Radford,
2011, p. 3).
The cultural competency training model (see Appendix A) consists of a series of either
four or eight hour trainings spread throughout the year. The trainings are designed to engage the
participants in exploring social identities and the resulting cycles of privilege and oppression,
identifying participants own social identities, and prompt participants to think constructively,
honestly, and courageously about how they may engage in the unintentional and intentional
illustrating the best practices for cultural competency training, each session will consist of a
designated time to discuss the direct impact of the training topic on their roles as admissions
The core of the training model consists of three required training sessions and then offers
additional sessions at the discretion of the director. The first two trainings will occur every
summer, during the onboarding training for any new staff members. These two trainings are two
days, each eight hours long, but will not occur on back to back days because research indicates
that the impact of such training is greater when there is time in-between for self-reflection
(Williams, 2007). The majority of the first two training sessions will only be for new counselors
who have yet to attend any training sessions. However, there will be a few hours between the
two days were all counselors are expected to attend. Their attendance will allow them to engage
in additional reflection but their experiences and input will also greatly contribute to the richness
of the dialogue and provide insight through experience when discussing how it connects directly
to their roles. The third training will occur once the counselors return from their travel but
before they begin to read early action/decision applications. The third training occurs a few
months later to both honor the research indicating time for reflection enhances the learning
outcomes and because re-engaging with the material later encourages new growth and
exploration.
cultural competency training. This is important because of the sensitive nature of the
information and the emotions and dialogue it elicits, it is important to have individuals
admissions counselor positions are considered entry-level jobs and are generally held by new
professionals, this lends to a high turnover rate, as counselors tend to do this for a few years right
out of school before moving on (Barnds, 2009; Gansemer-Topf, 2015; Hossler & Bontrager,
2015). Therefore, it is important to offer the training every year for any new staff members and
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 11
for seasoned professionals to continuously engage with the material and add value to the
conversations.
intentional and thoughtful counseling of students, families, and stakeholders; the hope is that this
model assists in controlling for any implicit application reader bias that may influence the way
an admissions counselor reads and evaluates an application. A recent article in The Chronicle of
Higher Education, acknowledges that weve long known that many people have implicit biases,
so why wouldnt they be represented among admissions counselors? (Schmidt, 2016). The
article goes on to note that female admissions counselors and counselors who are members of
another minority group, were more likely to look favorably upon low-income applicants,
suggesting they were more inclined toward equity and social justice in the decision-making
process than their white and male colleagues (Schmidt, 2016, para. 5). The previous example
may appear to benefit students from traditionally marginalized but more often than not, it is far
more likely that implicit biases will negatively impact traditionally underrepresented student
populations. The hope is that by providing cultural competency training and engaging the
admissions counselors in critical self-reflection, they will be more inclined to reflect and take
into consideration systemic oppression and discrimination when reading and deciding an
applicants outcome.
education and even viability, it becomes more and more important that admissions counselors
have a base level of cultural competency (Hossler & Bontrager, 2015). Cultural competency
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 12
should assist admissions counselors in better understanding some of the challenges facing non-
traditional and traditionally underserved populations and subsequently will be expected to think
Acknowledging that simply an awareness of systemic inequities does not, nor should not, make
one wholly qualified to speak on behalf of the experiences and/or needs of others. However, the
awareness is certainly more effective in critiquing enrollment and admissions policies than not
having any frame of reference. One example for thinking critically about recruitment and
enrollment strategy with a cultural competency lens is to be aware of how an institution may be
limiting its ability to recruit and enroll a diverse population because it has neglected to consider
the demographics of the high schools from which it recruits (Hossler & Bontrager, 2015).
Institutions tend to actively recruit applicants from roughly the same high schools year after year,
creating a sort of pipeline of students from those high schools to that institution (Sacks, 2007).
