Physics Higher Level

Chapter 1- Measurements and Uncertainties

o The number of significant figures of a certain value are the number of n 109
digits the value has. (ex. 3.6000 x 108 has 5 significant figures)
106
o The fundamental units: Mass (kg), Time (s), length (m), current (A),
m 103
temperature (K), moles (n), luminous intensity (candela)
180 c 102
o Radians are the angle units = =

k 103
o Random errors happens in most of the experiments. They can be due to
M 106
bad measurement, human error The random error of a precise
instrument can be measure as an on digit difference on the last digit of the
measurement. (ex. If the measurement is 4.002 then the random error is 0.001)
o Systematic error occurs when there is an error in the measuring device or

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method; for example if all my result are 2cm longer.

o Absolute uncertainty are value; percentage uncertainty are given in a percentage

o ( ) + ( ) = ( + ) ( + )

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o ( %) ( %) = ( ) ( + )% % = + +

o ( %) = ( )%
o Results generally have to be given as absolute uncertainty
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o Error bars are lines drawn onto data points to show the extent of the
uncertainties. To conclude that a relationship is linear, the line of best fit must
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touch all the error bars. Note that hitting either the x or y error bar on a point is
sufficient.
o Uncertainties are always at least the precision of the instrument; for example: a
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centimetre ruler has an uncertainty of at least 1 cm

o It is much easier to interpret a straight line graph, so if needed the axis quantities
1
may be modified. Ex. 2 = 1, then the graph X vs 2 would produce a line

o To find the uncertainty in a gradient we can plot the steepest and the flatter lines
through the error bars.
o A scalar shows a magnitude and a vector shows a
magnitude and a direction from originscalar
have a minimum (usually zero), vector dont
o Every vector can be split in to a horizontal and a
vertical component
o To add vector up, add their respective horizontal
and vertical component separately
 Physics Higher Level

Chapter 2 - Mechanics
o Velocity is a vector, speed is a scalar. Both have unit m s1.
displacement(m) s
o velocity = = t (there is a difference between instantaneous and
time(s)
average speed); relative velocity=
distance (m) d
o speed = =
time (s) t
m v
o Acceleration is a vector acceleration (s2 ) = t
1 2
o s = ut + 2 at

o v 2 = U 2 + 2as

(v+u)t
o s= 2

o Sdisplacement Vfinal velocity uinitial velocity aacceleration

o
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These equation only work when acceleration is constant
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1 2 1
o Ex: h = gt so a graph of h vs t2 will have gradient g.
2 2
o A force is a push or a pull, the unit is Newton
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o Force is a vector quantity, it can be split into a horizontal and vertical component
o If the resultant force on a body equals to zero, then the body is at rest.
(no acceleration but can have a velocity)
o A body will remain at rest or moving with constant velocity unless acted upon by
an external unbalanced force. If a body accelerates then the forces on it are
unbalanced.
o Newton 2nd law: Force = mass x acceleration
o Newton 3rd law: for every action there is an equal but opposite reaction, every
force causes an equal and opposite force.
o When an object moves through a fluid, there will be a frictional force that affect
the objects motion.
o If the resultant force on a body is zero then it is said to be at rest
o The friction force is a force opposite to the movement of a body; = where
is the coefficient of friction and R the reaction force (often caused by weight)
o The terminal velocity is when the friction force = the acceleration (ex: free fall)
 Physics Higher Level

Types of force

o Weight downward (towards the centre of the Earth) acting on the centre of a mass (W
= mg).
o Tension force exerted by pulling a string.
o Normal reaction force perpendicular to two touching surfaces.
o Friction force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces (F = R).
o Buoyancy upward force experienced by a body immersed in a fluid. Equal to the weight
of fluid displaced.
o Drag or air resistance opposes the motion of a body through a fluid.

m
o momentum(Ns) = mass (kg) velocity ( ) vector quantity
s

o mg T = ma
o Force (N) = Mass (kg) acceleration
momentum
o force (N) = t

o
opposite force on body A.
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If body A exerts a force on body B then body B will exert an equal and

