Engine Generator Sizing LEBE5294-07 PDF

APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE
ELECTRIC POWER
APPLICATIONS, ENGINE
& GENERATOR SIZING
Contents
Generator Set Rating Considerations .................................... 2

Rating Definitions........................................................... 2
Engine/Generator Set Load Factor ................................ 2
Emergency Standby Power.......................................... 3
Standby Power .......................................................... 3
Prime Power .............................................................. 3
Continuous Power ...................................................... 3
The International Standards Organization (ISO).............. 3
Continuous Operating Power (COP).............................. 4
Prime Running Power (PRP) ......................................... 4
Limited-Time Running Power (LTP)............................... 4
Emergency Standby Power (ESP) ................................. 4
Load Management.......................................................... 4
Paralleled with or Isolated from the Utility less than
500 Hours per Year (Available for Limited Cat Models
rated at Prime Power) ................................................. 4
Standards...................................................................... 5
Generator Rating Capability ......................................... 5
Generator Mapping Limits ........................................... 7
Site Conditions Impact on Genset Ratings........................ 7
Random Wound vs Form Wound.................................. 7
Environmental Conditions ............................................ 9
Altitude ..................................................................... 9
Heat ......................................................................... 9
Corrosive Atmospheres ............................................... 9
Humidity ................................................................... 9
Transient Response ...................................................... 10
Sizing Criterion ........................................................ 11
Motor Starting ......................................................... 12
Block Load .............................................................. 13
Transient Response Standards ....................................... 13
Engine Considerations............................................... 14
Engine Configuration ................................................ 18
Air System .............................................................. 18
Gas Engines............................................................. 19
Block Load and Transient Capability ........................... 19
System Interaction ................................................... 19
Voltage Regulators ................................................... 20
Digital Voltage Regulator........................................... 21
Customer Requirements .................................................... 22
Power Demand ............................................................ 22
On Site Power Requirement....................................... 22
Load Management.................................................... 22
Loads Profiles .......................................................... 22
Estimating Load Data................................................ 24
Categorizing Loads ................................................... 24
VA/FT2 Load Estimating ............................................ 25
Load Steps .................................................................. 26
Prioritization ............................................................ 26
Load Shedding ......................................................... 27
Intermittent Loads .................................................... 27
Additional Load Categories ........................................ 27
Load Management Strategies .................................... 27
Peak Shaving ........................................................... 27
Base Loading ........................................................... 28
Zero Import/Zero Export............................................ 28
Peak Sharing ........................................................... 29
Co-generation .......................................................... 29
Load Duration Curves ............................................... 29
Estimating Guidelines................................................ 30
Load Growth ........................................................... 30
Demand Factor ............................................................ 31
Diversity Factor ........................................................... 32
Demand Factor and Diversity Factor in Sizing.................. 32
Frequency Dips ........................................................ 33
Block Load & Standards ............................................ 33
Starting Requirements .................................................. 33
Load Acceptance ..................................................... 34
Ten-Second Start ..................................................... 34
Health Care Facilities & NFPA 99 ............................... 35
Fuel Selection .......................................................... 35
Performance ................................................................ 35
Emissions ................................................................ 35
Correction Factors.................................................... 37
Nominal vs. Not to Exceed ........................................ 37
Heat Balance ........................................................... 37
Co-generation Usage ................................................ 38
Load Analysis .................................................................. 39
Lighting Loads ............................................................. 40
Linear Lighting Loads ................................................ 40
Lighting................................................................... 40
Incandescent Lighting ............................................... 40
Tungsten Lamp Inrush .............................................. 41
Non-Linear Lighting Loads ......................................... 41
Fluorescent Lamps ................................................... 41
Gas Discharge Lamps ............................................... 41
Motor Loads ................................................................ 42
Induction Motors ...................................................... 43
Wound Rotor (Slip Ring)............................................ 44
Slip Definition .......................................................... 44
Synchronous Motors ................................................ 45
DC Motors............................................................... 46
Single-phase Motors ................................................. 46
Three-Phase Motors ................................................. 47
Motor Performance....................................................... 47
Design Class............................................................ 47
Motor Starting ......................................................... 49
Starting Power Factor............................................... 51
Motor Starting Load ................................................. 52
Motor Torque........................................................... 53
Motor Voltage.......................................................... 57
Motor Starting Techniques ............................................ 58
Full Voltage Starting ................................................. 58
Soft Starting Cushioning Motor Starting
Under Load.............................................................. 61
Reduced Voltage Starting.......................................... 61
Reduced Starting Methods ........................................ 63
Intermittent Starting ................................................. 69
Motor Starting Troubleshooting Techniques ................ 69
Miscellaneous Loads..................................................... 70
Adjustable (Variable) Speed Drives ............................. 70
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) Systems .................. 71
Welding Loads ......................................................... 72
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) ........................... 72
Regenerative Power.................................................. 78
Transformers ........................................................... 79
Critical Loads........................................................... 81
Helpful Load Application Tips .................................... 81
Single-Phase Loads................................................... 85
Load Balancing......................................................... 85
One-line Diagrams .................................................... 87
Genset Selection Considerations ........................................ 92
Load Types.................................................................. 92
Linear Loads ............................................................ 92
Non-Linear Loads ..................................................... 93
Harmonic Content ........................................................ 94
Generator Considerations .............................................. 96
Generator System Protection ..................................... 96
Generator Heating .................................................... 97
Generator Reactance Impact...................................... 97
Waveform Distortion ................................................ 98
Generator AVR and Excitation ................................... 99
Determining Distortion ............................................ 100
Generator Pitch ...................................................... 100
2/3 Pitch ............................................................... 101
Non-Linear Loads and 2/3 Pitch ............................... 101
Paralleling and 2/3 Pitch.......................................... 101
Applications Requiring 2/3 Pitch .............................. 102
Other Generator Set Selection Considerations ........... 102
Voltage Range/Number of Leads .............................. 102
Genset Voltage Selection ........................................ 103
Multi-Engine Installations ............................................ 104
Paralleling.............................................................. 104
Droop and Governors.............................................. 107
Regulator Compensation ......................................... 108
Load Control .......................................................... 109
Load Order ............................................................ 109
Unit Shutdown....................................................... 109
Foreword
This section of the Application and Installation Guide generally describes
Electric Power Application, Engine and Generator Selection for Cat engines.
Additional engine systems, components and dynamics are addressed in other
sections of this Application and Installation Guide.
Engine-specific information and data are available from a variety of
sources. Refer to the Introduction section of this guide for additional
references.
Systems and components described in this guide may not be available
or applicable for every engine.
Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

Discretion is recommended when distributing. Materials and specifications
are subject to change without notice.
CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, Caterpillar Yellow the Power

Edge trade dress as well as corporate and product identity used herein, are
trademarks of Caterpillar and may not be used without permission.
EP Applications, Engine & Generator Sizing Application and Installation Guide
Electric Power Applications, Engine & Generator

Sizing
On-site engine/generator sets (gensets) are used in a variety of
applications. They are becoming more popular for load management
applications since the deregulation and privatization of the utility industry.
Some gensets are used strictly as back-up for emergencies and some
as the only power source.
Although computer programs can be used to assist in proper generator
sizing, an understanding of the formulas, calculations and non-numerical
factors is beneficial to determine proper generator sizing.
The following subjects must be considered and are specifically addressed
in this section.
Engine Ratings
Customer Applications
Load Analysis
Genset Selection Criteria
Multi-Engine Installations
SECTION CONTENTS
Generator Set Rating Demand & Diversity Factors

Considerations .................... 2 in Sizing
Rating Definitions Starting Requirements
Load Management Performance
Standards Load Analysis.................... 39
Site Conditions Impact on Lighting Loads
Genset Ratings Motor Loads
Transient Response Motor Performance
Transient Response Motor Starting Techniques
Standards
Miscellaneous Loads
Customer Requirements ......22
Genset Selection
Power Demand
Considerations................... 92
Load Steps Load Types
Demand Factor Harmonic Content
Diversity Factor Generator Considerations
Multi-Engine Installations
2010 Caterpillar
All rights reserved. Page 1
Application and Installation Guide EP Applications, Engine & Generator Sizing
Generator Set Rating Considerations

facility. This involves making a
Rating Definitions
survey of the power requirements
A generator set (genset) consists of
over a period of time.
an engine and a generator. However,
it is best to consider the engine and ekW = pf x kVA
generator as a system. Individually, ekW
bkW = + Fan Demand
each has unique characteristics; but eff
together these qualities have a kVA = kVA output of generator
significant impact on the performance pf = power factor of connected load
and sizing of the genset system.
ekW = electrical power (electrical kW)
Capabilities of both engine and
bkW = engine power (brake kW)
generator are considered individually
and collectively when selecting eff = generator efficiency
generator sets. Engines produce When kW is qualified as neither
brake horsepower (or kilowatts) while electrical (ekW) nor brake (bkW), it
controlling speed or frequency. is important to clarify between the
Generators influence engine behavior, two when performing calculations
but are primarily responsible for or product comparisons.
changing engine power into kilovolt-
Engine/Generator Set Load Factor
amperes (kVA) and electrical
Load factor of a generator set is
kilowatts (kW). They also must
used as one criterion for rating a
satisfy high magnetizing current
genset. It is calculated by finding
draws (kVAR), or transient conditions
the product of various loads:
from electrical equipment.
Load Factor = % of time x % of load
Normally, a generator set is
furnished with a generator which
matches the engine output capability. time at specific load
% of time =
Engines are sized according to the total operating time
actual power in kW required to meet
the needs of the facility. The specific load
generator, on the other hand, must % of load =
rated load
be capable of handling the maximum
apparent power which is measured in
Extended idling time and the time
kVA. The actual power can be
when the generator set is not
identified in several ways. It can be
operating does not enter into the
calculated by adding the nameplate
calculation for load factor.
ratings of the equipment to be
powered by the generator. If this is For example, assume a facility has
done, the efficiencies of the a genset rated at 550 kW and runs it
equipment must also be considered. two hours a week. During those two
The actual power can be determined hours, it runs at 400 kW for
by performing a load analysis on the 1.5 hours. Find the load factor.
2010 Caterpillar
Page 2 All rights reserved.
The formulas reveal the following: limited to 1 in 12 hours but not to

400 kW exceed 25 hours per year. The 10%
% of load = = 0.73 overload is available in accordance
550 kW
with ISO 3046-1 (2002). Life to
overhaul of the engine is dependent
90 min.
% of time = = 0.75 on operation as outlined in ISO8528
120 min.
(2005) and time spent operating
above the rating guidelines will
Load Factor = 0.73 x 0.75 = 54.75% reduce the hours to engine overhaul.
Continuous Power
This load factor would indicate Unlimited hours of usage. Non-
that the genset could be used as a varying load factor is 70% to 100%
standby rated genset because it of the published Continuous Power.
meets the load factor and other Typical peak demand is 100% of
criteria of standby. continuous rating for 100% of
Power rating definitions for Cat operating hours.
generator sets are based on typical Note: Operating at load factors
load factor, hours of use per year, above these rating definitions will
peak demand and application use. result in shorter oil change intervals
Cat genset ratings for emergency and reduced hours to engine
standby, standby, prime and overhauls, resulting in higher
continuous power are listed. generator and engine costs per year.
Emergency Standby Power Refer to the Owning and Operating
Typical usage of 50 hours per year manual for package specific service
with a maximum of 200 hours per intervals and the impact of operating
year with varying loads. Average at higher load levels. Some ratings
variable load factor is 70% of ESP definitions are not available for all
rating. No overload is available. Not models.
for maintained utility paralleling The International Standards
applications. Organization (ISO)
Standby Power ISO 8528-1 (2005) defines four
Typical usage 200 hours per year, types of duty:
with a maximum of 500 hours per Continuous Operating Power
year with varying loads. Average (COP)
variable load factor is 70% of Prime Running Power (PRP)
Standby rating. No overload is
Limited-Time running Power
available. Not for maintained utility
(LTP)
paralleling applications.
Emergency Standby Power
Prime Power (ESP)
Unlimited hours of usage. Average
variable load factor is 70% of the
Prime power rating. 10% overload
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Continuous Operating Power (COP)

Continuous operating power is the Generator Set Ratings
power a generator set can operate
at a continuous load for an unlimited ISO Cat
number of hours under stated ESP Emergency Standby Power
ambient conditions. Maintenance n/a Standby
according to the manufacturer must
LTP Load Management Guidelines
be followed to reach these standards.
PRP Prime
Prime Running Power (PRP)
Prime running power is the COP Continuous
maximum power a generator set has Table 1
during a variable power sequence
for an unlimited number of hours * Equivalent to load management application when
paralleled with or isolated from the utility less than 500
under stated ambient conditions. hours per year (Prime Power)
Maintenance according to the
manufacturer must be followed Load Management
to reach these standards. Load management is the deliberate
control of loads on a genset and/or
Limited-Time Running Power (LTP)
utility to have the lowest possible
Limited-time running power is the
electrical costs. In addition, Cat has
maximum power that a generator set
two broad rating categories in terms
delivers for up to 500 hours per year
of load management:
under stated ambient conditions.
Maintenance according to the Isolated from a utility
manufacturer must be followed to Paralleled with a utility
reach these standards.
Paralleled with or Isolated from the
Emergency Standby Power (ESP) Utility less than 500 Hours per Year
Emergency standby power is the (Available for Limited Cat Models
maximum power available during a rated at Prime Power)
variable load sequence in the event Maximum power available for up to
of a utility power outage or under 500 hours per year***
test conditions for up to 200 hours *** Limited-Time Running Power (LTP) in
a year while maintaining per the accordance with ISO 8528, ISO 3046/1, AS2789,
DIN6271 and BS5514.
manufacturers specified intervals.
The permissible average power Output available without varying
output over a 24 hour period shall load for less than 500 hours per year.
not exceed 70% of the ESP rating. Maximum Load Factor = 100%
Specifications are often stated in Typical Hours per Year = Less than 500 hours
ISO terms and standards. Table 1 Typical Peak Demand = 100% of prime rating.
shows ISO genset ratings and
Typical Application = Peak sharing.
correlating Cat genset ratings.
2010 Caterpillar
Note: Load Management is a limited ISO 8528 has 12 sections. The

run time application of a Prime rated first section describes applications,
unit. Prime power units operating at ratings and performance. The
100% load for <500 hours per year remaining sections are listed below,
will experience shorter oil change by section number.
intervals and reduced hours to 2. Specifies characteristics of
engine overhauls - up to a 50% engine.
decrease in the published hour 3. Alternating current generators
interval due to the increase in fuel 4. Control gear & switchgear
consumed. Refer to the Owning and specifications
Operating manual for package 5. Generating set specifications
specific service intervals and the 6. Specifies test methods
impact of operating at higher load 7. Technical declarations for
levels specification and design
Depending on how the genset will 8. Low power generator sets
be applied will determine the size 9. Requirements on measurement
needed. For example, if for a given and evaluation of mechanical
load, the genset will only be used as vibration
standby for a critical load only, then a 10. Standards for noise
smaller kW genset can be used, rather 11. Dynamic, uninterrupted power
than one used for prime power. supply systems
12. Emergency power supply to
Standards safety services
Cat generator sets are in
accordance with The International Generator Rating Capability
Standardization Organization (ISO) Gensets are limited in their ratings
and the Society for Automotive by the conditions and applications of
Engineers (SAE) standards. Each both the generator and engine.
organization uses different techniques Generator ratings are typically
and tolerances for power ratings and thermal limited. They are limited by
fuel consumption. the amount of internal heat that is
ISO standard 3046-1 is specific to created and then the amount of heat
engines and ISO 8528 is followed that is dissipated. A more precise
for the generator set. definition is the increase in winding
temperature above the ambient
temperature. In other words, some
heat is retained within the unit,
raising the temperature of the
unit. The National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
generator ratings are based on the
generators temperature rise limit.
Outside the United States, the
International Electrotechnical
2010 Caterpillar
Commission (IEC) has limits on The H class allows for a 125C

temperature rise for generators; rise or total temperature limit of
these may be found in IEC 6034-22 175C or less:
(1996) and IEC 6034-1 (2004). 40C + 10C + 125C
Temperature rise is the increase
in winding temperature above the
For standby power, the F class has
ambient temperature. Ambient
a 130C temperature rise limit or
temperature is the temperature of
180C total temperature:
the cooling air as it enters the
ventilating openings of the machine. 40C + 10C + 130C
This temperature rise occurs
because of the flow of current in The H class has a 150C
the windings and internal losses temperature rise or 200C total
that occur in the machine during temperature limit:
operation. 40C + 10C + 150C
The most common classes of
generators are the F and H
class. For all classes, NEMA Voltage plays a key role in
assumes operation at 40C ambient generator rating and must be
or lower. The temperature rise limits considered. In some cases,
also allow for a 10C margin for generator voltage will not match
hot-spots. A hot-spot is the spot in the preferred operating voltage.
stator windings with the highest A voltage regulator can provide
temperature. voltage adjustment capability,
however, when dialing down
Table 2 shows temperature rise for generator voltage, the current will
F and H class generators at various increase for a given rating. This will
ratings. increase generator heat and may
Genset require generator derating. An
Generator Temperature
Package
Class Rise C alternative to generator derating is
Rating
F 80 Continuous to use a larger generator to maintain
H the standard rating.
F 105 Prime The standard set by NEMA
H 125 Prime
allows a generator to be adjusted
F 130 Standby
H 150 Standby up or down by five percent ( 5%)
as installed. Cat generators typically
Table 2
have a minimum 10% dial down
For prime power, the F class has capability; in some cases this may
a 105C rise or total temperature result in a derate. Some generators
limit of 155C (40C ambient are specifically designed as broad-
temperature + 10C hot-spot range and may not require derating.
margin + 105C temperature rise) A check of the manufacturers data
or less.
2010 Caterpillar
is recommended when using Site Conditions Impact

generators at off-design voltage. on Genset Ratings
Generator Mapping Limits Site conditions and power
Figure 1 is a reactive capability requirements will also play a key
chart for a salient-pole generator. role in generator selection. Careful
A load point within this area consideration must be given to the
defines the: environment that the package will
Active Power be operating in. (See Table 3.)
Reactive Power Random Wound vs Form Wound

Cat generators are available with
Apparent Power
main stator construction as either
Current random or form wound windings in
Power Factor low voltage (up to 600 volts)
configurations. The medium and high
Excitation
voltage (above 600 volts) generators
The heavy dark line, with points are available as form wound only.
labeled m-n-p-s-q-u-t, indicates The durability and endurance of the
absolute limits that are tolerated in a form wound stator windings are
machine. Generators are rated within superior to the random wound
these limits. (See the Generator windings; however, because of the
Section for additional details.) complex manufacturing process,
form wound generators are generally
more expensive. Caterpillar
recommends that the dealer,
consulting engineer and customer
carefully review all load and
application factors and select the
most suitable generator winding type
for each application.
There are four major factors that
influence the main stator
construction selection:
Type of generator set rating.
Standby load applications with
limited running time (emergency
power) and typically lower load
demand factors may not require the
form wound windings, especially
when optional space heaters are
utilized. However, prime and
continuous applications should utilize
Figure 1 form wound generators.
2010 Caterpillar
Power rating. High power generator leading to insulation cracking,

sets (above 2 MW) and critical and making the generators more
power installations should utilize susceptive to moisture failures.
form wound generators to ensure The form wound generators are
optimum performance. Smaller inherently more robust and suitable
generator sets at lower power rating for these applications. Oversizing
(under 800 kW) are commonly generators is also a consideration
constructed as random wound and advised for random wound
generators. The applications in the generators exposed to this type of
middle of the rating range (800 to loading.
2250 kW) should be investigated
carefully to ensure the dealer
understands all aspects of the
application and selects product in
accordance with this guide. When
selecting any generators, it is
important to give consideration to
other options such as coastal
insulation protection, space heaters,
and over-sizing to satisfy application
requirements.
Installation environment. Generator

sets installed in a harsh Table 3 Color chart guide for selecting the
environment, subject to abrasive generator winding type:
(sand, salt, or dust) or corrosive (salt
The winding description in each of the nine
or chemicals) air-borne materials, as boxes is the winding type Caterpillar
a priority, should be form wound recommends. However, it is not practical to
construction. It is noted that lower place any actual values on the axis, it is
power generators are typically not required the users make individual
decisions, and consider all other factors
available with form wound
when making a selection. Therefore the
construction. In cases where random traffic light color-coding is to guide the
wound construction is utilized in thought and deliberation process when
harsh environments, the optional making the selection:
space heaters and coastal insulation Green Winding is applicable and
winding protection should be recommended in majority of cases.
selected and applied. Yellow Choice exists, exercise caution;
review all factors (including factors not
listed in the four axis, for example customer
Type of load. High harmonic specifications, etc).
inducing and non-linear loads Red Use extra caution when
adversely affect generator windings; selecting the winding type for this
they may cause the windings end environment. The user must understand and
research all factors of the application if
turns to destructively vibrate,
2010 Caterpillar
applying a random wound generator into Altitude

these applications to avoid premature Generators operating at altitudes
winding failures.
above 1000 M (3281 ft.) require
temperature rise reduction of 1% for
Environmental Conditions every 100 M (328 ft.) above base
Various environment or site (1000 M or 3281 ft.). A derate chart
conditions that impact an engine or is available in TMI for generators and
generator selection include altitude, each specific engine. Figure 1 shows
temperature, physical harsh a sample engine TMI derate chart.
environments (defined as any or all Heat
of the following conditions: Where the temperature of the
condensing humidity, salt, dust, and ventilating air to the generator
sand), and electrical harsh exceeds 40C (104F), derating
environments (include for example of the generator may be necessary.
non-linear loads, high inrush loading, The altitude/temperature derating
and repetitive cycling of loads). chart found in TMI can be used for
An engine rating is primarily limited proper derating information.
by structural and thermal limits.
Corrosive Atmospheres
These limits include maximum
Salt and other corrosive elements
cylinder pressure during combustion,
can cause damage to the winding
turbocharger speed, exhaust gas
insulation which can lead to failure
temperature and in natural gas
of the generator. Protection from
engines, fuel type. Where an engine
these elements is derived from the
operates relative to these limits will
application of optional Coastal
determine the maximum altitude and
Insulation Protection on main stator
ambient temperature for a given
windings.
rating. When an engine exceeds the
maximum altitude or ambient Humidity
temperature, the engine must be Condensation resulting from
derated. humidity will present a problem for
Altitude and temperature most all generators unless they are fully
heavily influence engine ratings. The enclosed. Temperature rise of the
higher the altitude, the lower the air machine and the circulation of
density. Clean dense air is needed cooling air with sufficient load
for efficient combustion. Likewise, operation will usually prevent
an increase in temperature lowers air condensation. Space heaters should
density. Therefore, a derate of the be used to raise the temperature to
engine must occur in high altitude 5C above the ambient temperature
and/or high temperature conditions to prevent condensation in high
in order for the genset to meet humidity areas.
performance expectations.
2010 Caterpillar
Figure 1
Conductive or abrasive dust drawn also derived from the application of

in through the cooling fan can be optional Coastal Insulation
very harmful to the generator. Protection on main stator windings.
Examples of abrasive dust are: salt,
cast iron dust, carbon dust, sand, Transient Response
powdered graphite, coke dust, lime Whenever a load is applied to or
dust, wood fiber, and quarry dust. removed from a generator set, the
When these foreign particles blow engine speed rpm, voltage and
through the generator, they act as frequency are temporarily changed
sandpaper scraping away the from its steady-state condition. This
insulation. These abrasions can temporary change is called transient
cause an electrical short within the response. When a significant load is
generator. An accumulation of these applied, the engine speed temporarily
materials in the crevices of the reduces (generally referred to as
insulation system will act as an frequency or voltage dip) and then
insulator or as a moisture attractor. returns to its steady-state condition.
Filters which fit over the units The degree of this dip depends on the
intake air openings or enclosure amount of active power (kW) and
ventilation openings can prevent reactive power (kVAR) changes based
damage. When using filters, it is upon the voltage regulator settings,
important that they be regularly the total capacity and dynamic
changed so as not to impede characteristics of the generator set
airflow. The use of a generator air and the electrical inertia of the other
filter will cause the generator to be loads in the system. On removal of
derated due to higher temperature load, the engine speed increases
rise resulting from reduced cooling momentarily (generally referred to as
airflow. Differential pressure overshoot), then returns to its steady-
switches may be available as an state condition. The time required for
option on many generator sets. the generator set to return to its
Protection from these elements is normal steady-state speed is called
2010 Caterpillar
recovery time. This is illustrated in all examples of loads which need