Without critically examining the student populations or socioeconomic statuses of those students
versus the students at high schools in the surrounding areas, institutions may be impeding their
ability to create diverse classes and even more problematically, perpetuate social stratification
(Sacks, 2007).
additional financial resources, such as compensation for the facilitators. The burden this would
place on the institution would vary depending upon the overall financial health of the institution,
but this does not diminish the importance of such training, which would hopefully also be
Additionally, the model was created by synthesizing competencies and best practices
from models intended for other professions. Therefore, if implemented the strategies may prove
ineffective within the context of the undergraduate admissions field. Therefore, it will be
important to consider how the model could be modified to better suit the needs of the field.
Arguably the most critical limitation of this model is that its effectiveness has yet to be
assessed. Assessment of the model is necessary to determine its viability within the field. The
assessment should consider whether the learning outcomes were met and if the topics covered
were beneficial within the context of the work of the undergraduate admissions staff.
A number of areas were identified for future research through the completion of this
paper. In addition to assessing the model for cultural competency training, examining the
relationship between an admissions counselors social identities and how they evaluate
counselors identities and the identities of the applicants they review should also provide more
guidance for recreating or modifying the proposed training model. Furthermore, best practices
for cultural competency training as it relates to the calendar of the admissions cycle, may also
provide insight as to topics necessary to cover and the order in which they should be addressed.
As the United States becomes and increasingly multicultural society, our colleges and
universities need to change their policies and practices to better align with the changing
undergraduate admissions counselors must adjust to reflect the changing demographics of the
students applying. Providing competency training for undergraduate admissions staff will not
only allow counselors to provide better counseling and support for students and their families,
but also assist the institutions in continuing to honor their missions to enroll an increasingly
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 14
diverse student population. Finally, an increased understanding of the diverse perspectives and
experiences of others will better prepare admissions counselors to use their position of power and
privilege to advocate for change in admissions policies and strategies, so they and their
respective institutions can better serve the students and their families.
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 15
Appendix A
1) Define the following terms within the context of social justice education: target identity,
agent/dominant identity, privilege, oppression, intersectionality
2) Identify and critically analyze ones own identities, both agent and target identities
3) Ability to self-reflect as a way to increase understanding of how ones agent identities
perpetuate oppression or how one experiences oppression as a result of ones target
identities.
4) Development and recognition of the power of advocacy to challenge social inequities
5) The ideal of meritocracy, and its impact on college admissions
1) Day 1 (8 Hours)
a. Setting the ground rules
i. Suggested reading: From Safe Spaces to Brave Spaces, by Arao, B., and
Clemens, K., in The Art of Effective Facilitation, 135-150.
b. Construction of Social Identities (includes identifying and reflecting on individual
targeted and privileged identities)
i. Suggested reading: The Social Construction of Difference, by Johnson, A.,
in Readings for Diversity and Social Justice, 15-21.
ii. Suggested reading: The Complexity of Identity, by Tatum, B., in Readings
for Diversity and Social Justice, 6-9.
2) Day 2 (8 Hours)
a. Privilege, Oppression, and Social Justice (includes exploration of power
dynamics, and an exercising in considering how power dynamics may be at play
within college admissions)
i. Suggested reading: What Can We Do, by Johnson, A., in Readings for
Diversity and Social Justice, 612-618.
3) Day 3 (4 Hours)
a. Myth of Meritocracy (includes discussion on meritocracy within college
admissions)
i. Suggested reading: Class in America-2006, by Mantsios, G., in Readings
for Diversity and Social Justice, 150-156.
ii. Suggested reading: At the Elite Colleges, by Schmidt, P., in Readings for
Diversity and Social Justice, 175-176.
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 16
4) Topics for Possible Additional Sessions (4 Hours), offered at the discretion of the director
can occur anytime throughout the year
a. Sexism
i. Suggested reading: Introduction to Sexism, by Hackman, H., in Readings
for Diversity and Social Justice, 317-323.
b. Heterosexism
i. Suggested reading: Introduction to Heterosexism, by Blumenfeld, W., in
Readings for Diversity and Social Justice, 373-379.
ii. Suggested reading: Privilege, by Carbado, D., in Readings for Diversity
and Social Justice, 391-397.
c. Ableism
i. Suggested reading: Facilitating Transitions to College for Students with
Disabilities from Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds, by
Oesterreich, H., & Knight, M., in Readings for Diversity and Social
Justice, 517-522.