During a collision, the momentum of the two body before the collision is the same
as the one of the two bodies after the collision if no external force is applied.
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v1i m1i + v2i m2i = v1f m1f + v2f m2f
o impules = momentum = force (N) time (s)
force (N)
o pressure(pa) = area (m2 )
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o work (j) = Force(N) distance() =

If the force is not in the right direction, the component of the vector can be used:
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o
in this case F = 10 cos 30
o if Force is not constant then it is equal to the area under the
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graph Force vs Time

o For a spring = where k is different for every spring
1 1
o The work done stretching a spring: W = 2 kx 2 = 2

o Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed from one form to another.
1
o Kinetic energy = 2 mv 2

o potential enrgy = mgh

useful work out power out
o Efficiency = =
energy in power in

o Elastic collision occurs when both Kinetic energy and momentum are conserved
o Inelastic collision occurs when only momentum is conserved (ex. Explosion)
work done m
o power = = force(N) volocity( s )
time
 Physics Higher Level

Chapter 3 - Thermal Physics

o Avogadros number: 6.02 x 1023 (the number of atoms in 12g of carbon 12)
o Relative atomic mass: the mass (g) of a substance per moles
o A mole of a substance is 6.02 x 1023 particles of that substance
o Solid fixed shape and volume since atoms are held together by interatomic
force.
o Liquid fixed volume but not fixed shape since atoms are able to move relative to
each other.
o Gas not fixed shape or volume (will fill whatever container it is put into); atoms
are free to move about with no force between them.
o The internal energy of a substance consist of the sum of its PE and its random KE
o

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Temperature (kelvin) is a measure of how hot or cold a body is, proportional to
the average KE of the molecules.
Net heat flows from a body with high temperature to a body with low
temperature until they reach thermal equilibrium.
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o Conduction when the molecules at one end of a solid rod are given energy they
vibrate more. This disturbs the neighbouring molecules thereby passing the
energy along the rod. Solids are generally better conductors than liquids and
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gases. Metals are good conductors, plastics tend to be poor conductors or

insulators.
o Convection takes place in fluids. When given heat the fluid expands making it
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less dense, causing it to rise in the surrounding denser cold fluid. Trapping air in
pockets like the gaps between feathers in a down jacket prevents convection.
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o Radiation direct transfer from one body to another via infrared radiation.
Doesnt require a medium. Black bodies both radiate and absorb best
o = =
o (){} = = ()
o The ideal gas model is a model that assumes
The molecules are in constant random motion
There is no inter atomic forces between the molecules
All the collision between the molecules are perfectly elastic (no KE lost).
The temperature of the gas is proportional to the average KE
Molecules are negligible size
o Most gases behave like ideal gases at normal pressure and temperature
 Physics Higher Level

3
o The average Kinetic energy of an ideal gas = 2 k is known as
Boltzmanns constant.
o The pressure in an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the
volume
o If the volume (m3) decreases, the gas will be denser and therefore
they will hit the walls more often. This increases the pressure (pa)
o The pressure in an ideal gas is proportional to its temperature
o The bigger the temperature (K), the bigger the KE of the
molecules. So, when the temperature increases the molecules hit
the walls with more energy. This increases pressure (pa).
o the volume in an ideal gas is proportional to the temperature
o If the temperature increases, then the volume will also increase
because the increase in KE. This will cause the molecules to moves
faster and so to increase their volume.
o

o
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= =
the following equation can be used to solve problems
1 1
1
=
2 2
2

Real gases behave ideally at high temperature and low pressure but at low
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temperatures and high pressures the interatomic forces are no longer negligible
and the gas may turn into a liquid.
o Thermal equilibrium occurs when all the system reaches the same temperature
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o Number of moles(n) = (6.0231023 )

Pressure is the result of the collision of molecules with the walls of the
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o