Figure 2. small voltage dips.
The human eye is sensitive to slight
lighting fluctuations. Even a decrease
of 1/2 volt on a 110 volt
incandescent bulb is noticeable.
A one volt dip, if repeated, becomes
objectionable. Figure 3 shows the
range of observable and objection-
able voltage dips, assuming direct
illumination and medium-sized bulbs.
If indirect lighting is used with no
Figure 2 incandescent bulbs below 100 watts,
these values may be broadened.
Sizing Criterion This is also true if all lighting is
Three primary criteria need to be fluorescent rather than incandescent.
provided to accurately size a Reciprocating compressors seriously
generator set: affect lighting quality. Torque
The acceptable percent of pulsations vary motor current, causing
voltage & frequency dip sufficient voltage fluctuation to flicker
The acceptable duration of lights. Unfortunately, this is a
the voltage & frequency dip frequency to which eyes are
recovery time extremely sensitive.
The percent of a load step and A commonly accepted figure for
type of load to be connected current variation limits for motor-
driven reciprocating compressors is
The larger the voltage dip a 66% of full rated motor current.
generator set can tolerate, the smaller This limits horsepower rating of
and perhaps more economical the compressor motors to about 6% of
generator set can be. A 30% generator kVA rating, which is in the
maximum voltage dip is a typical limit limit of objectionable light flicker. For
for industrial motor control centers. example, a 30 hp motor may be used
Sensitive loads may be written in on systems having not less than
spec for much lower voltage dips. 500 kVA of generator capacity in
UPS, variable speed drives, and operation (30 is 6% of 500).
medical equipment are
2010 Caterpillar
Figure 3
Typical voltage dip limitations are Motor Starting

found in Table 4 for various facilities. The gensets ability to start large
motors without large frequency or
voltage dips depends on the entire
Typical Voltage Dip Limitations
system. System factors include:
Permissible
Facility Application
Voltage Available engine power
Dip Capacity of the generator
Hospital, hotel Lighting load, large 2%
motel, Power load, large Infrequent Energy stored in the rotating
apartments, Flickering highly
libraries, schools, objectionable.
inertia of the genset
and stores. Acceleration of the motor and
Movie Theaters Lighting load, large 3%
(sound tone Flickering Infrequent its load (motor characteristics)
requires constant objectionable.
frequency. Neon Electrical components
flashers erratic) between the genset and
Bars and resorts. Power load, large 5% - 10%
Some flicker Infrequent motor.
acceptable
Shops, factories, Power load, large 3% - 5%
A properly sized generator will
mills, laundries. Some flicker Frequent support the high starting kVA (skVA)
acceptable
Mines, oil field, Power load, large 25% - 30%
required and sustain adequate
quarries, asphalt, Flicker acceptable. Frequent output voltage for the motor so it
plants.
can produce the needed torque to
Greater voltage fluctuations permitted with emergency power systems.
accelerate its load to rated speed.
Table 4
After the initial voltage dip, it is
important that the generator restore
2010 Caterpillar
voltage to at least 90% to develop Block Load

adequate torque to accelerate its A block load refers to the
load to rated speed. Full voltage percentage of rated power at rated
starting causes the largest voltage power factor instantaneously added
dip. For this reason, public utilities to the genset. When block loads are
will not always allow full voltage large, sometimes they should be
starting of large motors. Details on accepted in smaller portions in
motor starting are later discussed in various steps. Step loading is very
the load analysis section of this common when load acceptance
guide. performance criteria are required.
Transient response of a genset is a For example, if a genset is rated
description of the maximum voltage 1000 ekW at 0.8 pf and a 250 ekW
and frequency change on application load at 0.8 pf is applied to the
of a load and the time to recover to genset, a block load of 25% [(power
nominal voltage and frequency applied/rated power) x 100%] is
conditions. Typically, the maximum applied.
allowable voltage dip is 30%. The
Transient Response Standards
maximum frequency dip is about
There are standards in various
25% but modern equipment is
countries; and industries that require
restricting this to tighter margins.
generator sets to be capable of
It is not always necessary to have accepting and recovering a full load
the quickest transient response step. However, many do not specify
possible; only the best response for frequency and volt deviations.
the applications need. Gensets all ISO 8528 has set transient response
perform differently by the design of standards. Four performance classes
the engine, governing, and voltage are designated in ISO 8528-1-7 to
regulation systems. Transient describe a genset in terms of voltage
response characterizations must be and frequency. The chart below lists
compared to the equipment that will the performance class and their
be used at the facility; this will criteria and application examples.
ensure the genset is sized to the The performance class relevant for
loads that will be applied. the application must be followed to
Refer to the Motor Loads and be within the standard and achieve
Motor Performance Sections on maximum performance.
Pages 42 & 47 for more information.
2010 Caterpillar
G1 Required for applications where the General purpose

connected loads are such that only basic applications Lighting
parameters of voltage & frequency need & electrical loads
to be specified.
G2 Required for applications where the Lighting systems,
demand on voltage is very much the same pumps, fans and hoists
as for the commercial power system.
When load changes, temporary deviations
in voltage and frequency are acceptable.
G3 Required for applications where the Telecommunications
connected equipment may make severe equipment
demands on voltage and frequency and
waveforms.
G4 Required for applications where the Data-processing &
demands on voltage, frequency, and Computer equipment
waveform are extremely severe.
Table 5 shows the acceptance SAE Standard J1349 specifies

(dip) and rejection (overshoot) inlet air and fuel supply test
parameters identified by conditions. It also gives a method
ISO 8528-5. Class G4 is reserved for correcting observed power to
for limits that are unique and must reference conditions and a method
be agreed upon by the manufacturer for determining net full load engine
and customer. ISO 8528-5 also power with a dynamometer to
sets limits on recovery times for engines.
each class and identifies how
Engine Considerations
recovery time is measured.
Brake Mean Effective Pressure
Agreed between Manufacturer (BMEP)
and Customer (AMC) When sizing a genset, comparing
Class Class Class Class engines may be necessary to
G1 G2 G3 G4 determine optimal performance,
Frequency % especially when motor starting.
15 10 7 AMC
Acceptance
Frequency %
Both torque and horsepower are
18 12 10 AMC necessary measures but are not
Rejection
Voltage % helpful when comparing engines of
25 20 15 AMC
Acceptance different sizes and designs. Instead,
Voltage % engines can be compared by
35 25 20 AMC
Rejection
referring to their brake mean
Time Seconds 5 5 3 AMC effective pressure (BMEP).
Table 5 The mean effective pressure
is an average of the pressure that
2010 Caterpillar
would need to be present in the A BMEP load is described in the

engines cylinder for the power and following figures and text.
torque to be produced. BMEP refers Step-by-Step Events Load Applied
to the brake MEP or the useful work Figure 5 and Figure 6 illustrate
done at the engine flywheel. full load addition to a genset with
BMEP is an indicator of how much a turbocharged-aftercooled (TA)
engine torque is available. The BMEP engine, and a 1:1 Volt/Hz voltage
can indicate if the pressure within regulator. Figure 5 shows how the
the cylinder is within the optimal parameters vary as a function of
performance parameter. BMEP is a engine speed; Figure 6 presents
relative number that is only used as the same events versus time.
a standard to compare engines of Note: Reading through this topic,
different designs or sizes. It can be prior to reviewing the figures, will
expressed in psi, kPa or bar. aid in understanding the content.
BMEP Load Step
Two engines of different sizes are
working similarly if they operate at
the same BMEP.
Figure 4
2010 Caterpillar
1. Point 1 is the beginning of the 7. At point 7, engine output

event. The genset is stable at BMEP finally matches the load
no-load, BMEP is zero, and demanded by the generator.
speed is at high idle. Full load Since power and load are exactly
is applied instantaneously. equal, there is no acceleration
2. Speed falls and the governor or deceleration, and speed is
increases fuel flow, increasing constant for an instant at the
engine output BMEP. As speed maximum speed dip.
error and time increase, the 8. Since the speed error is still
faster the governor increases large, the rack is still wide open.
BMEP. Engine BMEP continues to
3. At point 3, the engine reaches increase, exceeding the BMEP
an equivalence ratio of 1.0, demanded by the load. The
and power temporarily reaches excess BMEP permits the
a maximum. The time is so genset to accelerate, increasing
short that little turbocharger speed towards rated. Power is
acceleration has occurred. still air limited.
4. As the governor continues to 9. At point 9, engine BMEP
increase fuel flow towards the reaches its maximum level at
rack stop, the additional fuel the engine lug curve, although
results in overfueling, smoke speed is still below rated.
and loss of power. Power is now fuel limited.
5. At point 5, the governor 10. The engine continues to
reaches the rack stop and accelerate, with BMEP limited
overfueling no longer increases. by the rack stop, as the load
line rises to meet it.
6. The turbocharger accelerates,
Acceleration slows because the
increasing airflow and engine
excess BMEP is decreasing.
power using some of the excess
fuel. Since the turbocharger 11. Speed reaches rated, and the
is so much slower than the governor reduces fuel input
governor, power increases until engine BMEP output
much more slowly. exactly matches the load
BMEP demand. Speed becomes
constant again at the new load.
2010 Caterpillar
Figure 5
Since only governor action is As engines of a given displacement

required, the engine can reach are designed for higher and higher
point 3 in about 0.2 seconds. outputs, their capability to accept
The BEMP of TA engines can reach, block loads does not increase.
approximately, 140 psi without Although a turbocharged engine can
requiring turbocharger response. produce more power than a similar
Thereafter, turbocharger acceleration displacement naturally aspirated
will allow engine BMEP to increase, engine, its capability to accept block
roughly, 20 to 60 BMEP per second; loads does not necessarily increase.
predicted turbocharger response is The ISO (International Standards
modified for engine underspeed Organization) Standard on Generator
error, overfueling, altitude, cold Sets has considered this phenomenon
start and air impingement. Given the and the data in Figure 7, from ISO
20 to 60 BMEP per second increase, 8528-5, is the result.
the example requires approximately
1.5 seconds to reach point 7, and
approximately 4 seconds to reach
point 9.
2010 Caterpillar
Air System
The load acceptance behavior of
an engine also depends on the type
of air supply to the combustion
system. Maximum engine power
may be airflow restricted. Power can
only be increased if airflow and fuel
Figure 6 rate are increased. Engine airflow is
determined by displacement of the
Explanation of Figure 7 engine, engine speed, and engine
Using Figure 7, the number of load inlet air density. More dense air
steps needed for desired power can allows the generator set to perform
be determined. First, find the BMEP more efficiently; thus a quicker
of the engine at rated speed; BMEP response to varying loads.
levels are shown for each rating in
the performance data of the TMI. For a given displacement, or given
size of engine, more speed produces
If the percentage of block load is more airflow. The best way to
under the first load step curve, the increase airflow at speeds which
block load can be accomplished in are compatible with 60 Hz or 50 Hz
one step. is to increase the density of the air
If the percentage of the block load entering the cylinders. A turbo-
is greater than the first load step charger can increase pressure which
curve but smaller than the second will increase density. Density of the
load step curve, it will take two air can also be increased by cooling
load steps to reach desired power. the hot, compressed air with a heat
If the percentage of block load is exchanger called an aftercooler.
greater than the first two load step A separate water supply, jacket
curves but less than the third load water, or radiator airflow can be
step curve, it will take three load used for this cooling.
steps to reach desired power. The configuration of the air
Load blocks and response systems can also have an effect on
to block loading is one of many the transient response. A turbo-
considerations when sizing a charger equipped with a wastegate
generator set. Many turbocharged allows a larger turbocharger to be
and aftercooled four-stroke diesel used but limits the turbo boost
engines will not accept 100% block pressure under normal operating
load in one step. Always investigate conditions. The engine runs faster
to ensure the selected generator set and therefore increases airflow
will meet application requirements. without overspeeding. Another
example is the ability to decrease
Engine Configuration
the transient response by increasing
The way an engine is configured
the number of turbochargers. This
can affect the size of genset needed.
would allow the engine to run at the
2010 Caterpillar
same BMEP but have a different voltage dips and frequency changes.
transient response. Inlet air pressure When the governor on a gas engine
in a turbocharger affects the air calls for more power, the throttle
density as well. A smaller nozzle in opens and a larger flow of air/fuel
the turbine housing of a turbocharger mixture starts moving through the
increases air velocity which causes after-cooler core, air intake manifold,
the turbocharger to operate at a and then into the cylinder. This time
higher speed, thus, increasing boost delay detracts from the gas engines
and airflow. An engine equipped capability for accepting large block
with water-cooled exhaust manifolds loads.
will transfer less heat to the turbo- Considerable effort has been made
charger, making it less efficient to improve the transient electrical
during short periods of acceleration. performance of the G3516B and
Gas Engines G3516C generator sets. The
Cat gas engines are naturally G3516B uses transient richening.
aspirated (NA) or turbocharged- Transient richening is factory-
aftercooled (TA). Atmospheric programmed to the control software
conditions affect the way an NA that improves block load pick up.
engine can draw air into its system. There is also a bypass line from the
An NA engines load capability is aftercooler to the inlet of the
directly affected by altitude and turbocharger which is equipped with
ambient temperature. TA engines an electronic valve. This system is
have a turbocharger which called the turbocharger bypass
compresses air which increases its which, in conjunction with factory-
temperature. A separate aftercooler programmed software, allows block
is used so that air density and unloads to be accomplished without
detonation margin is increased. turbocharger surge (rapid speed
TA engines can be derated so that change of the turbocharger). These
they will not experience premature two systems enable the G3516B
detonation. gensets for island operation. The
G3516B gensets are able to accept
Block Load and Transient Capability
10% transient load steps. The
The block load capability or
gensets are able to reject transient
transient response of the gas engine
load steps up to 25% of rated power
genset package is less than its diesel
from any given load point.
engine counterpart. Most of this
difference is directly attributed to System Interaction
the inherently different fuel systems The generator and voltage
of the two engines. When the regulator are responsible for voltage
governor calls for more power, a deviation and recovery. The power
diesel engine reacts by adding fuel produced by the generator is
directly into the cylinder. This method controlled by excitation of the rotor.
permits the diesel engine to accept The voltage regulator controls
100% block loads with acceptable excitation (DC current).
2010 Caterpillar
Increased load draws more current deviation and recovery time.

from the generator, which causes There are several different types
the generator voltage to drop. As a of regulators:
response, the regulator increases Constant
rotating field excitation which
Volts/Hertz
increases its flux. This increase of
flux brings the stator voltage back 2 Volts/Hertz
up. Thus, the generator can produce Digital Voltage Regulator
the higher current and power (adjustable Volts/Hz)
demand at the same voltage.
A constant voltage regulator
As discussed earlier in this section, attempts to maintain rated voltage
maximum generator power is limited as the load is applied. Since the
by temperature. Heat is produced generator is maintaining rated
in the winding by current flow voltage, it is maintaining applied load
and magnetic flux changes. (ekW). We previously highlighted the
Temperatures above certain relationship between ekW and bkW.
parameters cause the generator to
bkW = Speed x Torque/lambda
exceed its design limit. The best
method for increasing generator Therefore, when a constant
power without excessive heat is voltage regulator is used, it imposes
to make the generator bigger; increasing torque on the engine
more copper (windings) can carry during frequency dips. Since most
more current without raising the genset engines are not designed
temperature; more iron (laminations) for increasing torque, significant
can handle more flux without amounts of frequency dip can occur.
increasing temperature. Engine speed rpm decreases as
When a load is added, the any load is imposed on a limited
generator voltage drops as magnetic bus (generator). This causes
flux changes in the iron and air gap. frequency/voltage to dip accordingly.
A bigger generator has more iron, Greater loads applied to the genset
so the flux deviation and voltage will impose a greater percentage of
deviation from a given kW is less. dip; greater loads will also require
more time for the engine to recover.
The sum of the time constants of
the voltage regulator, exciter, main The Volts per Hertz (1:1 Volts/Hz)
rotor and main stator determine the regulator was designed to impose a
voltage response and recovery; decreasing torque on the engine
typically, this is less than one during frequency dips. The Volts/Hz
second, with additional time for schedules voltage proportionally
the regulator to stabilize. to speed.
If the speed dips 15%, the
Voltage Regulators
Volts/Hz regulator will cause the
The voltage regulator is a key
voltage to dip by 15%. This will
component in determining the
reduce current flow into the load
amount of voltage/frequency
2010 Caterpillar
by 15%. The kW absorbed by the regulator may help in motor starting.

load is then 0.85 (85% of volts) A reduced motor starter may not be
multiplied by 0.85 (85% of current), required with the 2 Volts/Hz
or 72.25% of rated power. The regulator when starting large motors
engine only has to produce 72.25% depending on system design and
of rated hp. Mathematically, the applied load steps. However, the
formula for this concept is: entire connected system would have
0.85 volts x 0.85 current = 0.7225 power = reduced voltage, not just the motor.
0.85 speed x 0.85 torque Digital Voltage Regulator
Technology has allowed an The digital voltage regulator is a
increase in engine ratings. This microprocessor-based voltage
increase creates the possibility of regulator. Its main purpose is to
more severe transient loading. In regulate output voltage of an engine
some cases a Volts/Hz regulator generator set. It is designed to
cannot prevent excessive frequency improve performance by allowing
dip because of large load changes; regulation characteristics to be
the torque has increased so much modified that were previously not
the deceleration on load is extreme. modifiable. This allows the engine
Caterpillar has developed a 2 generator set to function in a more
Volts/Hz regulator to address this efficient manner and to provide
situation. improved performance to the
The 2 Volts/Hz regulator customer.
decreases voltage at twice the rate The digital voltage regulator can be
of frequency dip. At 15% engine software configured to optimize the
speed, the voltage would dip to transient response of any Cat
30% (2 x 15%) and the load generator set package by changing
would be reduced to 70%. The kW the underfrequency characteristics
absorbed by the load is then 0.70 as well as the control loop gains.
(70% of volts) multiplied by 0.70 The microprocessor-based design
(70% of current) or 49% of rated hp. allows for unmatched flexibility in
If the genset is large enough to diverse applications.
carry the running load the 2 Volts/Hz
2010 Caterpillar
Customer Requirements
graph a complete year and determine
Power Demand any seasonal variations.
On Site Power Requirement A daily chronological load curve,
Before selecting an engine model illustrated in Figure 8, shows load
and rating, a load analysis needs to demand throughout the day. A
be performed. This section will chronological curve establishes the
consider the factors which affect peak daily demand and an energy
generator sizing including load usage profile which can aid in the
management needs, voltage and selection of an appropriately sized
frequency dip limitations, motor engine. This load curve is also useful
starting considerations, start-up in programming units for economical
needs and all required standards. operation.
Load Management
Load management is the deliberate
control of loads on a genset and/or
utility to have the lowest possible
electrical costs.
Assessing the customers load
profiles is a key component to
establishing their load management
profile and ultimately the size of
genset needed to operate within
that profile.
Loads Profiles
The duration and nature of a load
Figure 7
must be established to select and
operate a genset system at
Daily typical peaks for various
maximum efficiency. To analyze a
industries can be graphed based on
load, a family of load profile charts
typical loads as shown in Figure 9.
is necessary. Chronological and
duration load profiles best serve
this purpose.
Note: Unless the load is known to be
steady, this average cannot be used
to establish the engine and generator
requirements because the average
Figure 8
will always be lower than the
maximum kW demand. Duration curves, as shown in
The purpose of the monthly Figure 10, rearrange chronological
average number is to be able to curves and summarize daily load.
2010 Caterpillar
Such curves are developed for a For existing loads that are served
week, month, season or year. The by a utility, power bills or power
daily chart represents the average consumption records will provide
kilowatt load for each day, while the needed data for a twelve-month
the twelve-month chart, shown in period. The average kW load can be
Figure 11, represents the average determined by the following
kilowatt load for each month. equation:
Average kW Total kW used in Month
=
Load for Month Total Monthly Hours of Operation
Figure 9
Figure 10
2010 Caterpillar
Estimating Load Data (VA/FT2). In a commercial building,

Obviously, historical load data does lighting loads typically range from
not exist for a plant or facility not 1.0 VA/FT2 in a storage area to
yet constructed. Table 6 estimates 15.0 VA/FT2 or more in an office
the average load of various facilities. area.
While these numbers will have Power loads involve loads other
variations depending on site than lighting. Examples are motors,
conditions, they are reliable and furnaces and rectifiers. Unlike
helpful in making preliminary lighting loads, power loads vary
feasibility studies for installation. based on a variety of factors; these
Categorizing Loads including start and stop times,
When developing a load estimate, percentage of output and the
it is helpful to categorize lighting associated power factor.
and power loads. These loads are In addition to categorizing the
distinctly different. loads, lighting and power loads are
Lighting loads are relatively also estimated separately. The loads
constant. They are most often are later combined to determine the
expressed as load density in volt- approximate total load.
amperes (VA) per square foot
2010 Caterpillar
Load and Power Consumption Estimating Data

