International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR)
ISSN: 2321-0869, Volume-2, Issue-5, May 2014
Effect of Thyristor Based Modulated Power Filter
Compensator on Power Quality
Laxmi Chand Sharma, Shiv Shanker Sharma, Devendra Mittal, Pushpendra Sharma
Abstract The shunt capacitor and OLTC are jointly used
to regulate voltage and reactive power flow at a substation
which ultimately decide the stability of the power system. This
paper also presents an overview of the state of the art in
reactive power compensation technologies. The principles of
operation, design characteristics and application examples of
Var compensators implemented with thyristors and
self-commutated converters are presented. Static Var
generators are used to improve voltage regulation,stability, and
power factor in ac transmission and distribution systems.
Examples obtained from relevant applications describing the
use of reactive power compensators implemented with new
static Var technologies are also described.
Index Terms OLTC, Var compensators, transmission,
distribution
I. INTRODUCTION
Var compensationn is defined as the management of reactive
power to improve the performance of ac power systems. The
concept of Var compensation embraces a wide and diverse
field of both system and customer problems, especially
related with power quality issues, since most power quality
problems can be attenuated or solved with an adequate
control of reactive power . In general, the problem of reactive
power compensation is viewed from two aspects: load
compensation and voltage support. In load compensation the
objectives are to increase the value of the system power
factor, to balance the real power drawn from the ac supply, to
compensate voltage regulation, and to eliminate current
harmonic components produced by large and fluctuating
nonlinear industrial loads .Voltage support is generally
required to reduce voltage fluctuation at a given terminal of a
transmission line. Reactive power compensation in
transmission systems also improves the stability of the ac
system by increasing the maximum active power that can be
transmitted. It also helps to maintain a substantially flat
voltage profile at all levels of power transmission, it
improves high-voltage dc (HVDC) conversion terminal
performance, temporary over voltages , and can avoid
Manuscript received May 20, 2014.
Laxmi Chand Sharma, M.Tech. II Year (Power System) Student
Jagnnath University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Shiv Shanker Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical
Engineering, Rajdhani Institute of Technology & Management, Jaipur,
Rajasthan, India
Devendra Mittal, Asst. Professor, Department of Electrical
Engineering Jagannath University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Pushpendra Sharma, M.Tech. II Year (Power System) Student
Jagnnath University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
disastrous blackouts .Series and shunt Var compensation are
used to modify the natural electrical characteristics of ac
power systems. Series compensation modifies the
transmission or distribution system parameters, while shunt
compensation changes the equivalent impedance of the load .
In both cases, the reactive power that flows through the
system can be effectively controlled improving the
performance of the overall ac power system. Traditionally,
rotating synchronous condensers and fixed or mechanically
switched capacitors or inductors have been used for reactive
power compensation. However, in recent years, static Var
compensators (SVCs) employing thyristor-switched
capacitors (TSCs) and thyristor controlled reactors (TCRs) to
provide or absorb the required reactive power have been
developed .Also, the use of self-commutated pulse width
modulation (PWM) converters with an appropriate control
scheme permits the implementation of static compensators
capable of generating or absorbing reactive current
components with a time response faster than the fundamental
power network cycle . Based on the use of reliable high-speed
power electronics, powerful analytical tools, advanced
control and microcomputer technologies, flexible ac
transmission systems (FACTS) have been developed and
represent a new concept for the operation of power
transmission systems . In these systems, the use of SVCs with
fast response times play an important role, allowing to
increase the amount of apparent power transfer through an
existing line, close to its thermal capacity, without
compromising its stability limits. These opportunities arise
through the ability of special SVCs to adjust the interrelated
parameters that govern the operation of transmission
systems, including shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase
angle and the damping of oscillations. This paper presents an
overview of the state of the art of static Var technologies.
Static compensators implemented with thyristors and
self-commutated converters are described. Their principles
of operation, compensation characteristics and performance
are presented and analyzed. A comparison of different Var
generator compensation characteristics is also presented.
New static compensators are also discussed.
II. SINGLE-PHASE SERIES COMPENSATED NETWORK
This demonstration ilustrates frequency-domain and
time-domain analysis of a series-compensated transmission
system
2.1 Circuit Description
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 Effect of Thyristor Based Modulated Power Filter Compensator on Power Quality
Fig.1 A 735 kV, 300 km line is used to transmit power
from bus B1 (735 kV equivalent system) to bus B2 (315 kV
equivalent). In order to simplify, only one phase of the
system has been represented.
In order to increase the transmission capacity, the line is
series compensated at its center by a capacitor representing
40% of the line reactance. The line is also shunt compensated
at both ends by a 330 Mvar shunt reactance (110 Mvar
/phase). Open the Series Compensation subsystem. Notice
that the series capacitor is protected by a metal oxide varistor
(MOV) simulated by the Surge Arrester block. The 250
MVA, 735 kV / 315 kV transformer is a Saturable
Transformer block simulating one phase of the three-phase
750 MVA transformer. A Multimeter block is used to
monitor the fault current as well as the flux and magnetizing
current of the transformer.