=

containers. Pressure is the force per unit area (Pascal) =

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o Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body (Kelvin)

o Internal energy is the total potential energy and random kinetic energy of the
molecules in a substance (KE+PE)
o Heat is the non-mechanical transfer of energy due to a difference in temperature.
 Physics Higher Level

Chapter 4 Circular motion

o time period (T) = time for one complete revolution

o frequency (f) = number of revolutions per second
1
o =
2
o Angular velocity: Radians cover per time period = = 2

2
o = = =

o Centripetal force is the force towards the centre of a circle causing a body to
travel in circular motion. This is not a new type of force but the name given to the
2
resultant force. = = 2

o = 2
o

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Newtons law of gravity =
1 2
2

Gravitational field strength is the force per unit mass experienced by a small test

mass placed in the field. On earth it is 9.81. = so, = 2 & =
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o Fields lines give direction and strength of field (strength depends on line density)
o Lines of equipotential are lines joining points of equal gravitational
potential
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o Gravitational potential energy is the energy a body possesses due to

its position in a gravitational field. Equal to the work done putting it

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there from a place with zero PE. =

o Gravitational force is the force caused by an object because of its mass = 2
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o Gravitational potential is the work done per unit mass in taking a small point

mass from zero potential to the point in question = =

o Escape speed is the minimum speed that a body needs to leave the Earth and not
2
come back = for earth it is about 11

o Planets orbit the Sun in approximately circular (actually elliptical) orbits. The

gravitational force is providing the centripetal force. So, 2 = 2 and if
rearranged 3 2
o Total energy of an object moving in circular

motion is + = , = 2

and so = 2

o As the radius gets close to infinity, the potential

gets close to 0
 Physics Higher Level

Chapter 5 Oscillation and waves

o Simple harmonic motion occurs when the acceleration (and by definition

force) is proportional and opposite to the displacement = 2
o Amplitude (xo) is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium
position.
1
o Time period (T) is the time for one complete cycle. =

o Frequency (f) is the number of cycles per second

2
o Angular frequency () 2 =

o Amplitude is the maximum displacement from equilibrium (A=X0)

o Displacement = 0 cos
When looking at waves graph,
o Velocity = 0 sin = 0 2 2 look at the axis carefully, it might

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o Acceleration= 2 0 cos = 2
o A wave is the transfer of energy or
information without the transfer of matter
be a displacement time graph or a
displacement position graph
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o ()2 and 2
o In a progressive or traveling wave the energy gets transferred.
o In a stationary or standing wave the energy doesnt get transferred
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o The total energy of an oscillation is always constant (if there is no

friction). When it is at its maximum displacement, it is all PE and when it
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passes through equilibrium it is all KE.

o = 2 0 2 2
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o KE = 2 0 2 2

o For pendulums = 2

o total energy = PE + KE = 2 0 2
o Two bodies oscillating with the same frequency are in phase if they travel
through the centre in the same direction at the same time. Phase
difference is measured by phase angle. Completely out of phase is
equivalent to a phase angle of .

o Reflection when a wave hits the boundary between two media part of
the wave comes back at the same angle.
 Physics Higher Level

o Refraction when a wave hits the boundary between two media part of
the wave passes into the new medium with a change in angle.
o Diffraction when a wave passes through a narrow opening it spreads
out.
o Wavelength () the distance between two
points that are in phase (e.g. two peaks).
o Amplitude (A) the maximum displacement.
o Frequency (f) the number of wavelengths
passing a point per unit time or the number of
cycles or oscillations per unit time.
o Wave speed (v) the distance travelled by the wave profile per unit time.
o =
o Transverse wave disturbance is perpendicular to direction of energy
transfer.