Power Usage
Facility Watts/sq ft kWh/ft2/yr
Schools 4-5 average (43.06-53.82 W/m2 (Total) 11 to 17
Class Rooms 5-6 (53.87-64.58) (1.02 to 1.58
Locker Rooms, Auditoriums, 2-3 (21.53-32.29) kWh/m2/yr)
Halls and Corridors 20 Watts per running foot (65.62 W/m)
Shopping Centers 5 average (Total) 28 to 34 (2.6-3.2)
Stores, Large Department and Specialty Stores 5-6 (53.87-64.58)
Show Windows 500 Watts per running foot (1640.5 W/m)
Office Buildings 5-6 average 28 to 34 (2.6-3.2)
Private and General Offices 4 (43.06)
Professional Offices 6-7 (64.58-75.35)
Dentist, Drafting Rooms, etc. 7 (75.35)
Hotels and Motels 3-4 average (32.29-43.06) (Total) 12 to 17 (1.1-1.58)
Lounge 2 (21.53)
Rooms 3 (32.29)
Dining Rooms 4 (43.06)
Exhibition Halls, Shops, Lobby, Kitchen 3 (32.29)
Hospitals 1.5 to 2.5 kW per bed average 8500 to 11400 kWh
Lobby, Wards, Cafeterias 3 Watts/sq ft (32.29 W/m2) per bed per year
Private Rooms, Operating Rooms 5 Watts/sq ft (53.82 W/m2)
Operating Tables: Major Surgeries 3000 Watts each
Minor Surgeries 1500 Watts each
Apartment Houses 2-3 kW per unit (Total) 11 to 17 (1.20 to
Lobby 2 Watts/sq ft (21.53 W/m2) 1.58)
Apartments 3 Watts/sq ft (32.29 W/m2)
Small Appliances 1.5 kW/unit
Table 6
Load Example
2
VA/FT Load Estimating Calculate the load for a
For estimating purposes, power 10,000 square foot office with
loads and lighting loads can be electric air conditioning.
measured in VA/FT2. However, a Solution
detailed analysis requires individual The left-hand column of Table 7
measurement of power loads to indicates the maximum lighting load
ensure accuracy. in an office building is 4.0 VA/FT2.
A simple table, based on VA/FT2, Therefore, the lighting load
is used to obtain a rough estimate equates to:
of a load as expressed in total kVA 4.0 VA/FT2 x 10,000 (square feet) = 40,000 VA
generated; Table 7 shows such a
table.
2010 Caterpillar
Volt Amperes Per Square Foot (VA/FT2)

Load Type
Facility Type Miscellaneous Air-Conditioning Air-Conditioning
Lighting
Power (Electrical) (Non-Electrical)
Office Building 2.5 - 4.0 2.0 4.0 - 7.0 1.5 - 3.2
Hospital 2-3 1.0 5.7 2.0 - 3.2
School 2.0 - 4.0 1.5 3.5 - 5.0 1.5 - 2.2
Table 7
Reading the table from left to right: earlier in this guide, is one system
2
2.0 VA/FT is required for for developing a starting method.
miscellaneous power loads: Most loads do not draw power in
2
2.0 VA/FT x 10,000 (square feet) = 20,000 VA a steady-state fashion; therefore, it
is important to know the operating
sequence and what else is running
7.0 A/FT2 is required for electrical when loads are connected.
air conditioning loads:
7.0 VA/FT2 x 10,000 (square feet) = 70,000 VA
Prioritization
Prioritization is the process by
which the customer identifies what
Add the individual loads to electrical loads are needed and in
determine the combined load: what priority. The highest priority
40,000 + 20,000 + 70,000 = 130,000 VA loads would be in the first step;
even if all the gensets are not ready
for load. The first genset ready to
When using the table, it is
accept the load would take the first
important to remember that the table
priority loads. The next step would
does not account for power losses
go to the next highest prioritized
caused by the resistance found in
load. This process will repeat until
wires and cables. A power loss of
all loads are applied.
up to 6% would be factored into the
VA total when estimating a facility Smaller load steps equate to
with extensive wiring. smaller transients, which result in
a smoother transition. For example,
Load Steps a medical center might prioritize
Load steps refer to the amount of lifesaving equipment as their number
load that will be placed on a genset one need. That equipment (or special
at one time. A genset may accept outlets for that equipment) would be
load in one load step, or may spread the first supplied with electricity
it out over several load steps. The from the first available genset.
customer can identify the needs of Lights may be identified as the
the environment and then a proper second most important need and
method of starting can be applied. handled by the second load step.
BMEP load step analysis, described When starting generator sets
without a preferred load order, it
2010 Caterpillar
is suggested that the largest loads consultants, customers and

are started first. The largest contractors will determine categories
transient will occur before the for loads based on each project.
system is heavily loaded. These For example: Loads on a project
large loads will have the least effect may be divided into lighting, heating
on the rest of the system. and cooling loads. On another
Load Shedding project, the loads may be
Load shedding refers to the categorized as normal, emergency
method by which needs are and uninterruptible loads. The loads
prioritized after the gensets are on a third project may be labeled as
started. During periods of high base, intermediate and peak shaving
demand, some loads may be less loads.
important to the facility than other Load Management Strategies
loads. These can be shed, or not Power utilities sometimes offer
powered, so the electricity can be their customers power discounts
used for predetermined, essential if their loads do not fluctuate or
loads. exceed a certain limit. The most
For example: In a factory, all common are peak shaving, base
welding equipment and other loading and zero import/zero export
machines may be operated, at control.
capacity, at the same time, between
Peak Shaving
10 am and 12 noon and then again Figure 12 shows how a utility
between 1 pm and 3 pm. During customer can qualify for a
these times, the load to lights in the dis-counted rate by not allowing the
lunchroom and parking lot would be power demand to be above 500 kW.
shed because they are less of a Any power generated over 500 kW
priority. is supplied by the customers
Intermittent Loads generator. Thus, the customer
Equipment, such as furnaces and shaves the peaks from the utilities
elevators, use power intermittently responsibility. Peak shaving can be
and are considered intermittent very demanding on an engine; it
loads. must be able to start quickly and
All loads that follow an automatically parallel to the utility.
intermittent load must consider the The response time of the engine
intermittent load as part of its total. is crucial because of the load
This increases skVA requirements fluctuations.
and a larger generator may be
needed to account for intermittent
loads.
Additional Load Categories
There are no official guidelines for
categorizing loads. Architects,
2010 Caterpillar
Zero Import/Zero Export

The load management type in
which the customer supplies all the
electrical needs to the facility, while
still paralleling with the utility is
called Zero Import/Zero Export
control. Refer to Figure 14. If the
power requirements fluctuate
Figure 11 widely, a series of generator sets
can be used and brought on-line as
Base Loading required. Since the customer
The least demanding power remains paralleled to the utility, the
management type on an engine is demands made on the engines for
base loading. The generator operates this type are similar to base loading.
at a constant load and the utility Reliability is the chief concern for
imports power when the load these customers. Utilities will often
exceeds the generator output. The invoke demand charge penalties
user can also export power to the each time they are called upon to
utility if the load is below the output supply power.
of the generator. Figure 13 shows a
base loading system and indicates
when power would be imported or
exported. Since overloads are
handled by the utility and the
generator set is operating at a
constant load, size and engine
response time are not as crucial
as in peak shaving.
Figure 13
Figure 12
2010 Caterpillar
Concepts of Peak Shaving vs. Peak Sharing

Peak Shaving Peak Sharing
Customer sheds load or generates power to Customer generates power to help utility
reduce own demand peak reduce its peak
Practice is generally discouraged by utility Practice encouraged by many utilities with
companies generating capacity shortfalls
Customer benefits at utilitys expense in lost Because the utility benefits, it can afford
sales to reward the customer
Customer savings accrue from reduced Savings accrue from interruptible rates or
demand charges credits per kW of customers on-site
generating capacity
Concept is feasible only where customer Concept is viable even for customers with
experiences severe demand spikes and relatively flat load profiles
high demand charges
Customer decides when to run generators Utility dictates operation when utility
cannot meet all of its customers demands
If generators are installed for the sole purpose of taking advantage of peak-shaving
incentives, the customer gains the additional benefit of acquiring backup protection
against utility outages
Figure 14
Peak Sharing utility or in parallel so the

In a typical peak sharing cogenerator can purchase from
arrangement, the customer installs or sell power to the utility.
and operates generators of specified Load Duration Curves
capacity when directed to do so by Load duration curves can also
the utility company. Under many represent loads.
peak sharing contracts, utilities
compensate the customer for each
time they operate their onsite
generators. The differences between
peak shaving and peak sharing are
outlined in Figure 15.
Co-generation
Co-generation is the term used to
describe the load management
system that produces electricity for
lighting and equipment operations
while at the same time it utilizes the
waste heat produced in the exhaust Figure 15
for heating, cooling, or generation of
process steam. Co-generation plants As shown in Figure 16, loads are
can operate independently of the arranged into descending order of
2010 Caterpillar
magnitude based on the percentage compressor, rated at 125 psi, can

of the total load. Generator sets be found by multiplying the rated
powering the base load operate for cubic feet per minute (CFM) of
the duration of a 24-hour period. the compressor by 0.275. Fans,
Generator sets powering the blowers, inclined conveyors, and
intermediate load are activated welders can also be estimated using
for a limited period when the load the information in this chart.
increases to a specified level. Load Growth
Generator sets earmarked to power The customers future needs are to
the peak load are used to help power be taken into account when sizing
100% of the load for a short period. the generator set. If the customer
Knowing the type of load anticipates growth in their
management that is most application due to increased volume
economical to a facility can help or expanded needs, oversizing the
determine the size of genset needed engine or leaving room for another
based on the load factor and generator to be installed at a later
application. date is reasonable and helpful to the
customer. The projected load growth
Estimating Guidelines
for any application should never be
Many guidelines can be used for
less than 10%. Table 9 shows
estimating the varied types of loads.
typical load growth over a period of
For example: In Table 8, the brake
10 years for various applications.
horsepower hour (BHP) of an air
Typical Load Sizing Guidelines

Inclined Conveyors
Air Compressors Fans & Blowers Welders
(15 to 20)
90 psi rating: Light Duty:
0.225 CFM = BHP 3 to 20 kW
100 psi rating: CFM x in H2O Ft. Vertical Lift x Tons/Hr
BHP = BHP =
0.25 CFM = BHP 6,346 x EFF. 500
125 psi compressor: Heavy Duty:
0.275 CFM = BHP 20 to 100 kW
Table 8
Load Growth Over 10 Years

Bank Medical Center
30 50% 30 50%
Church School
30 50% 30 50%
Hospital Warehouse
30 50% 30 50%
Table 9
2010 Caterpillar
on the system is 15 kW, which is

Demand Factor also the same as its connected load.
As mentioned, the load The operating load of the 100 hp
requirements must be defined as motor, operating at 87% of its
accurately as possible to determine total capacity, is 65 kW.
the best size of genset needed. The
maximum demand or demand Example:
factor is the highest demand which What is the demand factor of the
is placed on the supply within a system shown in Figure 17?
specified period of time. After the Solution:
total connected load has been To calculate the numerator add the
found, it is important to know how individual kW loads:
much of the maximum load will 20 + 15 + 65 = 100 Operating kW Load
actually be used at a given time.
Another way to describe demand
factor is the mathematical ratio of For the denominator add the hp
the operating load divided by the ratings for each motor:
connected load. 50 + 20 + 100 = 170 hp Total Connected Load
Total Operating kW
X 100 = Demand Factor
Total Connected kW The conversion factor for hp to kW
is 0.7457 or 0.746. Therefore, total
connected load is multiplied by
0.746 to get 126.82 kW, or 127 kW:
0.746 x 170 = 126.82 = 127 kW)
To find demand factor use the

formula:
Figure 16
Total Operating kW
X 100 = Demand Factor
Figure 17 also illustrates demand Total Connected kW
factor. On this system, three
motors, rated at 50 hp, 20 hp and 100 kW
100 hp each, are connected to a X 100 = 79%
127 kW
generator set.
If the 50 hp motor were operated
at 100% capacity, its total
connected electrical load would be
37.3 kW. However, the 50 hp motor
is only expected to produce 54%
of its total capacity. Hence, the
operating electrical load is 20 kW.
Operating at 100% capacity, the
maximum load of the 20 hp motor
2010 Caterpillar
Shown in Table 10 is a range of Figure 18 can be used to illustrate

common demand factors. diversity factor. It is important to
Range of Common Demand Factors know how much of the entire
Total Connected systems maximum load present at
Apparatus a given time. As shown in Figure 18,
Load
Motors for pumps, individual loads are connected to
compressors, load centers. The load centers have
20 to 60 Percent
elevators, blowers, 20 kW, 15 kW and 65 kW loads
etc
Motors for semi-
each, for a total connected load
continuous of 100 kW. The 100 kW total
operations, such as 50 to 80 Percent connected load is routed to an
process plants and 80 kW meter.
foundries
Arc welders 30 to 60 Percent
To determine the diversity factor
Resistance welders 10 to 40 Percent of the system shown, 20 kW, 15
Heaters, ovens, kW and 65 kW are combined to get
80 to 100 Percent
furnaces a total connected load of 100 kW.
Table 10 To find the diversity factor use the
formula to solve:
Diversity Factor Total Max. Demand kW
X 100 = Diversity Factor
Diversity factor is the value placed Total Incoming kW
on a small collection of loads. The
value for the whole system itself, 100 kW
which is comprised of smaller X 100 = 125%
80 kW
collections of loads, is called the
diversity factor. Specifically,
Typical diversity factors include:
diversity factor is the mathematical
ratio of a systems individual Lighting feeders:
maximum demands divided by the 1.10 to 1.50%
maximum demand of the system Power & light feeders:
as a whole. The formula used to 1.50 to 2.00% or higher
calculate diversity factor is total
maximum demand divided by total Demand Factor and Diversity
incoming kW times 100. Factor in Sizing
Total Max. Demand kW Demand and diversity factors are
X 100 = Diversity Factor advantageous when sizing generator
Total Incoming kW
sets to the load.
However, the connected loads
should be interlocked so that they
cannot all be impressed upon the
generator set at the same time. If
the loads are not interlocked, the
generator set rating could be
Figure 17 exceeded. Despite this precaution,
2010 Caterpillar
you must always assume that total rated at 500 kVA would satisfy the
time-current characteristics of all load.
motors and other loads starting at In summary, all loads need to be
the same time will not exceed the analyzed so that the correct size
short-term generator set rating. generator can be matched to the
Figure 19 illustrates how demand load. When sizing a generator for
and diversity factors are used in an application, the steady state load
generator set sizing. and maximum transient load need to
be considered.
Frequency Dips
Frequency dips are related to the
size of load being connected. Twenty
to 25% maximum frequency dip is
the standard limit. A frequency dip
above 35% may cause the engine
difficulty in recovering. Frequency
dips are normally more tightly
controlled than voltage dips because
they are typically connected to more
sensitive electrical equipment.
Figure 18 Block Load & Standards
The NFPA (National Fire Protection
Association) standard 110 requires
In Figure 19, connected loads of that a generator set must be capable
300 kVA, 100 kVA and 500 kVA of picking up a 100% block load. It
are shown. After calculating demand does not specify frequency and volt
factors for each of the same loads, deviations.
the corresponding demand loads are ISO 8528 (2005) also has
240, 100 and 350, respectively. transient response standards that
When combined, the total demand are discussed in the Engine
load on the system is 690 kVA. Ratings section of this guide. The
When the diversity factor is 1.0, the performance class relevant for the
total 690 kVA is divided by 1.0 to application must be followed to be
get 690 kVA. To meet this load, a within the standard and achieve
generator set rated at a standard maximum performance.
size of 750 kVA is needed.
Starting Requirements
However, a different diversity
The time it takes to initiate a
factor on the same system will
genset startup and when it is ready
change the total kVA needed. If the
to accept load is defined as its
diversity factor is 1.4, for example,
starting requirement. Starting require-
690 kVA divided by 1.4 equals
ments will vary depending on the
492 kVA. Hence, a generator set
2010 Caterpillar
application. A typical starting a 100 psi (689.5 kPa) minimum

requirement is 10 to 30 seconds. pressure.
Load Acceptance 2. Combustion air must be a
Load Acceptance is the point at minimum of 21C (70F).
which breaker closure is initiated. 3. A jacket water heater to
This is considered to be 90% of maintain a minimum of
rated frequency. Figure 20 32C (90F) jacket water
graphically shows a packaged temperature.
gensets typical starting 4. A readily available supply of
performance. clean fuel.
5. The generator rotating inertia
must not exceed that of the
standard Cat Generator.
Any variation in these conditions
will affect the start time.
Natural Gas Engines
Special engine conditioning is
required for a natural gas engine
to start in 10 seconds. Ten-second
starting is only possible on specific
Figure 19
gas engines. Consult the factory for
specific engine model starting
requirements.
Ten-Second Start Starting condition requirements for
Ten-second start refers to the natural gas engines are the same as
ability of a non-paralleled generator diesel engine starting requirements,
set to start, accelerate to rated except for one detail: The solenoid
speed and be ready to accept load gas valve must be located as closely
within 10 seconds after receiving as possible to the carburetor or A
a signal to start. regulator, depending on the fuel train
For 10-second starting, the consists. A maximum distance of
following conditions must exist: 0.61 m (2 ft) is desired.
1. Cranking batteries must be A customers starting time
adequately sized and fully requirements should be determined
charged. before sizing the genset. A quick
Note: there is a difference starting application requires consider-
for battery versus ambient ation of altitude, temperature and
temperature sizing. Also, in other factors that affect the engine
cases where air starting is used, starting to find the best solution.
the air system must supply the Refer to Emergency & Fast
required air volume and maintain Starting in the Starting Systems
2010 Caterpillar
Application and Installation Guide respond well to transients so it

for more information. would not be a good choice for
loads with fluctuations. Natural gas
Health Care Facilities & NFPA 99
can be less expensive, depending on
The standard NFPA 99 is written
availability, and it has superior
specifically for health care facilities.
emissions.
3-4.1.1.8 states the following:
The generator set(s) shall have Diesel
sufficient capacity to pick up the Diesel fuel is suited for large
load and meet the minimum load fluctuations. Fuel normally
frequency and voltage stability recommended for diesel generator
requirements of the emergency sets is No. 2 furnace oil or No. 2D
system within 10 seconds after diesel fuel. When this fuel is used
loss of normal power. for heating, common storage tanks
for boilers and generator sets are
Customers requiring this capability
practical. In addition to reducing
can achieve it by using the correct
installation costs, this arrangement
generator system. Select an
reduces fuel costs by quantity
appropriate genset according to this
purchases and minimizes fuel
standard for all health care facilities
deterioration. Diesel is an excellent
in the United States.
choice for base loading and standby
Sizing a genset requires knowledge applications.
of the customers loads and load
management strategies as well Heavy Fuels
Heavy fuels are the by-products
as their requirements for transient
from the refining process of oil.
response, emissions and starting.
It is extremely viscous and the fuel
All these requirements need to be
quality is low. However, this fuel
determined before the genset size
is very inexpensive. For industries
and rating are established.
which burn large amounts of fuel,
Fuel Selection heavy fuels are a choice to consider
Fuel selection can impact the because of their economic
performance of a genset and, advantages. Heavy fuels are not
depending on availability, reduce a good choice for standby
electricity costs for a genset user. applications.
Natural gas, diesel and heavy fuels
are common choices. Performance
Note: Detailed information on Emissions
gaseous fuels and diesel fuels is Standards on engine emissions are
available in respective Application & constantly evolving.
Installation Guides. Special engine configurations
Natural Gas allow operation with lower exhaust
Natural gas engines are appropriate emissions. Gaseous exhaust
for base loading, continuous emissions of diesel engines are
operations. Natural gas does not the lowest of modern internal
2010 Caterpillar
combustion engines. Engine be calculated using the following

emissions are measured using a formula:
Horiba or Beckman gas analyzer, SO2 = (00.01998) (BSFC) (% Sulfur In Fuel)
with equipment and data
Where:
measurement techniques conforming
to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, SO2 = Emissions in g/kW-hr
Title 40, Part 53 or 86. BSFC = Brake Specific Fuel
Caterpillar has developed a Consumption
correlation between smoke and % Sulfur = A percentage by
particulate concentration which In Fuel weight
can be used to estimate particulate
emissions.
Nitrogen oxides are formed when
Black Smoke the combustion air oxygen and
Black smoke is the soot portion nitrogen molecules combine. Nitric
of particulates and is caused by oxide gradually oxidizes to become
incomplete combustion. Black the more harmful, nitrogen dioxide
smoke is not considered an exhaust in the atmosphere. Nitrogen dioxide
emission; rather it is a compilation of is a poisonous gas which, when
exhaust emissions with particulate combined with hydrocarbons in the
matter being the largest contributor. form of sunlight, creates smog.
Due to the fuel composition, gas
Nitrogen dioxide emissions in
engines typically do not have
parts per million by volume can
significant particulate matter
be approximated from the mass
emission and do not emit black
emission rate and exhaust flow:
smoke.
NOx Mass Emissions
White Smoke NOx Concentration = 629 x
Exhaust Mass Flow
White smoke is caused by
vaporized, unburned fuel passing
through the engine. Like black Where:
smoke, white smoke is not NOx Parts Per Million
considered a defined exhaust =
Concentration
emission. Typically, white smoke
NOx Mass g/hr of equivalent
will only be present during startup =
Emissions NO2
and will fade as the engine jacket
water warms as the engine is Exhaust Flow = Kg/hr
loaded. Jacket water heaters help
reduce white smoke at startup. Caterpillar offers standard (STD)
The sulfur present in the fuel engines for areas where emission
oxidizes to form sulfur dioxide. The levels allow. A catalytic converter
emission of sulfur dioxide depends can also be added for places where
on the amount of sulfur in the fuel emission standards are more rigorous.
and the fuel consumption of the Low Emission (LE) engines are for
engine. Sulfur dioxide emissions can areas where emissions are of
2010 Caterpillar
primary concern. The LE engines use exceed, which is the maximum

lean burn technology. Lean burn emissions output expected for an
means that excess air is forced into engine. It is important to understand
the cylinder to cool the combustion these levels when comparing
process. This process reduces the competitive information and when
NOx in the exhaust. LE engines providing information to engineering
can sustain higher loads without consultants and end users.
detonating. Because of this, LE Not to Exceed data includes a
engines have a higher rating than Tolerance Factor to account for
STD engines, given the same paralleling and instrumentation and
compression ratio and separate facility variations. If the Not to
circuit aftercooler temperature. Exceed value is exceeded during
Some measures that improve field measurements, it is likely that
emissions levels will affect other the test equipment is at fault or
areas for sizing considerations. that the engine has a problem.
Either kW are reduced or the Cat engines, at rated speed, will
response rate value may be higher not exceed the values specified in
in some instances. Of course, this Table 11.
can affect engine ratings and the
performance of the engine.
Diesel Natural Gas
Correction Factors Emission g/bhp-h Catalytic Low
Emission levels are affected by the NA TA T
Converter Emission
engine rating, speed, turbocharger, Nitrogen Oxide
timing, fuel and ambient conditions. 12.0 15.0 19.0 1.2 2.0
(NOx)
Higher ambient temperature and Carbon Monoxide
3.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 1.7
higher altitudes increase nitrogen (CO)
Hydrocarbons
dioxide and particulate emissions. 0.4 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.35
(NMHC)
When engines are tested in the lab,
they are tested to specific standards Table 11
outlined in ISO 8178-1 in regards to
Note: Depending on configuration
temperature, barometric pressure
and rating, many engines emit
and fuel density. The nominal level
considerably less emissions. Specific
of emissions data is derived under
emission data is available from the
these conditions. The specific
specific product TMI.
conditions can be accessed through
TMI. Heat Balance
Before a cooling system is
Nominal vs. Not to Exceed
designed, the designer must
Engine emissions information is
understand how much heat is being
typically published in one of two
rejected through each of the cooling
formats. The first is nominal, which
circuits. The following guide will
is what emissions levels would be
help interpret and apply the heat
expected from a nominal engine;
rejection data.
while the second level is not to
2010 Caterpillar
Heat balance is a term used to must be matched, not just to the