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 17
References
AACRAO (2010). Statement of Professional Practices and Ethical Standards. Washington, DC:
American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers.
Retrieved from:
http://www.aacrao.org/home/about/ethics-and-practice
Adams, M., Blumenfeld, W. J., Castaeda, R., Hackman, H. W., Peters, M. L., & Ziga,
X. (Eds.). (2013). Readings for diversity and social justice (3rd ed.). New York, NY:
Routledge.
Anderson, E. (2003). Changing U.S. demographics and American higher education. New
Directions for Higher Education, 121, 3-12.
doi: 10.1002/he.97
Barnds, K. (2009). Millennials invading: Building training for todays admissions counselors.
College and University, 85(2), 63-66.
Beach, M., Price, E., Gary, T., Robinson, K., Gozu, A., Palacio, A., Cooper, L. (2005).
Cultural competency: A systematic review of health care provider educational
interventions. Med Care, 43(4), 356-373.
Campbell, A., Sullivan, M., Sherman, R., & Magee, W. (2010). The medical mission and modern
cultural competency training. Journal of the American College of Surgeons, 212(1), 124-
129.
doi: 10. 1016/j.jamcollsurg.2010.08.019
Conley, P. (1996). Local justice in the allocation of college admissions: A statistical study of
beliefs versus practices. Social Justice Research, 9(3), 239-258.
Espenshade, T., & Radford, A. (2013). No longer separate, not yet equal: Race and class in elite
college admissions and campus life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Hodum, R., & James, G. (2010). An observation of normative structure for college admission
and recruitment officers. The Journal of Higher Education, 81(3), 317-338.
Retreived from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40606859
Holcomb-McCoy, C., & Myers, J. (1999). Multicultural competence and counselor training: A
national survey. Journal of Counseling and Development, 77(3), 294-302.
Gansemer-Topf, A., Haden, K., & Peggar, E. (2015). Aligning competencies with success: What
does it take to be an effective admissions counselor. College and University, 90(1), 14-
22.
Jump, J. (2004). Admission, Heal Thyself: A Prescription for Reclaiming College Admission as
a Profession. The Journal of College Admission, 184, 12-17.
Kripalani, S., Bussey-Jones, J., Katz, M., & Genao, I. (2006). A prescription for cultural
competence in medical education. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21(10), 1116-
1120.
doi: 10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00557.x
Landreman, L. (Ed.). (2013). The art of effective facilitation: Reflections from social
justice educators. Sterling, VA: Stylus.
NACAC (2014). Career paths for admission officers: A survey report. Arlington, VA: National
Association of College Admissions Counselors.
Retrieved from:
http://www.nacacnet.org/research/research-data/Documents/CareerPaths2014.pdf
Nelson, J., Bustamante, R., Wilson, E., & Onwuegbuzie, A. (2008). The school-wide cultural
competence observation checklist for school counselors: An exploratory factor analysis.
Professional School Counseling, 11(4), 207-217.
Sabnani, H., Ponterotto, J., & Borodovsky, L. (1991). White racial identity development and
cross-cultural counselor training: A stage model. The Counseling Psychologist, 19(1), 76-
102.
Sacks, P. (2007). Tearing down the gates: Confronting the class divide in American
education. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
A MODEL FOR CULTURAL COMPETENCY TRAINING 19
Schmidt, P. (2016, April 12). In admissions decisions, the deciders own backgrounds play a big
role. The Chronicle of Higher Education.
Retrieved from:
http://chronicle.com/article/In-Admission-Decisions-the/236088
Suh, E. (2004). The model of cultural competence through an evolutionary concept analysis.
Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 15(2), 93-102.
doi: 10.117/1043659603262488
Tervalon, M., & Murray-Garcia, J. (1998). Cultural humility versus cultural competence: A
critical distinction in defining physician training outcomes in multicultural education.
Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 9(2), 117-125.
doi: 10.1353/hpu.2010.0233