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o Reflection when a wave meets a fixed end the wave is reflected with
phase change. If the end is free the wave reflects without phase change.
o InterferenceSuperposition (constructive interference) amplitude add
in vectors. Destructive interference-amplitude cancel each other.
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o Polarization a wave in a string can be polarized by passing it through a

narrow slit. Sun glasses are an example of polarization (polaroid)
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o Light can be polarized as it passes through a polarizer. Polarized light

only moves in two direction opposite to each other, in other words it has
to follow a line.
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o According to Brewster law, if as a ray passes through a medium the

refracted ray and the reflected ray form a right angle then the reflected
light is totally polarized.
o Some crystals exhibit double diffraction as when a
unpolarised light enter the crystal it is split in two
plane polarized ray that have mutually
perpendicular planes of polarization
o According to Malus law when polarized light passes
through a polarizer = 0 cos ans so = 0 2
o For standing waves
Nodes positions where the displacement is always zero,
separated by
Antinodes positions of maximum displacement.
 Physics Higher Level

Harmonics are the number of

wavelength that appear.
For sound waves, if the end of the
pipe is open it is going to be an
antinode and if it is close it is a node.
o Longitudinal wave displacement is in
same plane as the direction of transfer of
energy.
o during reflection - =

o Refraction according to Snells law
sin 1 2
= = ( {1 })
sin 2 1

o when a ray passes through a medium it will be

refracted towards the medium if it is slower than

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the first medium.
o If the angle of refraction is 90 the angle of incidence
is called the critical angle; at greater angles total
internal reflection takes place.
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o The Doppler Effect is the change of frequency due to the relative motion of
a source or the observer.

o If the emitting body is moving then = ( ) mines if moving
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towards you and plus if moving away from you

o If the observer is moving = ( ) plus if the observer is moving
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towards the emitting body and mines if he is moving away.
0
o The Doppler effect is different for light as its velocity is constant =
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o radio (m) micro (cm) Infrared visible(600 nm) ultraviolet X

gamma
o Diffraction takes place when the wave passes through a narrow opening.
o The angle between the central maximum and the first

minima is given by = ( ) (for small angles)

o For circular apertures = 1.22

o The time period of a mass oscillating at the end of a pendulum is given by

( )
= 2 ; K is the spring constant =
( )
 Physics Higher Level

o When a single slit is illuminated with white line

then the diffraction pattern is going to show to
visible light spectrum

o When different light wave length are shined

through a slit
( )
() =
= ( ) (#)

o =

o () = sin
o light
( )

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( )
()
=

o the speed of a wave at any time: =

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o When reflection happens as shown on the
1
diagram, the first reflection will create a2 . So
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in order for the waves to create constructive

interference = 4. This only works if the
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refraction index of the first medium is smaller

than the one of the second medium, and if the
refraction index of the second medium is
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bigger than the one of the third medium.

o If light is reflected from an optical less dense mediumno phase change

o If light is reflected from an optical denser medium2 phase change

o Sound wave can be affected by the temperature, the material and humidity
o When light is shined through more than one slit, constructive interference
occurs and small diffraction pattern are created
 Physics Higher Level

Chapter 6 - Electricity and magnetism

o Charge (coulomb) can be positive, negative or neutral.

o Charge on an electron 1.6 1019
o Field strength (E) the force experienced by a small + charge placed at a
()
point in the field. Unit: ; = = = 21
() 2

o Field lines show direction and magnitude of field. They go from positive
to negative
o Uniform field between oppositely charged parallel plates.

o F =k
Q1Q2
r2
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K is coulomb constant = 4 =(8.99 109
0
2
2
)
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o Electrical PE - The works done in placing a + charge at a point in the field
from a place where it has zero potential energy. This can be an arbitrary

zero or at an infinite distance. = = 1 2
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o Electrical potential (V) - The work done per unit charge taking a small

charge from infinity(zero potential) to a place in the field =
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o Lines of equipotential join points of equal potential perpendicular to

field lines
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o Potential difference the work done per unit charge taking a small +
charge from A to B.
o Conductors conduct electricity because they have free electrons,
insulators dont.
()
o Current is the rate of flow of charge. = ; Conventional current

flows from high to low potential (+ to ) but electrons move the other
way.
o = (# # ) () ( ) ()