describe the following: customers overall need, but to their
The heat input into the engine equals the sum of specific application need.
the heat and work outputs. Many factors about the customers
An example of this relationship is needs should be considered before
shown in the following equation: determining the best solution.
Assume the following situation: A
customer needs 45% Btus for heat,
Work Output 45% for electricity and 10% is lost.
+ Total Exhaust Heat Before selecting any unit that meets
+ Radiation this criteria, additional questions
should be asked and might include
+ Jacket Water
some of the following.
+ Oil Cooler
Should a genset be offered
+ Aftercooler that is long on heat capability
= Total Heat Input and short on electrical
capability with the intent that
the additional electricity
In every calculation using engine needed be purchased from
data, there is a tolerance band or a a utility?
deviation from norm. Heat balance
tolerances must be applied when How about a genset that is
sizing cooling system components. long on electrical capability
The tolerances recommended by and short on heat?
Caterpillar vary depending on the Will that option save the
engine mode and are published in customer money if a cooling
TMI. system is used seasonally or
Additional information on this year round?
subject can be found in the Cooling What are the prices for
Systems Application & Installation heating and electrical fuel
Guide. from the utility?
Co-generation Usage What types of load
On a standard engine, the heat management options are
balance is not relevant to the available to them?
customer in terms of performance. In addition, these items should be
However, if the customer requires considered with the customers
co-generation capability, it becomes current and future needs in mind
crucial in their application. Btus before recommending a solution.
2010 Caterpillar
Load Analysis
Load analysis is the process Energy = Power x Time
of considering size, starting
characteristics and intended usage
In electric power generation,
of electrical loads and their collective
electrical energy produced or
impact on a generator set power
consumed is expressed in kilowatt-
source.
hours (kW-Hrs). A single kW-Hr of
At times, it may be necessary to energy is one kW of electrical power
conduct a detailed analysis, through used for one hour.
discussion and observation,
kW-Hrs = kW x Hrs
with the user, customer, or
consulting/specifying engineer to
determine the exact nature of the Loads have different electrical
loads. characteristics. When developing a
Determining the electrical load load analysis, it is helpful to
of a facility is the first and most categorize loads into groups with
important step in supplying a common characteristics. There are
generator set. The generator set no rigid standards for categorizing
supplier is looked upon as the expert loads. Architects, consultants,
when it comes to choosing the right customers and generator set
generator set to power the load. As suppliers will determine or speak of
a supplier of high-quality Cat categories for loads based on the
generator sets, it is important to needs of the project involved.
understand electrical loads and For example, loads may be
possess a working knowledge of categorized as normal loads and
basic load analysis. emergency loads or perhaps critical
An electrical load is a device that loads and non-critical loads. There
uses electricity; lights, motors, may be further division of the
heaters, welders and emergency or critical loads into
communications equipment are just additional categories of life-support
a few examples of electrical loads. or uninterruptible loads. On a
different project, the loads may be
It is important to understand the
labeled as base, intermediate and
relationship between energy and
peak shaving loads.
power when discussing electrical
loads. Power is a rate of doing work. Load analysis should define those
It is a product of force and motion. loads that are considered linear
Electrical power is the product of (draw current in a sine waveform)
electromotive force (volts) and and non-linear (draw current in
current flow (amps). It is expressed pulses or non-sine waveform).
in watts or kilowatts. Energy is work.
It is the product of power and time.
2010 Caterpillar
Further definition of linear & non- Lighting Loads

linear loads is included in the Load
Linear Lighting Loads
Type Section on Page 92.
Linear loads are loads that draw
Proper selection of a generator set current in a sinusoidal waveform as
as a power source frequently shown in Figure 20. There are many
requires detail within these examples of linear loads, but lighting
categories of linear or non-linear. In is the most common.
addition, loads can be separated as
lighting loads, motor loads, and
miscellaneous loads. A generator
set is a limited power source,
sometimes referred to as a limited
bus. The limited bus does not have
the reserve capability of a utility
grid. It is necessary to analyze and
categorize generator set loads to
assure proper consideration of their Figure 20
power demand characteristics.
Lighting
The loads discussed in this chapter
Lighting loads are typically
are going to be categorized by type
considered a constant load for sizing
and if they are linear or non-linear.
purposes; even though individual
Primarily we are going to separate
light circuits or lamp usage can be
the load as lighting loads, motor
very diverse. Lighting is often
loads, and miscellaneous loads that
expressed in volt-amperes (VA) or
have unique characteristics.
kilovolt-amperes (kVA) because it is
primarily a resistive load with a near
Typical Electrical Loads unity (1.0) power factor (pf).
Lighting Therefore, if a lighting load is given
Incandescent lamps, fluorescent in kVA, it is usually assumed to be
lamps, high-intensity discharge of an equal kW value. There are
(HID) and arc.
several types of lighting.
Heating
Resistor ovens, convection ovens, Incandescent Lighting
dielectric heating, induction An incandescent lamp has a
heating, arc furnaces.
Welding
filament, which is heated to
Resistance welding, arc welding, incandescence by an electric
and induction welding. current. This is a very simple and
Motors commonplace electrical load.
DC, induction and synchronous. Incandescent lamps are rated by
Miscellaneous
voltage and wattage requirements.
Rectifiers, solid-state controllers
and communications. The power factor is 1.0, so
incandescent bulbs can operate on
Table 12
either alternating or direct current.
2010 Caterpillar
These loads are often rated in watts. to the voltage. Non-linear loads
For example, ten 100-watt light create harmonics, or additional sine
bulbs would be a 1000 watt or waves, that are a multiple of the
1 kW load. Current drawn by a lamp generated frequency in the current
is found by dividing its wattage waveform; Figure 21 illustrates
rating by a specified input voltage: harmonics. This will influence the
A = W/ V generator size. Harmonics are
discussed in detail in the Generator
Incandescents draw high inrush
Systems Application & Installation
currents and are suitable in
Guide (LEBW4993).
applications which require flashing
or dimming, with operation over
wide voltage ranges. Any voltage
fluctuation can affect the lamp
brightness while extreme voltage
fluctuations shorten filament life.
Tungsten Lamp Inrush
Tungsten filament lamps are
resistance devices. The resistance of
a tungsten filament increases rapidly
with an increase in temperature. At
room temperature, with the lamp
off, resistance is low. However,
the filament temperature increases Figure 21
rapidly when the lamp is turned on
Fluorescent Lamps
and, consequently, the resistance
Fluorescent lamps are also rated by
increases as the lamp assumes
voltage and wattage. Due to the use
normal operating temperature. This
of a ballast transformer, these lamps
is called tungsten lamp inrush.
have power factors slightly lower
Tungsten lamp inrush current can (0.95 to 0.97) than incandescent
be up to 17 times greater than the lamps. When incandescent or
normal current but the surge lasts fluorescent type lights operate from
only a few cycles. Switches must step-down transformers, power
be designed to handle such surges. factor contribution of the
When using a generator power transformer must be considered.
source, this phenomenon is generally Uncompensated fixtures can show
inconsequential. However, very large power factors as low as 0.5 lagging.
blocks of tungsten lighting load may
cause a momentary voltage dip Gas Discharge Lamps
transient to occur. Gas discharge lamps are
fluorescent, high-pressure sodium or
Non-Linear Lighting Loads similar lamps which use a gas-filled
Non-linear loads are AC loads in chamber in combination with a low
which the current is not proportional energy, high voltage sustained
2010 Caterpillar
electric arc. Gas discharge lamps As compared to a utility buss feed,

are rated by voltage and wattage. an on-site genset is a limited source
The high voltage required by a gas of horsepower, from the engine, and
discharge lamp is obtained by using kVA from the generator. Thus, a
ballast transformers and electronic genset must be large enough to start
ballasts. as well as run connected motor
loads.
Ballast transformers with
saturating reactors are used to Motors convert electrical energy
provide high voltage and control into mechanical motion. They can
lamp current. Current produced by present severe demands on the
this type of ballast is high in third power source during starting and
harmonic content due to the acceleration to rated speed. Current
saturating reactors. Electronic demand can range from four to ten
ballasts use electronic power circuits times normal full load current during
to generate and control the lamp this period. That above normal
current. current demand is called starting
kVA (skVA) and often has great
Like fluorescent lamps, gas
influence on generator selection.
discharge lamps have power factors
slightly lower (0.95 to 0.97) than Starting an electric motor can
incandescent lamps. Gas discharge create voltage dips in excess of
lamps may be sensitive to transient 40% if the genset is not properly
voltage dip. Certain types of gas sized. This can create serious effects
discharge lamps may extinguish on the existing loads such as the
during a severe transient voltage dip dimming or extinguishment of lights
and delays in re-illumination may be or stoppage of motors due to
experienced. Lamp manufacturers or insufficient voltage. The starting of
suppliers should be contacted for motors will be discussed later in this
characteristics. This is not typical of section.
fluorescent lamps. As a rule, avoid Pre-loads on motors do not vary
heavy SCR loads, large block maximum starting currents, but do
switching loads and large motor determine time required for motors
skVA loads on gas discharge to achieve rated speed and current
lighting circuits. and to drop back to normal running
value. If motors are excessively
Motor Loads loaded, they may not start or may
When sizing a genset, it is run at a reduced speed. Both
important to identify the types of starting and running current are
motors being used because of the considered when analyzing total
various starting characteristics. kVA requirement.
Starting characteristics may drive
AC electric motors represent
the need for a larger or smaller
inductive loads with lagging power
generator.
factors between 0.5 and 0.95,
depending on size, type and loading.
2010 Caterpillar
With few exceptions, there are Squirrel Cage

two basic types of AC motors: The squirrel cage motor is the
Induction Motors most widely used of all motors in
industry. Most three-phase motors
Synchronous Motors are squirrel cage type. When a
Induction Motors constant speed drive with no
Induction motors, shown in continuous low-speed running is
Figure 23, are the most common required, a squirrel cage motor is
motors in use today. Induction used.
motors have a stationary armature The name is derived from
connected to the power source. The construction of the rotor circuit.
rotor winding, with rotating shaft, is Solid conductor bars are arranged
excited by voltage induced from the around the rotor periphery with
magnetic field developed by the their ends short-circuited. If this
stationary armature windings. conductor assembly were removed
Voltage, induced in the rotor, results from the steel core, it would
in current flow within the rotor resemble the appearance of a
winding. This current creates circular small animal cage.
another magnetic field around the Squirrel cage induction motors are
rotor conductors. Rotation of the manufactured with design variants
rotor results from |the interaction of for specific performance features
rotor and armature magnetic fields such as starting torque, speed/torque
as the armature magnetic field characteristic and locked rotor amps.
rotates around the stationary Squirrel cage motors are divided
armature into four designs; A, B, C and D.
with the progression of AC current Descriptions of these classes are
flowing in the armature windings. discussed in the Motor Performance
The two types of induction motors section of this guide. Table 13 lists
are the squirrel cage and the wound the specifications for each class
rotor. of motor.
Squirrel Cage Motor Torques in Per Unit

of Full-Load Torque
Locked-
Class Breakdown Pull-Up
Rotor
A 1.40 Over 2.00 1.00
B 1.40 2.00 1.00
Over
C 2.00 1.90
1.40
Not Not
D 2.75
specified specified
Figure 22 Table 13
2010 Caterpillar
Wound Rotor (Slip Ring) is in the range of 100% full load

A wound rotor motor is a special current. If all rings were shorted at
induction motor which features a start up, as in a squirrel cage motor,
rotor that is wound with coils. there is zero resistance and starting
Windings are placed in slots around current would be approximately
the rotor periphery and connected to 460% of full load current. This
slip rings. The slip ring brushes are would present a much more severe
then connected to external resistors. starting condition. Normal operation
Changing the rotor circuit resistance of this motor is with all resistance
will change the induced rotor circuit shorted.
current and vary the motors
speed/torque characteristics. High
rotor resistance provides a high
starting torque with low starting
current. A wound rotor induction
motor normally has five to seven
steps of resistance in the rotor
circuit.
Wound rotor motors are used for
starting large rotating mass or high
inertia loads with a long acceleration
time. They provide a smooth start
with minimized motor heating during
the acceleration period. Usually the
motors are started near unity (1.0) Figure 23
power factor. Starting current is
limited to 130% of rated operating Slip Definition
current. Because these motors have Speed of an induction motor is
no code letter, exact operating almost constant from no-load to full
performance must be obtained load in relationship to the supply
from the motor nameplate or the frequency. Ideally, if there were no
manufacturer. Typical applications resistance to rotor rotation, the
are large pumps, long conveyers, rotors magnetic field would follow
large diameter fans and large exactly in synchronism with the
rotating drum devices. armatures magnetic field. However,
The characteristics of current in induction motors, the armatures
are shown in Figure 24, as they rotating magnetic field must cut
correspond to steps in resistance. through the rotor conductors to
Also shown are percentages of total create the torque. In other words,
rated resistance in the rotor circuit. an induction motor must run at less
With 100% or maximum resistance than synchronous speed in order to
when the motor is started at zero produce a driving torque. Slip is a
speed, the initial inrush line current reduction of speed with increased
load.
2010 Caterpillar
The amount of slip varies with Typically, synchronous motors

motor design. A slip of are practical only in sizes above
approximately 3% at full-load is 40 horsepower in which heavy
common with an induction motor. loads are in constant operation.
Slip is the difference between the Synchronous motors maintain
speed of the rotor and the speed of constant speed, synchronized
the stator rotating magnetic field. with power line frequency.
The equation used to calculate Synchronous motors have two
percentage of slip at full-load is: features that distinguish them from
Slip at Full Synchronous Speed Full Load Speed induction motors.
=
Load (%) Synchronous Speed Synchronous motors run at
exactly synchronous speed.
Synchronous speed is established The rotor of a synchronous
by the supply frequency and motor is separately excited
configuration of the stator winding with DC while running at
into a number of magnetic poles. synchronous speed; this
In general, as the load of an allows operating power factor
induction motor increases, its speed to be varied.
decreases below synchronous Characteristics of synchronous
speed. motors vary from motor to motor.
Example This variability requires that
A six pole induction motor runs at performance characteristics be
almost 1200 r/min at no load and obtained from the motor
1140 r/min at full-load when manufacturer as this information
supplied with power from a 60 Hz may not appear on the nameplate.
3-phase line. What is the percent Note: A variation of the induction
slip at full-load? motor, known as the synchronous
Solution reluctance motor, is available for
Slip at Full Synchronous Speed Full Load Speed applications such as synchronized
=
Load (%) Synchronous Speed conveyor systems. These motors run
without slip at exactly synchronous
Synchronous 120(f) 120(60) speed, regardless of load, but
= = = 1200 rpm
Speed # Poles 6 should not be confused with true
synchronous motors. Power factor is
1200 1140
= 5% Slip
not adjustable and is, in fact, poorer
1200 than for standard induction motors,
locked rotor and full load currents
Synchronous Motors are also higher than for standard
Synchronous motors, like induction squirrel cage motors. Modern
motors, demand large skVA when synchronous reluctance motors
starting. require no external source of de-
excitation. They are offered in
2010 Caterpillar
numerous versions, including gear 3 V x I x pf

P=
motor styles. 1000
DC Motors P x 1000 50 x1000

DC motors are used in applications I= = = 167 amperes
3 V x pf 1.73 x 216 x 0.8
requiring speed control, heavy load
starting or where other system
2. Find the coil current capacity
elements require a DC power source.
remaining for the single-phase
Full load efficiencies vary from 86
load.
to 92%.
334 167 = 167 amperes
DC motors have no power factor;
3. Find the single-phase power
however, when driven through a
silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) by available.
an AC generator, the AC does have V x I x pf 125 x 167 x 0.9
P= = = 18.8 kW
1000 1000
a power factor. Use the following
formula to determine DC loads on
an AC generator: When DC motors are at maximum
DC kW x1000 rpm, the system power factor is also
DC amps= AC amps = DC amps x 0.816 maximized.
DC volts
According to the application
AC volts x AC amps x 1.732 requirements, motors can be
AC kVA =
1000 designed to provide various speed
and torque characteristics. Modern
DC kW
Power Factor = applications will usually involve the
AC kVA
use of packaged static component
drive controls, commonly called SCR
Example drives. SCR drives are discussed in
Find the amount of single-phase detail later in this section.
power which can be safely drawn
from a three-phase, 125/216 volt, A major consideration when sizing
four-wire generator set, rated to a generator is to look at the
deliver 100 kW at 0.8 pf. The coil provision or inclusion of a suitable
current rating of the generator set is DC supply. There must be enough
334 amperes. Assume the single- kVA to power both the DC supply
and the load.
phase load is connected from one
line-to-neutral and has an operating Single-phase Motors
power factor of 0.9 lagging. In Single-phase motors are common
addition, assume that the generator in fractional horsepower sizes. They
set is supplying a three-phase load may occasionally be used in sizes as
of 50 kW at a 0.8 pf. high as ten horsepower. Single-
phase motors do not have the
Solution
1. Find the current drawn from benefit of rotating magnetic fields
each of the lines by the three- produced by spaced voltage cycles
of a three-phase circuit. Therefore, a
phase load.
2010 Caterpillar
separate starter winding is included three-phase motor, there are three

in the stator with provisions to equally spaced voltage cycles
supply a magnetic field that is out of feeding respective windings in the
phase with the main stator winding stator. A rotating magnetic field is
field. This results in a rotating field produced which the rotor
to start things moving. A centrifugal immediately begins to follow.
switch disconnects the starter Therefore, no special starter winding
winding as it achieves rated speed. is required to begin rotation.
Single-phase motors are not
Motor Performance
generally of great concern when
Most three-phase motors are
started by a generator which is
squirrel cage type as mentioned
relatively larger in size. It is good
earlier. When rotor slot cross
practice to divide multiple single-
sections are changed, different
phase motor loads into equal blocks
torque and speed characteristics
per phase. If blocks of single-phase
result. How a motor and its load
motors are spread equally over the
impact a generator is highly
three-phases and started as a group,
dependent on the characteristics
this motor load can be considered as
of the motor.
a single three-phase motor of equal
hp. The skVA may be higher Design Class
because the skVA per hp is typically Motors with various rotor designs
higher for single-phase motors. The are classified in the U.S. by the
total kW load may also be slightly National Electrical Manufacturers
higher because small motors are Association (NEMA) as Design A, B,
frequently less efficient than large C or D. Figure 25 shows a typical
motors. motor nameplate.
If the single-phase motor load
cannot be distributed, it may be
necessary to verify the ability of the
generator to provide the skVA.
Generally, with large blocks of
single-phase motors started from
one phase, the available skVA of the
generator will be 56% of the normal Figure 24
three-phase skVA.
In the following design
Three-Phase Motors descriptions, slip applies to the
Three-phase motors are very difference between motor full load
common in industry. They provide speed and its synchronous speed
more output for physical size than Note that these descriptions do not
single-phase motors and have the include synchronous reluctance
advantage of having a simple motors.
designed rotating magnetic field that
turns the rotor for starting. In a
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For example, a four pole 60 Hz Design C

motor has a synchronous speed of Design C motors have high starting
1200 rpm, actual full load speed torque, low starting current and low
might be 1164 rpm, in which case slip. The high breakaway torque
the slip would be 3%. Each motor makes the Design C a good choice
design has its own unique for hard-to-start loads.
characteristics. These motors are designed to start
Design A at full load torque and run at slips of
Design A motors are quite less than 0.05 at full load. Class C
comparable to Design B motors, motors have higher starting torque
having normal torque, slip and per ampere of starting current than
starting current. The most significant class B motors.
difference is that starting currents Design D
are limited by NEMA for Design B Design D motors have very high
and not for Design A. starting torque, high slip and
Design A motors have low rotor relatively low starting current.
resistance and operate with small Design D permits high breakaway
slip at full load. A disadvantage of torque and high running horsepower
this design is the low starting torque to be concentrated in a relatively
and high starting current. Because small frame size.
they achieve full speed rapidly and These motors are applicable when
do not overheat during starting, soft speed is required. Intermittent
these machines are suitable for drives requiring high acceleration
applications in which they are under high-impact loads would use
required to start with very low a Class D motor. The breakdown
load torque. torque of a Class D motor runs at a
Design B slip of 0.5 or higher. This makes a
The Design B motor is Class D motor very inefficient. Also,
overwhelmingly the general-purpose to keep the starting current low,
motor of industry. Its combination of rotor bars of high heat resistant
low starting current and normal material are used. The losses of the
torque and slip makes it an excellent rotor circuit necessitate building a
choice for driving many types of large and therefore expensive
industrial loads. machine for the given power. This
strategy has to be weighed against
Design B motors run at a slip of
the advantage of the soft speed
less than 0.05 at full load with larger
characteristic which is needed in
machines running a very efficient
some applications to determine if
0.005. These motors are applicable
a Class D motor should be used.
for systems requiring low or medium
torque. Characteristics of each design are
shown on the speed and torque
characteristic curves, in Figure 26.
2010 Caterpillar
designer in selection of a motor for

a specific application. The design
class of a motor is not normally
considered when sizing a genset
because of the greater importance
of the starting kVA requirement.
Starting kVA usually dictates the
size and selection of a generator
set which will provide more than
adequate power for the motor to
produce the required starting torque.
However, the use of oversized
generators, reduced voltage motor
Figure 25 starting and heavily loaded motors
may require special consideration.
Table 14 presents general Motor Starting
guidelines for selecting a motor A motors starting characteristics
of the proper NEMA design letter. have a major impact on system
Desired or
Typical
Recommended response to a motor start; this
Required NEMA Design
Conditions
Applications
Letter greatly influences the final package
Load requires only Centrifugal pumps B or A selection. When a motor is started,
normal starting and compressors,
torque; continuous reciprocating
it draws approximately six times
duty capability with compressors started its full load current. This current
ability to handle unloaded, fans with
minor temporary normal inertia, remains high until the motor reaches
overloads palletizers, about 80% of speed. This high
conveyors, lathes,
milling machines, inrush of current causes a voltage
saws, grinders, dip in the generator. A motor
sanders, drill presses
Hard-to-start loads in Reciprocating com- C produces mechanical torque that is
continuous or pressors started proportional to the applied voltage.
intermittent service; loaded, conveyors
some overload started under heavy In cases where generator voltage
capability required load, Banbury mixers, dips below rated voltage, the motor
crushers without
flywheels, hammer is producing less than proportional
and ball mills, high- torque.
inertia fans
High breakaway Cranes, hoists, D The initial voltage dip associated
torque required; elevators, crushers
intermittent or and punch presses with motor starting is primarily a
reversing/plugging with flywheels, large- function of the generator magnetic
service; high-inertia diameter fans,
loads with long reversing-type circuit. Use of a permanent magnet
acceleration time; machine tools excitor or other excitation support
heavy fluctuating
loads systems will assist in preventing
Table 14 total excitation collapse in extreme
voltage dip cases. It is important for
Of these characteristics, torque is the generator to restore voltage after
most important to the original initial voltage dip to accelerate the
2010 Caterpillar
motor to rated speed. The degree of starting kVA capacity to limit

motor loading affects recovery time. momentary voltage drop. A 30%
voltage dip is generally acceptable,
depending on equipment already on-
line. Motor starting capability data is
available on specification sheets and
TMI for all Cat generator sets.
NEMA identifies motors in the U.S.
with a code letter on the nameplate
to indicate starting characteristics.
Table 15 shows the NEMA code and
the starting skVA per horsepower.
Figure 26
Table 16 can serve as a guideline
Although unloaded motors impose for motors outside the U.S.
high inrush current (skVA) in
generators while starting, kW load Identifying Code Letters on AC Motors
on the engine is usually small. NEMA Code Letter Starting skVA/hp
However, motors can draw more A 0.00 - 3.14
than rated kW during starting and B 3.15 - 3.54
acceleration to rated speed. Motors C 3.55 - 3.99
connected directly to high inertia D 4.00 - 4.49
centrifugal devices or loaded E 4.50 - 4.99
reciprocating compressors cause F 5.00 - 5.59
severe frequency excursions and G 5.60 - 6.29
lengthy motor run up. Comparing H 6.30 - 7.09
starting currents between loaded J 7.10 - 7.99
and unloaded motors shows the K 8.00 - 8.99
extended time loaded motors demand L 9.00 - 9.99
high current; refer to Figure 27. The M 10.00 - 11.19
effect of loaded motors on both N 11.20 - 12.49
engine and generator must be P 12.50 - 13.99
determined; particularly if large
R 14.00 - 15.99
motors, such as large centrifugal
S 16.00 - 17.99
fans and pumps, have high inertia
T 18.00 - 19.99
loads and increase load during
U 20.00 - 22.39
acceleration.
V 22.40 -
An accurately sized genset will
Table 15
support the high starting kVA (skVA)
requirements of the motor and
supply sufficient output voltage
for the motor so it can develop
adequate load to rated speed. The
generator set must have sufficient
2010 Caterpillar
Table 16 lists standard sizes for determined or the loads will

50 Hz motors. The starting kVA accelerate slowly or even fail to
numbers should be used as a guide- reach full speed.
line only. For the exact skVA of a
Starting Power Factor
motor, consult the motor Generator sets are typically
manufacturer. evaluated on the basis of their
ability to start electric motors and
Motor Size kW Starting kVA accelerate to full speed. Regardless
.37 N/A of whether the motor has load or
.55 4.9 not, starting it requires kVA far in
.75 6.9 excess of the motors normal
1.1 9.5 running kVA demand. Generator
1.5 13.4 heating is produced by the current
2.2 19.8 which is why generators are rated
3 29.7 for maximum kVA and not maximum
4 41.4 kW. The ratio of kW/kVA is the
5.5 53.8 power factor. Motors exhibit low
7.5 73.1 power factors when starting. Normal
11 103
industrial loads have a power factor
15 143
of 0.8. This is the value used for
18.5 171
NEMA standard and Caterpillar
22 204
ratings.
30 254 Load imposed on the engine during
37 322 a motor start is calculated by:
45 378 kW = Starting kVA x Starting pf
55 502
75 721
90 906
Figure 28 shows the approximate
starting power factor of squirrel
110 1049
cage motors.
132 1255
160 1557
200 1940
250 2476
315 3113
356 3421
Table 16
The rated hp and as starting kVA

must be known to properly evaluate Figure 27
the impact starting a motor will have
upon a specific system. When sizing As shown, a 5 hp squirrel cage
a genset, the acceptable level of motor has a lagging power factor of
motor torque for starting must be approximately 0.6 pf while a 200 hp
2010 Caterpillar
squirrel cage motor has a lagging 6.0 kVA x 200 hp = 1,200 skVA
power factor of approximately Next, use Figure 28 to find the
0.25 pf. lagging starting power factor for
Figure 28 can be used to help a 20 hp motor; it is approximately
determine the total kW needed when 0.46 pf.
a squirrel cage motor, or group of skVA x Starting pf = kW
motors, is started.
1,200 x 0.46 = 552 kW
Example
How much kW is needed when a
Code G 200 hp squirrel cage motor, It was determined in a previous
at 6.0 kVA per hp, is started? example that a 200 hp motor
required 300 kW. Therefore, ten
Solution 20 hp squirrel cage motors require
skVA = kVA/hp x hp 84 percent more kW than the
6.0 x 200 hp = 1,200 200 hp squirrel cage motor during
starting. (300 kW vs. 552 kW)
Use Figure 28 to find the lagging Motor Starting Load
power factor of a 200 hp squirrel The nameplate of a motor provides
cage motor; the chart indicates important information in regard to
0.25 pf. sizing.
skVA x Starting pf = kW The Motor Starting Codes identify
1200 skVA x 0.25 = 300 kW the starting kVA (skVA) per hp. If
the nameplate does not list the
motor starting code, it is likely to list
The chart in Figure 28 can also be the Locked Rotor Amps (LRA). The
used to compare how much kW is LRA is a measurement of the initial
required for one motor versus a inrush of current when a motor is
group of motors. started.
Example Motors, either loaded or unloaded,
How much power is needed when draw several times rated full load
ten Code G squirrel cage motors current when starting. Satisfying
rated at 20 hp each are started? this inrush, places a large
Which requires more power ten momentary kVA demand on the
20 hp motors, or one 200 hp motor? generator called the starting kVA
The motors are rated at 6.0 kVA per (skVA). SkVA can be calculated
hp each. from locked rotor current.
Solution skVA = (V x LRA x 1.732)/1000
First, find the total horsepower by
multiplying the number of motors by Motors generally exhibit low
the hp of each motor. Use the total starting power factors (0.2 to 0.5)
hp (200) in the following equation: when starting. Load imposed on the
skVA = kVA/hp x hp
2010 Caterpillar
engine during starting is calculated required to initially breakaway or

by: overcome friction to start the load
kW = Starting kVA x Starting pf from a standstill. Shown in
Figure 29 is the relationship between
starting current and torque. The
Example starting current starts at the locked-
By using the following equation rotor value as determined by the
and the NEMA Code Chart in Table NEMA code or locked rotor amps
15, the skVA/hp can be determined. on the nameplate. The current then
skVA = (skVA/hp) x hp drops to its rated value as speed
and torque approaches normal.
Motor Torque Sample

Motor torque is required to Motor Torque & Current vs. Speed
accelerate and drive the load.
Torque is a turning force. It defines
the ability of the motor to twist the
motor shaft.
Motor loads are established to
determine if generator and engine
have, respectively, adequate kVA
and kW. Motor load is defined as the
torque required by load. This torque,
expressed in Nm (lb-ft), is usually
related to speed. Motor load, in
horsepower can be expressed in
the following equations.
Nm x rpm
hp = Figure 28
7350
Breakaway torque depends on the

lb-ft
hp = loads static resistance to rotation.
5250
The loads static friction can be
higher than the rolling friction
The following torque requirements depending on the characteristics
must be established (usually of the driven device. The load
expressed as percent of running breakaway torque must be less than
torque): Breakaway torque, motor locked-rotor torque or the load
accelerating torque, synchronous cannot be started.
torque and peak torque.
Shown in Figure 30 are types of
Starting (Breakaway) Torque torque and the names used for each.
Starting torque is the maximum Also shown is a typical load torque
torque required to start rotation. curve.
Stated differently, it is the torque
2010 Caterpillar
torque. If the actual running

torque demanded by the load
is less than rated full load
torque of the motor, running
speed will more nearly
approach synchronous speed.
Breakaway torque: The torque
required to initially breakaway
or overcome friction to start
the load from a standstill. The
load breakaway torque must
Figure 29 be less than motor locked-
rotor torque or the load
Locked-rotor torque (also cannot be started.
known as Starting Torque):
The torque a motor exerts at
zero speed. The locked-rotor
torque must be greater than
the mechanical breakaway
torque to allow the shaft to
rotate (to start the motor).
Refer to Figure 31.
Pull-up torque: The minimum
torque produced between zero
and rated speed. In most
cases, this is equal to the
locked-rotor torque but in
some motors may be less
than the starting torque.
Breakdown torque: The Figure 30
maximum torque exerted
between zero and rated
speed. This point is often the
highest generator load point
and must be considered when
sizing large motors.
Full-load torque: The torque
capability of the motor at
rated load and speed. Note
that speed is less than
synchronous speed for an
induction motor. This is due
to the slip required to produce
2010 Caterpillar
motor life. Figure 33 reflects typical

motor capabilities.
Acceleration Time
The difference between the torque
developed by the motor and the
torque required by the load will
determine the rate of acceleration or
acceleration time. If the load torque
exceeds the motor torque at any
point, the motor will stall.
Considerable heat can be
developed within the motor during
startup, especially in the rotor.
The motor can be damaged from
Figure 31 excessive heat if the starting time
is excessive or exceeds the time
Figure 32 represents speed torque intended by the motor manufacturer.
curves of typical squirrel cage
There is no precise limit for the
motors.
amount of time allowed to avoid
Acceleration Torque motor damage during acceleration.
Acceleration torque is the net However, motor manufacturers
difference, at any speed, between provide general guidelines. A motor
load required torque and motor start time greater than ten seconds
available torque. Minimum motor may be of concern depending upon
torque must exceed maximum the motor design and manufacturer.
torque demanded by the connected Some motors are protected with
load. The time necessary to achieve thermal overload relays to trip off
full rated speed is of utmost before this becomes a problem. The
importance. Small accelerating number of starts and time interval
torque is usually caused by reduced between starts, as well as the frame
voltage at the motor. size, are items to consider.
Prolonged accelerating time with
high current draw will reduce useful
2010 Caterpillar
Figure 32
Estimated Acceleration Time T= Acceleration torque

Formula (lb. ft.)
The formula used to calculate AT = Acceleration Time in
acceleration time is: seconds
Wk2 x N In this example, change in speed is
AT =
308T from zero to full rated speed. To find
T, it is necessary to find the motor
Where: torque average. A simple estimate
may be found by measuring the
Wk2 = Total motor and load
length of several lines running be-
inertia (lb. ft2) Wk2 +
tween motor torque and load torque
Motor Wk2
as provided by motor manufacturers
N = Change of speed (rpm) torque curves, such as the one
shown in Figure 34. Then, divide the
2010 Caterpillar
number by the total number of lines dropout or close intermittently thus

on the chart. preventing the motor from starting.
Low voltage operation can cause
overheating, extended load
acceleration times, opening of circuit
breakers and engine/generator
protection shutdowns. Table 17
shows the minimum recommended
motor ratings.
Minimum Recommended Motor Ratings
Induction Synchronous
Volts RPM
Motors hp Motors hp
601-3,000 3,600 250
601-3,000 1,800 or less 250 250
3,001-5,000 3,600 350
3,001-5,000 1,800 or less 300 250
Figure 33 5,001-7,000 3,600 1,000
5,001-7,000 1,800 or less 800 600
Synchronous Torque Table 17
The steady-state torque developed
by a synchronous motor at rated Inrush current to the motor causes
speed. a rapid drop of generator output
Peak Torque voltage. In most cases, 30% voltage
Maximum torque a load requires dip is acceptable, depending on
from its driving motor. equipment already on-line. Degree
of dip must be identified by an
Motor Voltage
oscilloscope. Meters or mechanical
A properly sized genset must have
recorders are too slow for this
adequate kW (power) and kVA
measurement.
capability to satisfy the demands of
a motor during starting. Single-speed, three-phase,
constant-speed induction motors,
Most motors are energized with
when measured with rated source
electrically operated contactors.
voltage and frequency impressed
Extremes in voltage dip due to motor
and with rotor locked, must not
starting may cause the electro-
exceed the values listed in Table 18.
magnetically held contactors to
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Locked Rotor Current NEMA MG 1
60 Hz - 230 Volts 50 Hz - 380 Volts

Horsepower Locked Rotor Design Letters Horsepower Locked Rotor Design Letters
Current, Amperes* Current, Amperes **
0.5 20 B,D,E 1 or less 20 B,D,E

0.75 25 B,D,E 1.5 27 B,D,E
1 30 B,D,E 2 34 B,D,E
1.5 40 B,D,E 3 43 B,C,D,E
2 50 B,D,E 5 61 B,C,D,E
3 64 B,C,D,E 7.5 84 B,C,D,E
5 92 B,C,D,E 10 107 B,C,D,E
7.5 127 B,C,D,E 15 154 B,C,D,E
10 162 B,C,D,E 20 194 B,C,D,E
15 232 B,C,D,E 25 243 B,C,D,E
20 290 B,C,D,E 30 289 B,C,D,E
25 365 B,C,D,E 40 387 B,C,D,E
30 435 B,C,D,E 50 482 B,C,D,E
40 580 B,C,D,E 60 578 B,C,D,E
50 725 B,C,D,E 75 722 B,C,D,E
60 870 B,C,D,E 100 965 B,C,D,E
75 1085 B,C,D,E 125 1207 B,C,D,E
100 1450 B,C,D,E 150 1441 B,C,D,E
125 1815 B,C,D,E 200 1927 B,C,E
150 2170 B,C,D,E
200 2900 B,C,E
250 3650 B,E
300 4400 B,E
*Locked rotor current of motors designed for voltages other than 230 volts shall be inversely proportional to the voltages.
**The locked rotor current of motors designed for voltages other than 380 volts shall be inversely proportional to the voltages.
Table 18
voltage starting is the most widely

Motor Starting Techniques
used motor starting method.
There are various methods used
to start motors. Those that will be Full voltage starting uses a
discussed are full voltage, soft momentary push button as the start
starting and reduced voltage. switch. When pushed, the button
energizes contact coil M, as
Full Voltage Starting shown in Figure 35. Then the motor
The least complicated motor contacts, M, close to start the
starting method is full voltage motor; a seal in contact M holds
starting or across-the-line starting. the contacts in until the stop
Motors are simply connected to the button is opened. The on-off control
power source by switches in the
line, as shown in Figure 35. Full
2010 Caterpillar
commonly features integral overload The generator set must have

protection. sufficient motor starting kVA
Full line voltage is supplied to the capacity to limit voltage drop. If
motor instantly when the motor actual values of the motor starting
switch is actuated; refer to current cannot be determined, an
Table 19. Maximum starting torque approximate value of 600% of full-
is available; therefore, the motor will load rated current is a good
have minimum acceleration time. approximation for Design B motors;
Reduction of acceleration time is approximate 1500% of full-load
advantageous for motors that cycle rated current for Design E motors.
off and on frequently. The shorter Refer to Figure 36.
the time it takes the motor to get to Full voltage starting is used unless
full speed, the less heating will occur there are limitations on inrush
on the motor windings. This will currents. Most public utilities do not
allow for increased service life of allow full voltage starting of large
the motor. motors. When large motors are
started, a relief must be provided.
Figure 34
2010 Caterpillar
Reduced Voltage Starters

Line Current Starting Torque
Motor Voltage
Type of Starter % Full Voltage % of Full Voltage
% Line Voltage
Starting Current Starting Torque
Full Voltage Starter 100 100 100
Autotransformer
80% Tap 80 *68 64
65% Tap 65 *46 42
50% Tap 50 *29 25
Resistor Starter
Single Step (Adjusted
80 80 64
for motor voltage to be
80% of line voltage)
Reactor
5
50% Tap 50 50
20
45% Tap 45 45
14
37.5% Tap 37.5 37.5
Part Winding
(Low speed motors only)
75% Winding 100 75 75
50% Winding 100 50 50
Star Delta 57 33 33
Solid State Adjustable
* % line current is 64%, 42% and 24% before addition of autotransformer magnetizing current.
Advantages Disadvantages
Autotransformer
1. Provides highest torque per amp of line current. 1. In lower hp ratings, it is most expensive design
2. Taps on autotransformer permit adjustment of starting
voltage.
3. Closed transition starting.
4. While starting, motor current is greater than line current.
5. Low power factor.
Resistor
1. Smooth acceleration motor voltage increases with 1. Low torque efficiency
speed. 2. Resistor heat
2. Closed transition starting. 3. High power factor during start.
3. Less expensive than autotransformer starter in lower hp
ratings.
4. Available with several accelerating points.
Part Winding
1. Least expensive reduced voltage starter. 1. Requires special motor design for voltages higher than
2. Closed transition starting. 230 v.
3. Most dual voltage motors can be started part winding on
lower of two voltages.
4. Small size.
Start Delta
1. Moderate cost less than resistor or autotransformer. 1. Requires special motor design.
2. Suitable for high inertia, long acceleration loads. 2. Starting torque is low.
3. High torque efficiency.
Table 19
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Selecting a motor with

inherent soft-start
characteristics.
Interposing controls between
the motor and power source
to modify motor torque.
Reduced Voltage Starting
Reduced voltage starting reduces
the skVA demand on a generator set
Figure 35 for motor starting. There is also a
reduction in motor starting torque.
Soft Starting Cushioning Motor Though a voltage dip can often
Starting Under Load cause problems, a controlled voltage
Motors may be soft-started dip can be beneficial. Reducing
(started with decreased load or at motor starting kVA can reduce the
reduced torque) to bring the load up required size of the genset, reduce
to speed gradually or to minimize the voltage dip, and provide a softer
starting currents. Motors may be start for the motor loads. However,
over stressed when developing the time to reach full operating speed
torque necessary to start and increases. Figure 37 shows the
accelerate a large or high inertia effect of reduced voltage on torque.
load. Also, a high starting current
may strain the electrical supply
system beyond its capability to
provide current to the starting
motor or other connected loads.
Three options for soft-starting
motors include:
Installing a coupling to the
shaft of the motor. Doing so
allows the motor to reach full
speed before the load does.
Most common would be an
eddy-current clutch, magnetic
coupling, or variable-pitch
sheave drive. This technique
does relieve the generator set
engine of some horsepower
demand while starting, but Figure 36
does not relieve the generator
Any reduction in voltage during
of initial skVA demand.
starting sequence will have effect on
both torque and load acceleration.
2010 Caterpillar
Starting torque varies directly with Reduced voltage during start can
the square of the voltage impressed give relief from excessive current
on the stator. If the voltage imposed inrush demand and excessive
on the terminals of an induction transient disturbances. However,
motor being started is reduced from the motor may not have sufficient
its rated voltage to some given torque to accelerate to rated speed,
percentage of this full value, the especially if the motor is required to
power demand of the motor will be accelerate a connected load with a
reduced to a value equivalent to the heavy inertial content.
full voltage start kVA times the Starting current varies directly with
percent of full voltage squared. the impressed voltage.
% decrease of rated volts = x
Example
x2 = Available Torque What is the current draw of a 230 V
motor that is reduced to 200 V?
Using Ohms Law, it is seen that Solution
the power consumed in the circuit 200
= 0.87
will vary directly as the square of 230
the current flow. Therefore, since
current flow in a given circuit is Current draw is 87% of rated.
directly proportional to the voltage Figure 38 illustrates the effect of
across the circuit, the result of reduced voltage on current.
reducing the voltage to some
percent of full voltage will be a
reduction in power consumed in the
circuit equal to the percent of full
voltage squared.
Example
If line voltage of 230 V is supplied
to a 230 V motor, the available
torque is 100%. If a 230 V motor
is reduced to 200 volts, what is
available torque?
Solution
% decrease of rated volts = x
x2 = Available Torque
Figure 37
200
=x There are several types of reduced
230
motor starting.
x2 = 0.756 = Available Torque Autotransformer-Open
The available torque is 75.6%. Transition
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Autotransformer-Closed autotransformer starter provides

Transition higher torque per ampere of line
Reactor current than other types of reduced
voltage starters. Actual line current
Resistor will be a few percent more than the
Part Winding 64% in the example because the
Star Delta autotransformer requires
approximately 25 kVA per 100
Solid State
motor horsepower for magnetizing
All these reduced voltage starting current.
techniques decrease motor starting
The transition to full voltage is
torque. Decreased motor starting
usually determined by a timer.
torque detracts from the motors
However, in some cases it may
ability to start and achieve rated
be done manually. The simplest
speed when burdened by a load. If
arrangement is open circuit transfer
reduced voltage starters are used,
from reduced to full voltage, but it
the reduction in starting torque
causes severe electrical and
developed by the motor must be
mechanical disturbances during the
considered.
transition switch.
Reduced Starting Methods Figure 39 shows a circuit
Autotransformer Open Transition drawing and torque chart of an
Autotransformer starters, also Autotransformer Open
called auto compensators, reduce arrangement.
voltage to the motor terminals for
starting by transformer action. They
are available for very large high and
low voltage motors. The auto-
transformer has a reduced voltage
winding tap which is removed from
the circuit and connected directly to
the line as the motor approaches
rated speed.
Autotransformer starters typically
have three taps available to select
50%, 65% or 80% of line voltage.
With transformer action, current
drawn from the source will vary as
the square of voltage at the motor
terminals. When the 80% tap is
used, the line current will be 80%
squared or 64% of line current that
would be drawn at full voltage.
With the transformer action, the
2010 Caterpillar
30 seconds. It is the most expensive

Autotransformer Open of all starters.
Current drawn from the line will
vary as the square of voltage at
motor terminals; when the motor is
connected to the third (80%) tap,
line current will be 80% squared, or
64% of line current that would be
drawn at full voltage. The starter
requires approximately 25 kVA per
100 motor horsepower as magnet-
izing current. This is added to the
starting kVA of the motor being
started.
Figure 40 shows a circuit drawing
and torque chart of an
Autotransformer Closed
arrangement.
Figure 38
Transition
An alternative to open transition
switching, is closed transition.
This technique minimizes shock
by providing continuous flow of
current while switching from auto-
transformer tap to full voltage.
Closed transition switching, though
involving slightly more complex
switching, is preferred for
autotransformer starting. Auto-
transformer starters are magnetically
controlled. Three taps on the
transformer secondary are set for
50%, 65%, and 80% of full line
voltage. These three contactors, Figure 39
a timer, and a transformer make
up the starting device. This starter
is very smooth in acceleration
and allowance starting time is
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Reactor Resistor of sample Reactor/Resistor

Reactor starters reduce voltage to arrangements.
the motor by inserting resistance or
reactance into each leg of the circuit Reactor
and then short out when the motor
approaches operating speed. This
type of starter uses two contactors,
a timer, and a reactor or resistor as
the starting device.
Allowable starting time is five
seconds. It is the least flexible in
application of all starting devices but
smooth in acceleration and priced in
the middle of all starters.
The added resistance acts as a
voltage dropping device. It adds a
loss to the circuit and imposes load
on the engine. This method provides
smooth acceleration as the starting
circuit is removed without
momentarily disconnecting motor
Figure 40
from line. (The line current equals
motor current, resulting in a lower
torque to source kVA ratio for Resistor
starting than with autotransformers.)
For example, with 80% voltage
applied to the motor terminals, the
motor current will be 80% of normal
full voltage current and likewise
80% current will be required from
the line. Contrast this to 64% line
current with an 80% tap
autotransformer.
Reactor starting uses two
contactors, a timer, and a reactor
as the starting device. Allowable
starting time is 15 seconds. Series
reactor starting is usually used
on large motors. Its application
flexibility is limited to only the
high voltages and currents.
Figure 41 and Figure 42 show
Figure 41
circuit drawings and torque charts
2010 Caterpillar
Part Winding ratio, it does not allow for a smooth