o Resistance(R) is defined as V=IR; if R is constant

o Power(P)is the energy difference per time; =

o Resistor in series add up as 1 + 2 + = and In parallel they add
1 1 1
up as + + =
1 2
 Physics Higher Level

o Current is constant in a circuit in series and is divided proportionally to

the resistor in a circuit in parallel
o Voltage is constant in the branches of a circuit in parallel and is divided
proportionally to the resistor in a circuit in series
o An ammeter calculates the current, theoretically it should have a zero
resistance. If however it has a small resistance then count it as a resistor
o A voltmeter calculates the potential difference. It should have an infinite
resistance. If however it has a small resistance then count it as a resistor
o The resistance of some resistor depends on their temperature and on the
amount of light that they shine

o The resistivity of a material is given as p; =

o Electromotive force {joules}() is the potential difference in a circuit

o The internal resistance of a battery is given as r and so, ( + ) =

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o A battery is a device consisting of one or more cells joined together.
o Real cells do not maintain their potential difference for all their life time,
they lose their initial value quickly and then they have a reasonably stable
value for most of their life time. Finally, at the end of their life time they
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lose their potential very quickly.
o A primary cell cannot be recharged.
o A secondary cell is designed to be recharged.
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o The charge capacity of a cell is the amount of charge

that can flow before the cell stops working
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o Magnetic fields (B) have a north and a south pole,

lines go from North to South. Its strength is shown by
how close the line are from each other
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o The magnetic south poles lies at the geographic north

pole and vice versa
o The right hand rule can be helpful to determine
current or direction of field lines
o A magnet wouldnt feel any force in an electric field
and a stationary charge wouldnt feel any force in a magnetic field
o When a current carrying a wire is placed in a magnetic field the magnetic
interaction between the two results in a force. = sin in words
= () sin
Flemings left hand rule shows the direction of the force
o A single charge moving through a magnetic field feels the
same kind of force; = sin ; the force on the charge
is always perpendicular to its velocity.
 Physics Higher Level

Chapter 7 Atomic, nuclear and particle physics

o Rutherford proved by firing alpha particle through a gold foil that an atom was
mostly made out of empty space as most of the alpha particle passed through the
(((particle were deflected or bounced back
o All matter is made up of atoms and all atoms are made
up of protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons and
neutrons are in the centre of the atom (the nucleus) and
the electrons are spinning around the nucleus.
o Sometimes when a gas is heated or when an electric
current passes through that gas, an electron will get excited and jump from one
energy level to another. When the electron goes back to its initial energy level, it
emits light (photons). = The energy emitted=the frequency of the light
emitted times Plancks constant.

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o Since = = =

o The different frequencies emitted by a particular gas is its emission spectrum

o As the electrons of each atom can only exist in
discrete energy level, each substance will have its
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own emission spectrum and absorption spectrum.
o Absorption occurs when a continuous light spectrum
is shone through a gas then same frequencies as the
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emission spectrum will be absent.

o Isotopes have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
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o Some atomic nuclei are unstable. At one point if they are unstable enough, they
will decay.
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o Generally for small atoms the number of proton equal the number of neutrons
o Generally for big atoms the number of neutrons is bigger than the one of protons
o The most stable atom is iron
o Small atoms tend to be capable of fusion (joining
together to make a bigger and more stable
atom) if the temperature is high enough, a
typical example that happens in the sun is the
fusion of two hydrogen atoms to create helium.
Energy is released during the process.
o Big atoms tend to be capable of fission
(separating into two smaller and more stable
atoms) if they are unstable enough, a typical
example is the fission of uranium. Energy is release during the process.
o Decay happens totally randomly and can only be predicted as a probability
 Physics Higher Level

o The rate of decay of a sample decrease exponentially with time and is not affected
by external condition
o In nuclear physics a force is described as a stream of particles
o There are four types of fundamental forces
The strong force is a small range force that occurs between quarks; First it
is repulsive, then when it gets to a small range it is attractive until the
quarks get too close together stream of gluons
The electrostatic force is a force that increase exponentially as the
distance get smaller. It occurs between chargesstream of photons