A special motor with two parallel start and is not suitable for small,
stator windings is required for high speed motors. Acceleration
part winding starting. These are time is between 5 and 15 seconds
successively connected to the line depending on the type of motor
as motor speed increases. used.
Part Winding and torque chart of sample Part
Winding arrangement.
Wye (Star) Delta SCR Gates
Wye-delta starting requires that the
motor being started have all six or
twelve leads brought out to the
connection box. The motor starts as
a wye (star) connected motor and is
then switched to run as a delta
connected motor.
When connected wye, voltage
impressed on each individual
winding is 58% of full value of delta
connection. Starting torque and
current are 33% of across-the-line
value. This type of starter has the
longest allowable acceleration time
of 45 to 60 seconds. When wye-
Figure 42 delta is used with a limited capacity
generator set, the additional loss in
Full line starting is applied to a part the motors starting torque due to
of the motors winding. Current and a significant transient voltage dip
developed torque are reduced to usually results in the motor failing to
that of one winding while starting. accelerate to near rated speed prior
Torque characteristics are better if to making transition to running
the stator is designed for part mode. The power source is started
winding starting but standard dual almost as if it was started directly
voltage are sometimes used. Two across the line, and therefore fails.
contactors and a timer are the parts
of this starter. However, an Note: Alternators powering motors
additional cost of the motor itself equipped with delta starters should
has to be taken into consideration be sized as if the motors were being
since it may be up to 50% more started directly across-the-line.
expensive than a standard squirrel Figure 44 shows a circuit drawing
cage motor. Although this technique and torque chart of sample Wye
can produce a good torque to kVA (Star) arrangement.
2010 Caterpillar
Wye (Star) only active during starting and

therefore do not require additional
generator capability to accommodate
voltage distortion due to the SCRs.
If the solid-state motor starter does
not have an automatic bypass, the
SCRs voltage distortion will have to
be compensated by oversizing the
generator. A guideline in this
oversizing is to use two times the
kW load. Refer to the Harmonic
Content Section for more
information.
and torque chart of a sample Solid
State arrangement.
Solid State
Figure 43
Solid-State Starter
Solid-state starters offer many
options in achieving desired starting
characteristics. Solid-state starters
adjust torque, acceleration ramp
time and current limit to cause a
motor start which has a controlled
acceleration. Solid-state starters
offer smooth, step-less motor
starting by varying the conduction
angle of SCRs. The conduction
angle varies from 20 to 100% which
in turn controls the motor voltage
from 40 to 80%. They have the
advantage of operating without Figure 44
mechanical parts and large electrical
switching contacts. This provides a The user adjusts the control
very smooth application of power. to deliver the best starting
The solid-state starter is not to be characteristic for the application.
confused with the solid-state Variations of current and voltage
adjustable speed drive. With a solid- limit are sometimes used to achieve
state starter, circuits are typically linear speed ramp, however the
operating principle of the controlled
2010 Caterpillar
parameter is always based on

voltage control. Current Ramp
Voltage Ramp
Voltage/time ramp increases
voltage until full voltage is applied to
the motor terminals. Constant kVA
is maintained, and sudden torque
changes are eliminated, as illustrated
in Figure 46. Initial voltage step,
acceleration ramp, and current limit
are usually adjustable. An extended Figure 46
acceleration ramp time and low
current limit setting results in the
least voltage and frequency dips. Table 19 lists the various methods
and types of starting, and their
Voltage Ramp principle effects on motor starting.
Extreme care should be given
when applying reduced voltage
starting to engine gensets. The
amount of available starting torque
is reduced. Any transient voltage dip
during start will further reduce the
starting torque. For example, if
a motor is being started with an
Figure 45 autotransformer starter on the 65%
tap, the motor will have only
Current Ramp 42.25% of its full voltage starting
Use of the current limit ramp is torque available upon start. If the
very common. Current is ramped up system voltage dips 20% during
within a prescribed time to reach a transient, the voltage at the motor
programmed limit; refer to Figure 47. terminals will be only 80% of 65%
Current limit settings from 150% of rated voltage (52% of full
to 600% of full load current are voltage). Squaring 52% gives a net
typically available. A 300% limit value of 27% of full voltage starting
reduces the starting kVA by 50% torque, not the anticipated 42.25%.
from the normal 600% current with
full voltage across-the-line starting.
Use of the current limit setting
reduces motor torque available to
the load as shown in Figure 45.
2010 Caterpillar
are already connected. All loads

Table of Methods and Types of Motor Starting following the initial intermittent load
PU Rated PU Rated (like a furnace) must include the
Method and PU Line
Start Start intermittent load as part of its total
Type of Voltage
Torque kVA as well. By considering this, more
Starting Applied
Available Required kVA may be needed and a larger
Full Voltage
Across-the-Line 1.0 1.0 1.0 genset may be appropriate.
Full Voltage Part Motor Starting Troubleshooting
Winding (See 1.0 0.70 0.70 Techniques
Notes 1 & 3) If motor starting is a problem,
Reduced Voltage 0.80, 0.64, 0.67, consider the following:
Autotransformer 0.65, 0.42, 0.45,
(See Note 2) 0.50 0.25 0.28 Change starting sequence.
Reduced Voltage Start largest motors first.
Reactor/Resistor 0.80, 0.64, 0.80, More starting kVA is available,
(See Notes 1 & 0.65 0.42 0.65 although it does not provide
3) better voltage recovery time.
Reduced Voltage
0.58 0.33 0.33 Use reduced voltage starters.
Star-Delta
This reduces the kVA required
NOTES:
1. Values are typical. Various values of skVA and torque
to start a given motor. If
are available depending upon motor/starter design. starting under load, remember
Consult the motor/starter manufacturer for specific data. this starting method also
2. The calculated percentage values of Start kVA have reduces starting torque.
been increased by three percentage points to allow for Use current limiting starters.
the magnetizing kVA required for the autotransformer.
3. Values listed are typical. Consult with the customer or Specify oversized generators.
the manufacturer of the motor/starter for specific data. Use wound rotor motors.
4. In the absence of specific data, indicated typical data They require lower starting
may be used for estimating purposes, but should be current, but are more
shown as assumed values in lieu of specific data.
Performance of actual equipment may vary from
expensive than other motors.
calculated performance on all calculations and Provide clutches so motors
quotations. start before loads are applied.
Table 20 While starting kVA demand is
not reduced, time interval of
high kVA demand is
shortened.
Intermittent Starting
When a motor is run intermittently, Improve system power factor.
the transient response time must be This reduces the generator set
considered. When an intermittent requirement to produce
motor is started, the voltage dip reactive kVA, making more
which occurs must still be in an kVA available for starting.
acceptable range that does not Unload the motors. Starting
adversely affect other loads which loaded motors can cause very
2010 Caterpillar
high generator set loads VFDs start at zero frequency and

during the motor starting ramp up to a set point. Variable
phase. voltage drives start at zero voltage
and ramp up to a selected point.
Miscellaneous Loads Both are under a current or torque
Most facilities will have both limit to avoid large inrush current.
lighting and motor loads. Some A variation of the variable speed
facilities may have additional drive is the reduced voltage or
miscellaneous loads; these could reduced current starter; see
include adjustable speed drives, description under motor starting.
UPS loads, single-phase loads and
Generally, when these drives
elevator loads.
represent more than 25% of the
Adjustable (Variable) Speed Drives total load on the generator set, it
Electronic adjustable speed drives may require a larger generator.
are used to control the speed of VFDs require large generators.
both AC and DC motors. Speed VFDs are current limiting and
control allows application of motors, reduce kW and kVA. Non-linear
at their most efficient speed, to be current is drawn which has
matched to the demand created at harmonics. This causes a voltage
a particular moment. Terms used to drop across the reactance of the
describe these drives include the genset. When Total Harmonic
following. Distortion (THD) exceeds 15%,
Variable Speed Drive (VSD) additional generator capacity may
Variable Frequency Drive be needed. Larger generators have
(VFD) greater reduction in impedance of
the generator; this reduces the
Adjustable Frequency Drive
effects of the harmonic current
(AFD)
distortion.
Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD)
For six-pulse VFDs, twice the
These drives rectify incoming AC running kW of the drive is a typical
power to form DC power. The DC sizing factor used to offset any
is used to either power a DC motor reduction in starting kW or kVA. If
directly, or power an inverter that an input filter is used to limit current
converts DC back into AC at a to less than 10%, the sizing factor
desired voltage and frequency for can be reduced down to 1.4 times
driving a motor at any speed at the running kW of the drive.
any point in time.
Passive filters may be used to
The rectification of AC with SCRs reduce the impact of harmonic
distorts current waveforms and sub- distortion. However, the possible
sequently causes distorted voltage effects of leading power factor with
waveforms, which can have impact tuned inductor/capacitor filters at
on other equipment connected to the start-up or with light loads may
same source.
2010 Caterpillar
effect voltage regulation of self- supplies (UPS). Each of these

excited generators. devices converts the sinusoidal
supply voltage into a direct current
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
voltage. In some cases, the
Systems
equipment may convert the DC
SCR drives allow infinite speed
voltage back to AC voltage. Used
adjustment of electric motors. They
with limited power sources, such as
are used in a variety of applications.
engine-driven generator sets, SCR
DC motors used in elevators, cranes
switching causes severe voltage and
and printing presses utilize SCRs.
current waveform distortion at the
Additionally, AC variable frequency
power source. Current waveform
drives (VFD) and AC variable voltage
distortion can develop harmonic
input (VVI) drives used in pumps,
resonance in system equipment.
fans, process conveyors, machine
This causes heating in motor and
tools and printing presses use
generator coils.
SCRs.
The creation of distortion with an
Typically, SCR drives may require
SCR device can be shown by looking
oversized generators. Operating DC
at a simple generator supplying an
motors at variable speeds causes the
SCR controlled load; refer to Figure
generator Power Factor to vary.
48.
Accordingly, AC generators are
oversized to 0.6 or 0.7 PF to provide
more generator ampere capacity.
Testable capacity of the genset is
given by the following equation:
EkW = (bhp rad fan hp) x Gen eff x 0.746
Additionally, the generator must Figure 47

be form-wound to provide additional
mechanical bracing of the generator Turning the SCR on at some
winding. This bracing resists the point during the applied voltage
forces caused by current surges cycle creates an instantaneous
resulting from operation of the SCR demand for a large amount of
controllers. Generator winding current to flow in the circuit. With
temperature rise design limit is an SCR, current does not flow until
also lowered to compensate for the SCR is gated on. This current
additional heating caused by the flow results in an instantaneous
SCR load. voltage drop within the internal
Undersized generators may cause impedance or reactance of the
circuit breaker tripping. generator. Consequently, the voltage
at the generator output terminals
SCR systems lend themselves to appears as a distorted sine wave;
infinite speed control of motors, refer to Figure 49.
rectifiers and uninterrupted power
2010 Caterpillar
power outages. The UPS continually

conditions power and if the normal
power source is not available, the
UPS provides power to the critical
load until the standby power
generation can come on-line. The
generator set should be sized to the
UPS rating, not the load.
Figure 48
Continuity and isolation from
Over time, these distortions which power source disturbances can be
occur on a three-phase power assured by using either a rotary or
source can cause unfavorable a static UPS system.
performance of the entire system. Rotary systems use a motor-
When planning systems with SCR generator set to isolate the critical
devices, the control manufacturer load combined with kinetic inertia
must be informed that a limited storage technique or batteries to
power source (generator set) will carry the critical load while cranking
be used. The system can then be a diesel engine.
designed to minimize distortion Static systems isolate critical load
problems. Limiting SCR loads to through solid-state devices which
66% of a Cat generators prime use batteries to bridge power
power rating ensures regulator interruptions until a genset is
control and avoids generator available to power the system.
overheating caused by harmonics. UPSs can also be used to perform
Applications requiring high load an orderly engine shutdown to
factors must be analyzed on an minimize restart damage.
individual basis.
Static UPS systems use static
Welding Loads components to provide quality
Welders draw erratic fluctuating power to critical equipment,
current. These current fluctuations independent of the quality or
produce voltage waveform distortion availability of the normal power
due to relatively high-load source source. The simplest systems
impedance. Generator sets may consist of a rectifier (converter),
require significant derating with a DC storage battery bank, and an
welder loads. inverter.
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) The rectifier, sometimes called
A UPS system is an assembly of converter, is a device that converts
equipment used with electrical loads AC current to DC current.
sensitive to power source
The inverter uses Solid State tech-
disturbances or that require absolute nology to convert DC to a waveform
continuity of power. The UPS can that is then filtered so it is suitable
store energy for a period during for powering the critical load.
2010 Caterpillar
A bank of storage batteries the Non-Linear Load Section for

floats on-line to provide seamless examples.
DC power to the inverter in the In three-phase rectifiers, the
event of power source loss to the circuits and circuit elements may be
rectifier. The batteries get their arranged to provide DC power with
restoring charge and standby float six or twelve DC current pulses per
charge from the rectifiers DC AC input cycle.
output.
The higher the number of pulses
The DC output of the rectifier per cycle, the smoother the demand.
provides for two functions during Therefore, a six-pulse rectifier has a
the time when an AC power source more distorting demand than a
is available at its terminals. twelve-pulse rectifier.
1. It provides regulated DC to the A six-pulse system should have a
inverter for powering the critical generator rated for continuous duty
load. at 80C temperature rise. An
2. It maintains the state of upgrade of the voltage regulation
charge on the bank of DC system may be necessary, as well.
batteries; including recharging The subtransient reactance should
if the state of charge has been also be determined before sizing the
depleted by a recent normal generator.
power outage. For a twelve-pulse system, where
The AC output of the inverter is these loads are more than 25% of
conditioned power to match the the generators standby rating, a
voltage and frequency requirements generator rated for continuous duty
of the critical load at all times. at 105C rise for Class F and H
During a power interruption, power insulation systems should be
for the system comes directly from selected.
the reserve battery bank without For a twelve-pulse system where
switching. The load is seen as the the loads are less than 25% of the
static power converter/battery generators standby rating, a
charger. standard generator and automatic
voltage regulation system may be
Six-Pulse and Twelve-Pulse Rectifier
applied.
The rectifier or converter unit,
which converts AC to DC in a UPS Size and cost considerations
system, consists of large individual dictate the number of pulses to be
rectifiers in circuits to control the DC used in system design. Problems
output. They draw current in pulses with high THD with a six-pulse
from the AC source. These current rectifier can typically be minimized
pulses are not sine wave in shape by the rectifier manufacturer using a
and cause voltage waveform properly designed passive filter.
distortion at the source. Refer to
2010 Caterpillar
By-Pass Capability The UPS must have circuitry to

Some UPS systems include ensure the inverter output and by-
additional components to allow the pass source are synchronized.
capability to by-pass the UPS in the Source voltage and frequency must
event of failure within the system, be within an acceptable range, or
system maintenance or momentary the UPS will disable the automatic
overloads on the critical load side. by-pass feature.
Figure 50 is an example of a UPS The demand for close control of
with by-pass capability. A device voltage and frequency is of more
called a static transfer switch allows concern for by-pass with a generator
automatic and virtually uninterrupted set source. This is because of harsh
transfer of the critical load back to effects on voltage waveform caused
the incoming source in the event of by the UPS rectifier and the
a planned or unplanned system possibility of generator set frequency
event such as mentioned above. deviation due to pulsating load or
small load changes.
UPS with Bypass Capability
Figure 49
An isochronous governor is typically with one or more UPS

recommended on the generator set systems than required to power the
and the UPS should be adjusted or load. Therefore, the critical load can
designed with the widest possible be sustained even with the loss or
window of voltage and frequency failure of any one individual UPS
acceptability for by-pass. system. A static switching bypass,
although of lesser importance for
Parallel Redundant UPS
reliability, may still be used for
Extremely critical applications may
maintenance or momentary overload
use a parallel redundant UPS; refer
and fault clearing capability.
to Figure 51. These are multiple UPS
systems operating in parallel,
2010 Caterpillar
Parallel Redundant UPS
Figure 50
Static UPS System
Figure 51
UPS Interface load changes are sufficiently

Electrical loads sensitive to power small to avoid speed changes.
disturbances during substation Isolate critical load through a
switching, voltage fluctuations or motor-generator set to avoid
total outages require absolute five-cycle power interruptions
continuity of power. Continuity can of utility.
be assured by isolating critical loads
Combining the characteristics of
and incorporating one of the
a UPS system, particularly static
following:
systems as shown in Figure 52, and
Assign a generator set solely a generator set present special
to the critical load. Sudden considerations to ensure
2010 Caterpillar
compatibility. An understanding of Generator sets inherently have

how these systems work and difficulty controlling voltage with
interface is essential. leading power factors, and rising
A UPS is rated in output kVA. In voltage may be observed. This
sizing a genset, it is important to condition is emphasized during UPS
recognize the need to provide power start-up by the power walk-in
based on UPS input. For instance, a feature. Typically, a UPS has some
rated UPS 100 kVA requires more means of gradually applying load to
than 100 kVA from the power the source over a 10 to 20 second
source; the difference between input period. An unloaded filter may
and output kVA is the efficiency of present a leading capacitive power
the unit. In addition, battery factor load beyond the generators
recharge load might be as high as voltage control capability.
25% of the output rating. Other loads connected to the
UPS systems typically have generator will counter this effect.
electronic circuits that discern input Also, disconnecting the filter at
voltage and frequency change. All lower UPS loads will minimize the
UPS should be designed or adjusted problems.
with operating parameters that are Filters may also act as stored
compatible with the genset. This energy devices affecting circuit
includes using the widest possible switching components such as
window of voltage and frequency automatic transfer switches.
acceptance when used with a Indiscriminate filter designs may also
genset. cause resonant conditions with other
Coordination between the genset circuit elements.
supplier and the UPS supplier is Impact of Other Loads
critical in meeting the clients needs. Most electrical devices and
Input Filters equipment are relatively unaffected
Filters may interact with other when powered by generator sets
components within a system. with UPS loads. However,
Therefore, they should be considered knowledge of potentially sensitive
very carefully. Typical tuned circuit devices may be of value in system
filters represent some compromise planning. Many electronic devices
when used with rectifiers that are contain internal AC to DC power
exposed to broad power changes, supplies with adequate filtering and
such as may be encountered in UPS are relatively immune to waveform
applications. Filters with capacitive distortion. A few special purpose
reactance components may have electronic or control devices that
little effect on power factor with depend upon source voltage zero
rated load on the UPS; however, the crossings for timing may perform
power factor may become capacitive erratically. If these devices are of
leading at a part-load condition. low power, a simple and low cost
2010 Caterpillar
filter will usually eliminate any use 0.9 pf (typical for computer
problem. systems).
Power factor correction capacitors Battery recharge kW generally
are used primarily for economic ranges from 0 to 25% of input kW
reasons. They can also be effective (15% is typical). If unknown, use
in reducing waveform distortion. 25% of output kW for an
Caution must be exercised where approximation.
power factor correction capacitors If UPS efficiency is unknown,
are used. A resonant condition at the following guidelines are
one of the harmonic frequencies recommended:
with some part of the line
Use 0.85 if UPS < 100 kW.
inductance such as a transformer,
on-line motor or the generator is Use 0.875 if UPS > 100 kW,
possible. Excessive and possibly but < 500 kW.
damaging currents at the harmonic Use 0.90 if UPS > 500 kW.
frequency can flow through the
Note: Maximum input with
equipment. It may be advisable
redundant systems is less than total
to keep them off line until effects rating of individual systems.
of operating on an emergency
generator set with non-linear loads Part B
can be observed. Establish the minimum size
generator to contain waveform
UPS Sizing Example
distortion (quality of electric power).
The following is a procedure to use
in sizing Cat generator sets that 6-pulse rectifier/charger:
have static UPS systems as part or Minimum standby rated
all of their load. This procedure has generator set =
four parts: UPS input kW x 1.6.
12-pulse rectifier/charger:
Part A
Establish UPS input kW. Use UPS Minimum standby rated
input kW from supplier data. (In this generator set =
example use 255 kW.) If not avail- UPS input kW x 1.4.
able from supplier, the following
procedure and guidelines are
recommended to approximate or
estimate UPS input kW.
UPS Output kW + Battery Recharge kW
UPS Input kW =
UPS Efficiency
UPS output for computer loads is

frequently stated in terms of kVA.
For approximating, if UPS output
kVA is given and kW is unknown,
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Part C Loads on the generator set

Size the generator to frequently include large motors for
accommodate other loads. air conditioning and other support
functions. Following selection of the
generator set in Part D, a check
Minimum standby generator
should be made to determine if the
rating with other loads =
generator set has adequate motor
(UPS input kW x 1.15) + kW
starting skVA capability.
of other loads.
In special cases, it may be possible
to optimize economics by selection
Minimum standby generator
of a generator with standby rating
rating with other loads =
as determined in Part D and driving
(UPS input kW x 1.10) + kW
with an engine which has a standby
of other loads.
rating commensurate with the actual
Part D total kW load on the generator set.
Compare B and C for final Actual total kW load is the UPS
selection. Select larger of Part B or input kW plus kW of other loads.
Part C and round to nearest larger
Regenerative Power
size standby generator set.
Some motor applications, such
Example: as hoisting, depend on motors for
Select a standby generator set for braking. If a mechanical load causes
powering a UPS rated 200 kVA/180 the motor to turn faster than
kW. Other loads connected to the synchronous speed, the motor will
generator set total 100 kW. act as a generator and feed power
Solution: back into the system. The term
Part A: From supplier data, the regenerative power is sometimes
UPS input is 255 kW. used to describe the power
produced by these loads. If no other
Part B: The rectifier/charger is a
loads are connected to absorb this
6-pulse circuit, 255 kW. Minimum
energy, these loads will cause the
standby rated generator set =
generator to act as a motor, possibly
255 kW x 1.6 = 408 kW.
causing engine overspeed which can
Part C: Sizing for other loads. lead to engine failure.
Minimum standby generator set rating
Only engine frictional horsepower
with other loads = (255 kW x 1.15)
can be relied on for braking.
+ 100 kW = 393 kW.
Exceeding frictional horsepower
Part D: Select larger of Part B or causes the generator set overspeed.
Part C. Part B (408 kW) is larger
In calculating the ability of a
than part C (393 kW); therefore, a
system to overcome regenerative
standby generator set of at least
power, it is conservatively
408 kW is recommended. A Cat
recommended that only engine
450 kW generator set will satisfy
friction horsepower be considered.
this application.
Engine friction horsepower at
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synchronous speeds is available but, if voltage fluctuation to highly

from the engine manufacturer. sensitive equipment must be closely
Typically, a generator set will retard controlled, kVA capability of the
approximately 10% of its rating. power source must include starting
When combinations of connected of this low power factor load.
load and engine frictional Typically, a genset can energize a
horsepower are not sufficient to transformer that is two to four times
restrain regenerative energy, load the gensets kVA rating. A voltage
banks may be added to protect the dip occurs at the generator
genset from being affected terminals, almost as if a short circuit
regeneration. had occurred. However, transformer
flux builds up in a few cycles and
Transformers voltage is restored.
Transformers are used in power
distribution systems for voltage Transformer Efficiency Losses
step-up, voltage step-down, or Power transformers are relatively
circuit isolation purposes. They are efficient. Typical efficiencies are
commonly used to step-down 95 to 99% at full load. The
transmission line voltage to a efficiency is the ratio of real power
useable distribution system voltage output to power input. Losses are
and to step-down service or supply mainly losses incident to magnet-
voltage to the utilization voltage of ization at no-load and the addition
user equipment. of I2R losses caused by the load
current.
Transformer Magnetizing Current
When a transformer is initially Transformer Taps
energized, there is an inrush of Transformer taps can be used to
current to bring it from a residual adjust voltage levels. Transformers
flux level to normal steady state flux consist of a primary coil and a
level. Transformers have inductive secondary coil. The coil winding
characteristics similar to motors of a transformer can be tapped to
when charging, with inrush change the turns ratio and adjust the
(magnetizing) current as much voltage level of a system. Refer to
as 40 times full load current when Figure 53.
connected to a utility power source.
With a generator source, values of
generator subtransient reactance
(Xd) limit the inrush current to
values of 6 to 10 times generator
rated current. However, the process
of flux build-up in transformer
Figure 52
excitation takes only a few cycles
before current returns to a relatively
low exciting current level. The effect
on the generator set can be ignored,
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Example: increases voltage at the load to

To better understand transformer 474 V. Keep in mind that the tap
taps, consider the 4160 V to 480 V adjusts the overall voltage level. It
distribution step-down systems does not change the voltage spread.
shown in Figure 54 and Figure 55. In this example, voltage at the
On the system, voltage is dropped transformer would have been
from 480 V at the bus to 450 V at increased from 480 V to 504 V. An
the load. But, what if that load automatic regulator on a generator
required more voltage than 450 V set could have also been used to
from the 4160 V generator? adjust overall voltage, instead of
a transformer tap.
Solution:
One way to remedy the situation is
with a 5% transformer tap, which
Figure 53
Figure 54
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Transformers have a variety of from the power source is used.

taps. Table 21 is an example of taps Voltage variations of 10% are
found in a 4160-480 V transformer. usually acceptable since electronic
circuits sensitive to voltage
variations contain internal regulation
4160-480 Volt Transformer Taps
circuitry.
Primary Secondary
Tap
Voltage Voltage Power for complex telephone
3952 480 5% systems is frequently supplied from
4056 480 212% building system mains. Voltage and
4160 480 Normal rating frequency stability requirements are
4264 480 +212% usually not severe, however solid-
4368 480 +5%
state battery charging equipment
Table 21 may be part of the load and create
disturbance to a generator power
Critical Loads source.
Critical loads are loads that cannot
tolerate voltage and frequency dips. Medical Equipment
Data centers, communication X-Ray equipment typically needs
equipment and medical equipment very short duration, high voltage
are examples of critical loads. from power supplies. This need
results in high current draw in short
Data Centers/Computers durations, which in turn results in
Data centers require a reliable low kW demand at near unity power
power source. Power quality factor.
requirements should be considered
Power source equipment should be
prior to power system design. As a
selected to maintain x-ray quality.
rule, avoid heavy SCR loads, block
As x-ray equipment is activated,
switching loads and large motor
voltage dip due to inrush should be
skVA on data processing equipment
within 10% or within the
power circuits.
manufacturers recommended
Communications Equipment tolerance.
Communication equipment includes These loads generally represent
broad ranges of electronic devices only a small part of the generator
for transmission of information. load, so x-ray pictures are not
Most common are radio and normally affected.
television broadcasting equipment,
studio equipment, transmitters and Helpful Load Application Tips
telephone equipment. Generally, all Some general rules can be used if
devices pass their power supply the smallest but most effective on-
through transformers. Therefore, site system is required:
power factor is slightly less than Across-the-line motors when
unity. Most equipment tolerates started, should always have
frequency variations of 5%, the largest motor started first
except where synchronous timing
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and then smaller motors load. Line voltage drop change with
sequentially after that. load change also affects voltage
When motors with electronic regulation at the load, if the load
drives are started, the largest varies.
motor first rule does not Power losses are calculated as I2R
necessarily apply. Electronic loss in watts or kilowatts. Voltage
drives allow better control of drop is calculated as I2R loss. The
the load by controlling the amount of resistance is based on
maximum current load and length, cross-sectional area,
rate of load application. These temperature, and substance of the
loads are more sensitive to conductors. Standard electrical
voltage variation than the handbooks contain tables of
motors started across-the- resistivity of wire and cable for
line. making calculations. Line losses are
When UPS loads are present, not typically a factor with short
load them last. Generators are cable lengths of proper size.
more stable and less affected Power Factor Loads
by non-linear loads when Self-excited, synchronous
linear loads have been running generators are not designed to
before non-linear loads are operate with leading power factor
applied. load. The AC voltage generated is
Loads that have filters or use controlled by DC excitation. The
power factor correction for amount of excitation required is a
power quality improvement function of generator load.
should not be applied to a Excitation required to maintain
light load level. The capacitive constant voltage increases with
elements of these loads make load. Reactive lagging power factor
the generator susceptible to load requires more excitation than a
huge voltage increases. unity power factor load. Leading
Line Losses power factor loads require less
Wires and cables in circuits always excitation than unity power factor
have some resistance to current loads. When a generator has a
flow. This presents a power loss and leading power factor, the armature
a voltage drop. The losses are a flux reacts additively with the field
function of line length and line pole flux to increase saturation and
current carrying capability. These produce a higher terminal voltage for
losses must be considered. a given amount of excitation. The
automatic voltage regulator responds
Line voltage drop may be a more to control voltage by reducing
important consideration. Voltage excitation. At light load, the
drop can represent a significant regulator will go to its minimum
difference between generated excitation capability. However, the
voltage and voltage delivered at the additive excitation from a leading
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power factor will cause the terminal set application. However, as can be
voltage to rise and will not be seen by the equivalent circuit of a
controlled by the voltage regulator. transmission line, there is distributed
It is not uncommon for this capacitance between the lines and
condition to occur with power factor ground; refer to Figure 56.
correction capacitors or tuned circuit The line charging current varies
filters, which are connected to with voltage, length, height, and line
circuits at light load conditions. This spacing along with other factors.
same phenomenon can occur when A problem arises, particularly with
energizing long transmission lines an unloaded line, where the line
due to distributed capacitance. charging load appears as a leading
Adding reactance to the circuit is a power factor load to the generator.
possible solution to overcome the Power factors of 0.95 leading or
problem should it occur. more may result in the generated
Long Transmission Lines voltage going uncontrolled to the
Long transmission lines may limit of the generator saturation
require the effects of distributed line curve upon energization of the line.
capacitance to be taken into Having some lagging reactive load
account. The definition of a long on-line will correct or avoid this
transmission line is a relative term problem should it occur.
and difficult to define for a generator
Figure 55
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Two-wire Circuit Power Loss Three-wire Circuit Power Loss

Formula Formula
The formula for calculating the The formula used to calculate
power losses for a two-wire circuit power for a three-wire circuit
(DC or single-phase) is: (assuming a balanced load) is:
24 x L x I2 36 x L x I2
=P =P
CM CM
Where: Where:
P= Power Loss in Watts P= Power Loss in Watts
L= One-way Length of a Circuit L= One-way Length of a Circuit
in feet in feet
CM = The Cross Section of a CM = The Cross Section of a
Conductor in Circular Mils Conductor in Circular Mils
I= Represents Current I= Represents Current
Example Example
Assume a single-phase motor Assume a three-phase motor
rated to deliver 7.5 hp at 115 V is rated to deliver 100 hp at 230 V
connected to a power source via a connected to the power source via
200 foot, No. 1 AWG copper wire a 400 foot cable sized at 250 MCM.
sized at 83,690 CM. Also, assume Also, assume the motor draws 248
the motor draws 80 amperes at full amperes at full load. What is the
load. What is the power loss? power loss?
Solution Solution
Use the formula for a single-phase Use the formula for a single-phase
motor: motor:
24 x 200 x 802 36 x 400 x 2482
=P =P
83,690 250,000
The result is a 367 watt power The result is a 3,543 watt power
loss. loss.
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Single-Phase Loads three-phase kVA capacity),

In three-phase power generation, unbalanced single-phase loading is
a single-phase load is a load placed not cause for concern provided any
across one voltage phase of the of the three line currents do not
generator. exceed the generator set rated
line current.
If single-phase loads are added to
the three-phase system, a condition To determine the maximum single-
of unbalance will exist unless the phase load which may be safely
single-phase loads are equally drawn from a generator set
distributed among each of the supplying single-phase and three-
three phases of the generator set. phase power simultaneously, use
Table 24 on Page 91 to help with
Tests have shown that phase-
calculations.
voltage unbalance of more than
2% in three-phase will cause motor Example 1 (Closed Delta Generator)
overheating if the motor is operating Refer to Figure 57. Find the amount
close to full load. Some electronic of single-phase power which can be
equipment may also be affected by safely drawn from a three-phase
an unbalance of more than 2%. 120/240 volt four-wire generator
set rated to deliver 100 kW at a 0.8
Load Balancing
power factor. The coil current rating
If the electrical distribution system
of the generator set is 334 amperes.
served by a three-phase generator
Assume that the single-phase load is
set consists entirely of three-phase
connected from one line-to-neutral,
loads, the system is balanced. The
has an operating power factor of 0.9
coils making up the generators
lagging and that the generator set is
three phases each supply the same
supplying a three-phase load of 50
amount of current to the load. If
kW at a power factor of 0.08.
single-phase loads are added to
the three-phase load, however, a
condition of unbalance will exist
unless the single-phase loads are
equally distributed among each of
the three phases of the generator
set.
Generators operate best with
balanced loads. If the loads are
unbalanced, the risk of overheating
is probable. When sizing a generator Figure 56
all loads should be balanced.
In many applications, balancing of Solution 1
single-phase loads may not be 1. First, find the current drawn
practical. If these loads are small from each of the lines by the
(10% or less of the generator set three-phase load.
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1.732 x I x pf x V P x 1000 Solution 2

P= I=
1000 1.732 x V x pf 1. First, find the current drawn
from each of the lines by the
50 x 1000 three-phase load.
= 151 Amperes
1.732 x 240 x 0.8 1.732 x I x pf x V P x 1000
P= I=
1000 1.732 x V x pf
remaining for the single-phase 50 x 1000
= 173.5 Amperes
load: 1.732 x 208 x 0.8
334 151 = 183 amperes
remaining for the single-phase
3. Find the single-phase power
load:
available:
334 173.5 = 161 amperes
V x I x pf 120 x 183 x 0.9
P= = = 19.8 kW
1000 1000
3. Find the 208 volt single-phase
load current:
Example 2 (Wye Generator)
Refer to Figure 58. The generator P x 1000 10 x 1000
I= = = 60 Amperes
set is rated to deliver 100 kW at a V x pf 208 x .08
0.8 power factor. It is a three-phase
machine with a coil current rating of 4. Find the coil current capacity
334 amperes. The three-phase load remaining for the single-phase
to be supplied is 50 kW at 0.8 120 volt load:
power factor. The single-phase load 161 60 = 101 amperes
consists of both 120 and 208 volt
circuits. The 120 volt load has a 5. Find the 120 volt single-phase
power factor of 0.9 and is power available:
connected from neutral to one leg. V x I x pf 120 x 101 x 0.9
P= = = 10.9 kW
This leg is common with one of the 1000 1000
two supplying 10 kW at a 0.8 power
factor to the 208 volt load. Example 3
Refer to Figure 59. Similar to the
previous example, the generator set
is rated to deliver 100 kW at a 0.8
power factor. It is a three-phase
machine with a coil current rating of
334 amperes. The three-phase load
to be supplied is 50 kW at 0.8
power factor. The single-phase load
Figure 57 consists of both 120 and 208 volt
circuits. The 120 volt load has a
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power factor of 0.9 and is connected

from neutral to one leg. Different
from the previous example, this leg
is not common with one of the two
legs supplying 10 kW at a 0.8
power factor to the 208 volt load.
Figure 59
The one-line diagram shown in

Figure 60 represents a balanced
system. In the top diagram, the
generator is shown in its three
phases, which are separated with an
Figure 58 ELN line-to-neutral voltage. XS
represents generator reactance. RL
Solution 3 (Wye Generator) and XL are load resistance and load
1. First, find the current drawn reactance, respectively. The middle
from each of the lines by the diagram illustrates the single-phase
three-phase load. equivalent of all three phases. The
bottom diagram is a further
1.732 x I x pf x V P x 1000
P= I= simplification of the same thing.
1000 1.732 x V x pf
A simplified diagram is often used
in three-phase representation.
50 x 1000
= 173.5 Amperes Example 4, Generator Set Sizing
1.732 x 208 x 0.8
In all of the following steps,
Figure 61 and Figure 62 will be used
2. Since the 120 volt is the only to detail how to size a Cat generator
single-phase load on this leg, set, using load information; Figure
the coil current capacity 62 is used when motors with NEMA
remaining for the single-phase code letters are considered.
120 volt load is 173.5 amperes.
1. Using information from the
nameplate, fill out information
3. Find the 120 volt single-phase in Part I and II. The motor
power available: efficiency can be estimated
V x I x pf 120 x 173.5 x 0.9 using a chart of approximate
P= = = 18.7 kW efficiencies in Table 22.
1000 1000
One-line Diagrams
One-line diagrams greatly simplify
load and system analyses.
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Approximate Efficiencies of Squirrel Cage Induction Motors*
hp kW Full-Load Efficiency
5 to 7.5 4-6 0.83
10 7.5 0.85
15 11 0.86
20 to 25 15 to 19 0.89
30 to 50 22 to 37 0.90
60 to 75 45 to 56 0.91
100 to 300 74.6 to 224 0.92
350 to 600 261 to 448 0.93
* Efficiencies are significantly influenced by the motor class.
Table 22
Figure 60
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Figure 61
2. Total engine load is determined largest motors first. The motors

by calculating motor efficiencies rating and NEMA code can be
and adding to resistive load; add found in Section II. The
the lighting loads, other non- skVA/hp is found using the
motor loads and motor loads NEMA code letter from Table 15
together. on Page 50. Find the Starting
3. Select engine (Part IV) which skVA using the following
matches frequency (Hz), formula:
configuration (gas, diesel, LRA x V x 1.732
skVV =
turbocharged, aftercooled, 1000
naturally aspirated), speed and
load. Hz and configuration are 5. Motors on-line diminish skVA to
found in Section I. Speed is by start additional motors. For item
customer preference and the B1 - column 1, the first motor
load was determined in Section II. is always zero if there is more
4. Generator Sizing: In Section V than one motor. Motor #2 space
fill in Part A for all motors from is the kW in Section II from first
nameplate. Minimize starting sequence motor. Additional
requirements by starting the motors kW are added to the
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total for each motor starting.

The items in the B2 row are Reduced Voltage Starting Factors
filled in using Section II Type Multiply
information as written. The skVA By
items in the B3 row use the Resistor, Reactor, Impedance
Motor Preload Multiplier formula 80% Tap 0.80
to determine the percentage of 65% Tap 0.65
50% Tap 0.50
motor load. 45% Tap 0.45
The Motor Preload Multiplier Autotransformer
formula is B1 divided by B3 or: 80% Tap 0.68
All Motors Running 65% Tap 0.46
% Motor Load = X 100 50% Tap 0.29
All Motors Running & Being Started
Y Start, Run 0.33
Under 40%, the multiplier is 1.0. Solid State: Adjustable, consult manufacturer
Over 40%, use a value from the or estimate 300% of full load kVA (Use 1 if no
reduced voltage starting aids used)
chart in Figure 63.
Table 23
Motor Preload Multiplier
If no starting aid is used, use 1.0.
Row B8 can be filled by using
information in Section II.
6. Use the effective skVA and
Acceptable Voltage Dip
numbers to find on TMI the
appropriate generator. Fill in C1,
C2 and C3, using the numbers
from TMI.
7. Generator set sizing (VI) can be
found by selecting the largest
generator set model of step IV
Figure 62 and step V. (C1).
If reduced voltage starting is used,

multiply the skVA by the factor
found in Table 23; fill in spaces
for rows B6 and B7.
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kVA of AC Circuits
Table 24
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Genset Selection Considerations

When choosing a genset these Linear Loads
factors need to be considered: Linear loads are defined as
Load Type alternating current (AC) loads which
draw current proportional to voltage.
Load Steps
They draw current evenly, in sine
Load Balance waveform, throughout the cycle.
Generators The load may be resistive, inductive
o Temperature Rise (lagging power factor) or capacitive
loading (leading power factor).
o Pitch Regardless of the type, current
o Voltage Range drawn by a linear load will remain
sinusoidal.
Load Types
Conventional electrical formulas for
All loads are different in their
determining electrical characteristics
power quality needs. A simple
such as voltage drop, current flow
incandescent light bulb does not
measurement, power consumption
demand high quality power.
and heating values are applicable to
The amount of light will drop
linear loads and assume there is no
proportionally to voltage, but
distortion of voltage and current
frequency and voltage waveform
waveforms.
free from distortion is not significant.
Other loads are sensitive to those Typical linear loads are:
type voltage variables. Loads Incandescent Lights
are typically defined as linear or
Resistance Heaters
nonlinear. One of the first steps
is to separate loads into linear and Induction Motors
non-linear loads. Table 25 provides Synchronous Motors
examples of linear and non-linear Electromagnetic Devices
loads.
Transformers (non-saturated)
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Voltage and
Current Drawn Current Examples
Waveforms
Linear Proportional to Sine wave Incandescent light bulbs
voltage Induction and synchronous
motors
Electromagnetic devices
Resistance heaters
Non-Linear Non-proportional Pulses Silicon controlled rectifiers
to voltage Variable speed drives
Uninterruptible power
supplies
Battery chargers
Fluorescent lighting
Table 25
Typical non-linear loads are:

Non-Linear Loads
An electrical load which changes Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
or modifies the current or voltage Variable Speed Drives
waveform to one that is not
Uninterruptible Power
sinusoidal is a non-linear load.
Supplies
A load that draws current in pulses
is a non-linear load. Battery Chargers
The development and application Computing Equipment
of solid-state electronic components Fluorescent and Gas
has proliferated nonlinear electrical Discharge Lighting
loads. Semi-conductors, particularly Transformers (saturated)
silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs)
have the ability to turn on or begin All of these devices require current,
conducting at any point during the which cannot be provided without
applied volt wave and draw causing some distortion to the
instantaneous pulses of current. applied source voltage. Non-linear
These instantaneous pulse demands loads in the system can cause
result in harmonics, which result in problems for other loads.
the nonlinearity.
Another source of non-sine wave
current drawing loads is saturated
magnetic core equipment, such as
fluorescent ballast transformers and
saturated core reactor regulators.
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Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is

Harmonic Content
the measurement of the sum of all
Deviation from a pure, single sine
harmonics. Most loads will continue
wave can be expressed as additional
to operate with THD at 15 to 20%.
sine waves of frequencies, which
However, loads with sensitive
are a multiple of the generated
electronic equipment can develop
frequency. These additional
problems with THD greater than 5%.
frequencies are called harmonics.
Non-linear loads cause harmonic
Because three-phase generators
currents. These harmonics can
are magnetically symmetrical,
cause control problems and internal
resulting in the cancellation of even
heating of the generator limiting its
harmonics, only odd harmonics are
capability. Generators are designed
normally of any significance. For
to provide a given output at rated
example, a 60 Hz generated
frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz. It is
waveform will contain the 60 Hz
possible for a generator to carry less
fundamental; a 180 Hz, 3rd
than its full rated current and yet
harmonic; 300 Hz, 5th harmonic;
overheat because of a harmonic
420 Hz, 7th harmonic and so on.
current generated by non-linear load.
Table 26 shows both even and odd
Form-wound machines typically
harmonics of a 60 Hz generated
provide better performance in high
waveform.
harmonic applications.
A 50 Hz generated waveform will
In cases where non-linear loads
contain the 50 Hz fundamental; a
cause increased generator heating,
150 Hz, 3rd harmonic; 250 Hz, 5th
two techniques are typically used
harmonic; 350 Hz, 7th harmonic and
to compensate for the increased
so on.
generator heating. Deration is one
In general, the higher the harmonic method and using a generator that is
order, the lower the magnitude of oversized for the kVA requirement is
the harmonic. another.
Harmonic Frequency Sequence

Fundamental 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540
Table 36
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Figure 63
Figure 64
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Figure 65
or prime mover. When considering