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The weak force is a short range force that is experienced by quarks and
leptonstream of Z0 (if no charge) and W+ or W- (if there is a charge)
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The force of gravity is a force that a body cause on other body due to its
massstream of gravitons
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o If a particles name has a bar above it then it is the anti-particle. Example:

= = _
o When a reaction occurs, mass isnt totally conserved. We can assume when we
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deal with mass number as an integer that mass is conserved but as we look at
mass number more closely (with more significant figures) we can realize that
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mass is not conserved, it is turned into energy. Energy = mass times speed of
light squared = 2
o The half-life of a substance is the time taken for half of the atoms to decay. This
3
continuous exponentially, after 2 half-life, 4of the atoms have decayed

o Radioactive decay is a naturel phenomenon and it is going on around us all the

time on small scales. The constant natural radiation is called background
radiation. It is often a small source of error in experiment as it cannot be
calculated precisely
o Most radiation are ionisation as they go through a substance
o The best ways to be protected from radiations are to increase distance, decrease
time of exposure and use material to protect yourself
 Physics Higher Level

o There are four base decays in the syllabus

The alpha decay is the emission of a helium nucleus
(alpha particle). 4 4 4
2 + 2 2 . An alpha
particle travels a few centimetres, behaves like a positive
charge and is stopped by any material (like paper)
The beta decay is the emission of on electron and a
neutrino. A neutron transforms into a proton, an electron
and an antineutrino +1 + + . A beta
particle travels less than a meter, behave like a negative
charge and is stopped by a few mm of aluminium
When a proton transforms into a neutron, an anti-
electron (positron) and a neutrino + +
The gamma decay is the emotion of a gamma ray

+ A gamma ray travels to infinity if it isnt
stopped, is not deflected and is stopped by lead (+10cm)

baryons and leptons.

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o Particles can be divided into three types: mesons,

o Quarks are divided into three families : up, charm, top.

o Baryons are made up of three quarks (baryon number of 1)
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or three anti-quarks (baryon number of -1). In a reaction
the total baryon number is always equal on both side of the
reaction (it is concerved). Baryons are the only particles to
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have a barton number. A proton is a barion, two up and one

downuud
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o Mesons are made up of a quark and an anti-quark

o Lepton exist on their own. There are three families of leptons: e, and tau. A
lepton has a lepton number of 1 and an anti-lepton has a lepton number of -1. The
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lepton number per family has to be the same on both side of the reaction (it is
conserved). For example, + + but not + + as neither the
lepton number of the family of the and e is conserved.
o During reaction the charge, the strangeness number {except in some weak force
interaction} (-1 per strange quark) and the charm number (1 per charm quark)
are conserved.
o Each quark also has a colour (red, green or blue) and anti-quark have an anti-
,
colour( ,
) . If all three colours or anti-colours are put together they
add up as white (neutral colour) and if there is no colour then it is also
considered white. Only white combination of quarks are possible. So, in meson
there must be a quark with a colour and a quark with its anti-colour.
o When a quark changes colour, it emits a gluon. There are eight types of gluons, six
of them are the possible colour changes and two colour neutral ones.
 Physics Higher Level

(Example: red to green the new colour is shown as an anti-

colour). The colour neutral gluons are 0 0
o Higgs boson are in the standard model to explain the gain of mass when energy is
added to a body
o Feynman diagrams are a useful way to show nuclear reaction. They follow simple
rules:
Times flow from left to right
Quarks and lepton are solid straight lines
Exchange particle are wavy or broke(W, Z0 ) or curly (gluon)
Junction will be linked by a line representing the exchange particles
Each particle flowing particle is represented by a vector and has an arrow
in the middle going from left to right (right to left if it is an anti-particle)
The label for each particle are showed at the end of the line

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