Generator Considerations what protective devices to use, the
Generator System Protection potential loss of a generator or prime
The application of synchronous as well as the impact of loss of
generators into any installation service needs to be considered.
requires at least a minimum amount The extent of the protection system
of protection to protect the design will depend on the size and
generator and prime mover against relative value of the generating unit.
faults and abnormal operating There is no standard solution based
conditions. The customer needs to on the generator set power rating,
balance the expense of applying a however large critical units tend to
particular protective device (relay, have extensive protection systems
surge arrestor, etc...) against the with redundancy while smaller less
consequences of losing a generator critical units may have a subset of
2010 Caterpillar
the primary protection provided unbalanced loading is the zero

for the larger unit with little if sequence reactance (Xo). Any 3rd
any backup protection. It is the harmonic currents, also known as
responsibility of the customer to triplen harmonics, produced by the
understand the site and application load will not cancel in the neutral
and to provide the appropriate and the result is neutral current
amount of protection. This will flow, even with balanced loads. The
require an evaluation of the potential triplen harmonic circuit is the same
risks, and a commercial evaluation as three single-phase circuits with
of the cost for protection devices three parallel line-to-neutral branches
versus the cost of failed equipment. sharing common neutral.
For additional information regarding Phase conductor heating from the
protective devices, including 100% rated neutral 3rd harmonic
applications that are not using current and other effects will add
paralleling switchgear reference approximately 6 to 7% of additional
Generator Paralleling Switchgear heat. This relatively high 3rd
A&I Guide (LEBW7543). harmonic would only require 6 to
7% derating of the generator. It can
Generator Heating
create distortion of the generator
Generators are designed to provide
voltage waveform and consequently,
a given output at rated fundamental
could have effects on circuit
frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz. Design
protective devices and other external
considerations include making the
circuit elements.
most effective use of active material
to meet acceptable limitations of If the load generates 3rd
temperature rise. (More on this topic harmonics, the neutral current may
is found in Engine Ratings section.) become quite large. The generator
will actually tolerate a fairly large
Generator Reactance Impact
amount of 3rd harmonic current flow
Subtransient reactance (Xd) is a
in the neutral with a moderate
primary indicator of the amount of
increase in generator heating.
harmonic distortion to be created
by a non-linear load. Current reacts It is not uncommon for a facility
with impedance to cause voltage to have large banks of fluorescent
drop. The internal reactance of a lighting and/or single-phase
generator to instantaneous current personal computing equipment
change is the direct axis sub- circuits; creating large amounts
transient reactance (Xd). A of 3rd harmonic current. A neutral
generator with the lowest per unit conductor larger than the
value of Xd at a given load will conventional half-rated neutral
typically have the lowest value of may be required for these circuits.
total harmonic distortion under non- Fortunately, the design of many of
linear load conditions. these facilities includes steps to
reduce 3rd harmonic current before
The internal reactance of a
they reach the generator. Where
generator due to line-to-neutral or
2010 Caterpillar
loads are connected to the generator rectifier/charger is a function of

bus line-to-line, without a neutral the source impedance. Source
connection or supplied through impedance is not an easily defined
delta-wye transformer, any triplen value as generator reactance varies
harmonics, caused by the load, are with time following a sudden load
not recognized by the generator. change. Generator subtransient
This harmonic blocking effect, reactance (Xd) and subtransient
although desirable to the generator short circuit time constant (Td) are
and other parts of the distribution primary parameters which influence
system, can lead to excessive distortion during the short duration
transformer heating. of SCR commutation periods.
Generators operating at 400 volts A standby generator is character-
or higher typically supply loads istically of higher impedance than a
through delta-wye distribution transformer. Further contributing to
transformers. Exceptions to this may the impedance difference is often a
occur; of special concern is where significant difference in kVA rating
gas discharge lamps are connected in the two sources. Where as a
directly to the generator bus at line- facility source transformer is
to-neutral voltage, without benefit frequently sized to carry the total
of harmonic reduction techniques. facility load, the standby set is often
Smaller generators (typically below only sized to carry the emergency or
100 kW) often power the load critical loads. A generator may have
directly at 208/120 volts with a wye 5 to 100 times greater subtransient
connection. Whenever loads are reactance than the normal source
connected directly to the generator transformer.
bus, line-to-neutral, the possibilities Consequently, non-linear loads
of 3rd harmonic current should be which work fine on utility, may react
considered. entirely different when powered by
a generator set. Using an oversized
Waveform Distortion
generator to reduce reactance may
Waveform distortions are greater
be of some benefit. However, to
on a genset than when the loads
obtain a significant reduction in
are connected to utility power.
reactance is not usually economically
A generator can be compared to
feasible. A doubling of generator
others by the level of distortion
rating is required to reduce
when running at full load. Since
reactance by one-half.
larger loads increase harmonics, full
load should be used for accurate Damping with other loads reduces
comparison. Typically, a 5% or less effective bus reactance. Motors,
THD is specified, with no more than in particular, act as absorbers of
3% from any one harmonic. momentary voltage irregularities and
reduce harmonic content on the line.
The magnitude of a voltage
Typically, computer room support
waveform distortion caused by the
functions such as HVAC systems,
non-linear current demand of the
2010 Caterpillar
chilled water systems, fire protection attenuating options such as isolation

systems, and room lighting must transformers at the source of
also be connected to the standby distortion. Consultation with the
generator set. These support UPS supplier will usually reveal such
systems are often as large, or larger, available options.
than the UPS load. It is frequently
Generator AVR and Excitation
very desirable for system operation The voltage regulator must control
and distribution reasons to have output voltage of the generator in
small, three-phase, continuously spite of the load causing a distorted
running air handler motors in the wave shape. Various techniques can
computer and UPS room sharing be used to accomplish this task.
a common feeder or power
transformer with the UPS. Three-phase sensing minimizes
effects of waveform distortion by
Resistive loads are effective in providing an average of all three
minimizing waveform distortion phases at any given instant. Since
caused by ringing effect. the SCRs in three-phase rectifier
Resistance acts as a damper to loads do not all gate on at the
oscillation in a resonant circuit. same instant, a minimized distortion
Adding a resistance load is one average signal of the three phases is
technique used as a treatment to processed. In comparison, a single-
minimize waveform distortion phase sensing regulator will sense
caused by system oscillation. This, severe distortion occurring at a given
however, is only effective if high instant during the cycle in one
frequency oscillations are the cause phase. The generator has a three-
of the problem. If a resistance phase sensing network with a
element is added strictly for floating neutral as a standard
treatment purposes, the addition of feature. Thus, voltage disturbance in
a capacitor in series with the resistor any one phase will shift the neutral
will reduce fundamental current with but not appreciably affect the
minimum effect on high frequency voltage to the regulator. Waveform
damping. notching is effectively blocked from
Adding a low pass filter to the the regulator.
generator output for attenuation of Regulator circuits must include
prevailing harmonics is theoretically features to isolate field power
possible, however, should be control from effects of distortion. If
considered a last resort option. SCRs are used within the regulator,
Practical tuned circuit filters circuits must be used to prevent the
generally represent compromise and distortion from load SCRs
may introduce more problems than interfering with triggering of
they solve. Component size and regulator SCRs.
expense are also limiting factors.
A better approach is to specify or Generator field power must be
add filtering or other harmonic filtered to minimize interaction with
distortion from the load. A well-
2010 Caterpillar
filtered regulator combined with the data such as subtransient reactance

inherent inductive filtering of a and kVA rating of the generator
brushless design generator virtually |and any other rotating machines,
eliminates this problem. The self- reactance and resistances of
excited generator has a well-filtered transformers, cables, and other
regulator and excitation system circuit elements as well as
which provides voltage control and characteristics of the non-linear,
stability of equivalent quality to that distortion producing device.
obtainable with a permanent magnet The impact of generator pitch on
pilot exciter. It is also fully capable load generated harmonic currents is
of sustaining excitation during the highly dependent on the system
short circuit periods occurring during configuration. This too, is typically
the commutation of load SCRs not consequential except in special
without the benefit of excitation cases. When supplying non-linear
sustaining options. A permanent loads which have no neutral
magnet exciter, while capable of connection, the coil pitch has no
sustaining excitation during a effect on voltage waveform
sustained fault condition, has no distortion.
advantage in providing excitation
during the short duration of load Generator Pitch
SCR commutation. Additional Generators do not generate a
regulator filters or optional features perfect sine wave. Consequently,
are not required for all generators for there are some harmonics generated.
UPS applications. To produce voltage, a synchronous
generator has a direct current (DC)
Determining Distortion
excited structure consisting of
A review of the entire generator
alternating north and south magnetic
set distribution system should be
poles, usually on the rotating
made to determine if loads exist
member of the generator or rotor.
which require a source with low
The magnetic field produced,
distortion waveform. Unless the
sweeps the armature (usually the
generator set system is large, it is
stator) and induces voltage in coils
quite common for other loads to
placed in slots in the armature.
share a common bus with the UPS.
When the span of each of these
If distortion-sensitive loads are
coils is exactly equal to the span
suspected, a consultant or distribution
of the north to south field poles,
system designer with knowledge of
the maximum magnetic flux is
where harmonic distortion might be
encompassed by the coil and the
adverse and how to avoid it should
maximum voltage is produced. Such
be contacted.
a positioning of coils is called an all
To calculate total harmonic pitch winding. Very few machines
distortion at a point in the are wound full pitch because the
distribution system requires the winding requires excessive end turn
consultant to have access to system copper and provides little harmonic
2010 Caterpillar
control. Most generators are subtransient reactance of the

fractional pitch windings. generator. The subtransient
The magnitude and frequency of reactance of a generator is not a
harmonics generated by the machine function of coil pitch. Therefore, the
will vary with the pitch factor and coil pitch does not affect waveform
other design parameters. distortion.
The zero sequence reactance
2/3 Pitch
of a generator is effective only to
The 2/3 pitch winding became
currents which flow in the neutral
popular when manufacturers of
line. Single-phase non-linear loads
small generators wound their
usually generate high 3rd harmonic
machines in delta to combine three-
currents. When these loads are
phase and three-wire single.
connected in a balanced manner
Generators with 2/3 pitch are
to a three-phase generator, the 3rd
sometimes thought to have an
harmonic currents add in the neutral
advantage with non-linear loads
to produce very high neutral
because of their low zero sequence
currents.
reactance (Xo a low reactance
to 3rd harmonic zero sequence Only where the load is connected
current.). However, 3rd or triplen directly to the generator does the
harmonics are not normally present low zero sequence reactance of a
in three-phase rectifier loads, such 2/3 pitch generator reduce the
as encountered with UPS or variable voltage waveform distortion. If the
speed motor drives, and this load is supplied through a Delta-Wye
characteristic becomes insignificant. transformer, the 3rd harmonic
Additionally, a 2/3 pitch generator currents do not appear in the
typically generates higher 5th and generator and the 2/3 pitch winding
7th harmonics which will cause does not help reduce distortion.
additional heating in motors due to Paralleling and 2/3 Pitch
the higher frequency. In cases with Paralleling generators of different
single-phase non-linear loads pitch can cause harmonic distortion.
connected line-to-neutral directly A circulating current will flow
to the generator bus, the 2/3 pitch between paralleled generators if they
generator has the potential to do not have equal generated voltage
minimize, but not totally prevent, waveforms. The flow is dependent
3rd harmonic, (load created) voltage upon the voltage difference. In some
waveform distortion. cases, there may be no advantage to
Non-Linear Loads and 2/3 Pitch 2/3 pitch winding when paralleling.
Non-linear loads generate harmonic When paralleling with a utility
currents which cause waveform the 2/3 pitch winding may be a
distortion of the generator. For disadvantage due to low zero
balanced three-phase loads, sequence reactance. Typically, 3rd
distortion is caused by voltage drop harmonic current flow in the neutral
due to the harmonic currents in the is of the most significance.
2010 Caterpillar
Reactors, resistors, or switches can WYE Connection

be installed to limit these currents.
Applications Requiring 2/3 Pitch
When paralleling, it is desirable to
match the pitch of the existing
generators. If the existing generators
have 2/3 pitch another generator of
matching 2/3 pitch is preferable.
Single-phase non-linear loads that
are connected in a balanced manner
with a neutral connector directly to
the generator is also an acceptable
application of a 2/3 pitch. An
Figure 66
example of this is a 277 V lighting
L-N.
Delta Connection
Other Generator Set Selection
Considerations
There are times that a facility
will have reconnection issues. For
example, if a genset is being placed
at a site and then moved to another
site (with perhaps different
applications) the generator set will
have to be sized to meet the
different requirements of both sites. Figure 67
It is also possible that a customer
will know that the facility will be The wye phase connection has a
rewired from 480 V to 240 V. Such neutral point, often connected to
a situation will require additional ground. The delta does not have a
consideration when sizing the neutral point. The wye configuration
generator set. is used with three-phase loads or
line-to-line loads. Delta connections
Voltage Range/Number of Leads
The voltage range and the number are used with single-phase and 3-
of leads need to be considered so phase loads. Delta connections are
that a generator set can be matched found in rural communities where
three-phase is not available. A
to the job at hand.
generator can lose up to half of its
Phases are typically arranged in rating if a delta configuration is
a wye configuration as shown in hooked to a three-phase system. It is
Figure 67 or a delta configuration most common for generators to have
as shown in Figure 68. 12 or 6 leads. Figure 69 shows a six-
lead wye connection and Figure 70
shows a six lead delta connection.
2010 Caterpillar
Six Lead WYE Connection Before choosing a generator set,

the current coming in must match
the neutral lead. If they do not
match, current will be lost in the
generator which will weaken the
insulation. Alternators would be
more susceptible to contamination
and failure. Differential protection is
a preventative item which checks
the current and determines if the
neutral matches the incoming
current.
Figure 68
Genset Voltage Selection
Caterpillar identifies three voltage
types:
Six Lead Delta Connection Low
Medium
High
Low voltage is the voltage on a
local level or part of a site. 600 V or
less with 800 kVA is the range for
low voltage rating.
Medium voltage is a low-level
distribution rating. This voltage is
distributed to power residential sites
and other campuses. 601 V-5000 V
Figure 69 with 5-10 MVA is the range for the
medium rating.
A twelve-lead wye connection is
the most common in North America. High voltage runs over regions
It allows the most versatility and is the voltage at a utility or the
because of the multiple national grid. 5001 V-15,000 V
configurations allowed. used with MVAs greater than 10
are considered High Voltage.
A twelve-lead, wye connected,
480 V generator set is usually Figure 71 shows a voltage versus
required for large air compressors, kVA chart, indicating low, medium
motors, chillers, and air handlers. and high voltage selections.
240 V is typical for smaller three- Depending on what voltage type is
phase motors. 120 V is common for applicable, will help determine the
office equipment and small single- size of the generator needed.
phase motors.
2010 Caterpillar
the use of a small genset to power

light, off-hour loads, will often result
in long-term fuel economy.
In installations where the load does
not vary to the extremes encountered
between day and night conditions, it
is sometimes profitable to share the
load between several small units
operating in parallel. When the load
is lighter, one or more of the units
may be shut down; thereby loading
Figure 70 the other units closer to capacity.
For example, this type of system is
Multi-Engine Installations advantageous where load demand
In some situations, the use of more is seasonal or when maintenance is
than one generator set is mandatory. necessary and power interruption
In others, it may prove more must be avoided.
economical to have more than one
Paralleling
genset. When the load is too large
Generator sets can be paralleled to
for a single unit, two or more
other generator sets or the utility. To
gensets may operate in parallel by
operate in parallel, both units must
being electronically connected.
match phase sequence, voltage
Critical installations in which the frequency, manage neutral currents,
prime power source is a generator operate with the same frequency
set may require additional backup directional rotation and produce
power. A second generator set almost exact sine waves. Only after
capable of carrying critical loads these conditions are met can the
should be made available in case of units be connected together by a
primary set failure and for use during breaker.
prime set maintenance periods.
Synchronizing lights or meters
Cases where multiple generator are used in a manual paralleling
set installations may prove more operation to confirm both rotational
economical are those where there is requirements and phase voltage
a large variation in load during the requirements have been met.
course of a day, week, month, or Automatic, electronically controlled
year. Such variation is typical in measuring devices are used in
plants in which operations are automatic paralleling.
carried on primarily during the day,
The synchronized lights have
while only small loads exist at night.
lamps, shown in Figure 72, that dim
The more closely a generator set
and brighten. When the units are in
comes to being fully loaded, the
phase, the lights are at their dimmest
greater the fuel economy per
and the breaker can be tripped to
kilowatt produced. Therefore,
complete the paralleling. If phase
2010 Caterpillar
sequence is not matched, the lamps

will never be light or dark at the
same time.
A synchronizing meter such as a
synchroscope, shown in Figure 73
and Figure 74, can be used instead
of the synchronizing lights for
synchronizing two or more generator
sets. The direction the pointer rotates
indicates whether the frequency of
the incoming generator is slower or
faster than the frequency of the
on-line generator.
Similarly, the frequency at which
the pointer rotates indicates the
magnitude of difference in speed
between the generator sets. For
paralleling, engine speed is changed
until the synchroscope pointer
rotates very slowly (less than
10 rpm), again keeping the incoming
generator set faster than the on-line
generator set. When the pointer is at
the zero position, the circuit breaker
can be closed, thereby synchronizing
the units.
Figure 71
2010 Caterpillar
Example of a Synchronizing Meter
Figure 72
2010 Caterpillar
transient load changes can be

anticipated.
As load is suddenly applied,
constant voltage units attempt to
supply the total requirement. As the
constant voltage generator drops
frequency, the volts-per-Hertz unit
begins to share load. The temporary
Figure 73 load imbalance passes, and kW load
is shared between generators.
Usually, identical generator sets Once two or more generators are
operate in parallel without problems. paralleled, it is as though they are
When paralleling unlike units, mechanically coupled together. They
however, the following effects will operate at the same speed but
must be considered. not necessarily have the same
Engine Configuration: power output. Each engines power
Response to load changes will contribution is controlled by the
be affected by engine size, relative fuel system output.
turbocharger, governor type, Droop and Governors
and adjustment. Temporary Droop is when the governor
unbalance of kW loads during reduces speed with an increasing
load change is likely, but can load. Speed is lowest at full load
quickly stabilize. and highest at no load. Droop is
Generator Design: Circulating expressed as a percentage of rated
currents and harmonic speed. A 2 to 3% droop is typical.
currents add to basic load Two isochronous units, operating
current, increasing coil in parallel, will operate at constant
temperatures, and causing speed (no droop) and be stable at
circuit breaker tripping. either no load or maximum load.
Circulating current is Loads in between will shift randomly
minimized by correct regulator between the two generators.
adjustment. Harmonic Electronic governors can be installed
interaction between to limit this instability by causing
generators must be calculated load to be shared more evenly. This
to determine compatibility. strategy is especially effective in
Regulator Design: Automatic allowing many units of unequal
or analog voltage regulation size to share load in proportion to
(AVR) of dissimilar design their size.
may be used when paralleling An isochronous generator can also
generators. When constant be paralleled with a droop unit. If
voltage regulators are load is normally at 50% or more
paralleled with volts-per-Hertz then the droop unit can carry the
types, imbalance during
2010 Caterpillar
load up to 50%. The synchronous Regulator Compensation

unit then picks up load from 51% to When two or more units are
100%. The droop unit can not vary operating in parallel, the regulators
its load because its governor can must control the excitation of the
only have one rack position at the alternators so they share the
isochronous speed setting. reactive load. Two methods used
If the load is normally under 50% to regulate excitation are:
of rated, then the isochronous speed Reactive Droop Compensation
generator would be set for rated
Reactive Differential (cross
speed and carry all loads up
current) Compensation
to 50%. If load exceeds 50%, the
isochronous unit slows down and Reactive droop compensation does
the droop unit picks up the not require a wiring interconnection
additional load. The isochronous unit between regulators. During parallel
will stay at its reduced speed (the droop compensation operation, the
same speed as the droop unit), bus voltage droops (decreases) as
until the load falls below 50%. the reactive lagging power factor
load is increased.
If both units are in droop, load
share is automatic after they are Reactive differential (cross current)
adjusted to the same high-idle compensation requires the addition
speed. If no load is connected, each of interconnecting leads between the
unit will stay at high-idle speed. If current transformer secondaries and
full load is connected, both units allows operation in parallel without
must operate at rated speed voltage droop with reactive load.
(governor racks at full load setting). Cross current compensation can
All loads between no load and full only be used when all the paralleling
load will act accordingly, although current transformers on all the
frequency will vary. Since the generators delivering power to the
generators must operate at the same bus are in the CT secondary inter-
speed and a given speed results in connection loop. Because of this
one rack position with a droop requirement, cross current
governor, the generators will operate compensation operation cannot be
at approximately the same power used when a generating system is
output. operating in parallel with the utility
power grid. Utility voltage can vary
enough to cause high circulating
current in a paralleled generator.
KVAR controllers must be used to
adjust generator voltage to match
utility and minimize circulating
current.
2010 Caterpillar
Load Control Unit Shutdown

There are many decisions which Unit shutdown order is determined
will affect sizing that the facility by analyzing which loads can be
personnel must make. Load spared at certain times while other
prioritization is a decision which loads are still connected. Again,
manufacturer expertise can help maintenance implications need to
influence or clarify but not dictate. be taken into consideration if it is
The end user has to decide upon the determined that the same genset
load acceptance order, load will be shutdown first each time.
shedding order, unit starting order, Redundancy refers to the method
unit shut down order, and/or of purchasing one or more gensets
redundancy. than needed to operate at full load.
Load acceptance order determines This is especially important to loads
which loads are critical and must be where a major percentage of it is
accepted by which generator. critical. With additional gensets,
Load shedding determines which down-time can be kept to a
loads are non-critical and shed so minimum because an additional
that loads that are more critical can genset is always free to be
be given priority or additional load. connected. Figure 75 shows genset
#5 as a swing engine; this engine
Load Order can be used to backup either critical
Site personnel must determine the load group if one of the engines
order in which gensets will be requires service. Major maintenance
started. If #1 genset is always can be performed on a genset while
started first, it will accumulate hours the additional one is connected. If
and maintenance expenses at a high two or more additional gensets are
rate compared to the remaining present then maintenance can be
units. done on two or more or have a
Slobbering of the gensets may backup for the system when one
be another problem encountered. is being serviced.
The last unit started may be lightly
loaded and said to slobber.
Slobber is a result of lubricating oil
being drawn into the cylinder under
low load conditions. This is not
conducive to long life and good
performance.
A site may require a smaller supply
of electricity on the weekend, when
the loads are not as large. Gensets
of different sizes can be installed
where the larger one(s) supply the Figure 74
week and the smaller the weekends.
2010 Caterpillar
LEBE5294-07 2010 Caterpillar Printed in U.S.A.
All rights reserved.

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APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE

Generator Set Rating Considerations .................................... 2

Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, Caterpillar Yellow the Power

Electric Power Applications, Engine & Generator

Generator Set Rating Demand & Diversity Factors

Generator Set Rating Considerations

The formulas reveal the following: limited to 1 in 12 hours but not to

Continuous Operating Power (COP)

Note: Load Management is a limited ISO 8528 has 12 sections. The

Commission (IEC) has limits on The H class allows for a 125C

is recommended when using Site Conditions Impact

Reactive Power Random Wound vs Form Wound

Power rating. High power generator leading to insulation cracking,

Installation environment. Generator

applying a random wound generator into Altitude

Conductive or abrasive dust drawn also derived from the application of

recovery time. This is illustrated in all examples of loads which need

Typical voltage dip limitations are Motor Starting

voltage to at least 90% to develop Block Load

G1 Required for applications where the General purpose

Table 5 shows the acceptance SAE Standard J1349 specifies

would need to be present in the A BMEP load is described in the

1. Point 1 is the beginning of the 7. At point 7, engine output

Since only governor action is As engines of a given displacement

Increased load draws more current deviation and recovery time.

by 15%. The kW absorbed by the regulator may help in motor starting.

Estimating Load Data (VA/FT2). In a commercial building,

Load and Power Consumption Estimating Data

Volt Amperes Per Square Foot (VA/FT2)

is suggested that the largest loads consultants, customers and

Zero Import/Zero Export

Concepts of Peak Shaving vs. Peak Sharing

Peak Sharing utility or in parallel so the

magnitude based on the percentage compressor, rated at 125 psi, can

Typical Load Sizing Guidelines

Load Growth Over 10 Years

on the system is 15 kW, which is

To find demand factor use the

Shown in Table 10 is a range of Figure 18 can be used to illustrate

application. A typical starting a 100 psi (689.5 kPa) minimum

Application and Installation Guide respond well to transients so it

combustion engines. Engine be calculated using the following

primary concern. The LE engines use exceed, which is the maximum

Heat balance is a term used to must be matched, not just to the

Further definition of linear & non- Lighting Loads

electric arc. Gas discharge lamps As compared to a utility buss feed,

With few exceptions, there are Squirrel Cage

Squirrel Cage Motor Torques in Per Unit

Wound Rotor (Slip Ring) is in the range of 100% full load

The amount of slip varies with Typically, synchronous motors

numerous versions, including gear 3 V x I x pf

DC Motors P x 1000 50 x1000

separate starter winding is included three-phase motor, there are three

For example, a four pole 60 Hz Design C

designer in selection of a motor for

motor to rated speed. The degree of starting kVA capacity to limit

Table 16 lists standard sizes for determined or the loads will

The rated hp and as starting kVA

engine during starting is calculated required to initially breakaway or

Motor Torque Sample

Breakaway torque depends on the

torque. If the actual running