2.2 Demonstration
To study the transient performance of this circuit when a
6-cycle fault is applied at node B2, Fault is simulated by the
Breaker block. Switching times are defined in the Breaker
block menu (closing at t = 3 cycles and opening at t = 9
cycles).
2.3 Frequency Analysis
In order to understand the transient behavior of this
series-compensated network, a frequency analysis is first
preformed by measuring the Impedance at node B2. This
measurement is performed by the Impedance Measurement
block connected at node B2. Open the Powergui and in the
Tools menu select 'Impedance vs Frequency Mesurement'.
Click on Display to compute and display the impedance for
the 0 - 500 Hz range. The impedance curves show two main
parallel resonances (impedance maxima and phase
345
inversion), corresponding to 15 Hz and 300 Hz modes. The
15 Hz mode is due to a parallel resonance of the series
capacitance and the two shunt reactances. The 300 Hz mode
is mainly due to resonance of shunt line capacitance and
series reactance of the transmission system. These two modes
are likely to be excited at fault clearing.
2.4 Time Domain Simulation - Fault at Bus B2
Start the simulatiom and observe waveforms on the two
Scopes. At t = 3 cycles, a line-to-ground fault is applied and
the fault current reaches 10 kA (trace 1 of Scope2). During
the fault, the MOV conducts at every half cycle (trace 2 of
Scope1) and the voltage across the capacitor (trace 1 of
Scope1) is limited to 263 kV. At t = 9 cycles, the fault is
cleared. The 15 Hz mode is clearly seen on the capacitor
voltage (trace 1 of Scope1) and bus B2 voltage (trace 3 of
Scope1). During fault the flux in the transformer is trapped to
around 1 pu. At fault clearing the flux offset and 15 Hz
component cause transformer saturation (flux > 1.2 pu, trace
3 of Scope2), producing magnetizing current pulses (trace 2
of Scope2).
III. THREE-PHASE SERIES COMPENSATED NETWORK
This demonstration ilustrates use of three-phase blocks to
study transients on a series-compensated 735-kV
transmission system
3.1 Circuit Description
A three-phase, 60 Hz, 735 kV power system transmitting
power from a power plant consisting of six 350 MVA
generators to an equivalent network through a 600 km
transmission line. The transmission line is split in two 300
km lines connected between buses B1,B2, and B3. In order to
increase the transmission capacity, each line is series
compensated by capacitors representing 40% of the line
reactance. Both lines are also shunt compensated by a 330
Mvar shunt reactance. The shunt and series compensation
equipments are located at the B2 substation where a 300
MVA 735/230 kV transformer with a 25 kV tertiary winding
feeds a 230 kV, 250 MW load. The series compensation
subsystems are identical for the two lines. For each line, each
phase of the series compensation module contains the series
capacitor , a metal oxide varistor (MOV) protecting the
capacitor, and a parallel gap protecting the MOV. When the
energy dissipated in the MOV exceeds a threshold level of 30
MJ, the gap simulated by a circuit breaker is fired. CB1 and
CB2 are the two line circuit breakers .
The generators are simulated with a Simplified Synchronous
Machine block. Universal transformer blocks (two-windings
and three-windings) are used to model the two transformers.
Saturation is implemented on the transformer connected at
bus B2. Voltages and currents are measured in B1, B2, and
B3 blocks. These blocks are Three-phase V-I Measurement
blocks where voltage and current signals are sent to the Data
Acquisition block through Goto blocks.
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 International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR)
Fig. 2 Single Line Diagram of Radial Utilization System
3.2 Fault and Line Switching
To study the transient performance of this circuit when a
line-to-ground and three-phase-to-ground faults are applied
on line 1, The fault and the two line circuit breakers CB1 and
CB2 are simulated with blocks from the three-phase library.
Open the dialog boxes of CB1 and CB2. See how the initial
breaker status and switching times are specified. A
line-to-ground fault is applied on phase A at t = 1cycle. The
two circuit breakers which are initially closed are then open
at t = 5 cycles, simulating a fault detection and opening time
of 4 cycles. The fault is eliminated at t = 6 cycles, one cycle
after line opening.
3.3 Demonstration
Notice that this system contains the Powergui block. In
addition, when you start the system the
'power_3phseriescomp' model, the sampling time Ts = 50e-6
is automatically set in your workspace. The system is
therefore be discretized using a 50 microseconds sample
time.
3.4 Line-to-Ground Fault
Double click the Data Acquisition block and open the three
scopes. Start the simulation. As the system has already been
initialized (1500 MW generation at the 13.8 kV bus) with the
Lod Flow utility of the Powergui, the simulation starts in
steady state. At t = 1 cycle a line-to-ground fault is applied
and the fault current reaches 10 kA . During the fault, the
MOV conducts at every half cycle and the energy dissipated
in the MOV builds up to 13 MJ. At t = 5 cycles the line
protection relays (not simulated) open breakers CB1 and
CB2 and the energy stays constant at 13 MJ. As the
maximum energy does not exceed the 30 MJ threshold level,
the gap is not fired. After breaker opening the fault current
drops to a small value and the line and series capacitance
start to discharge through the fault and the shunt reactance.
The fault current extinguishes at the first zero crossing after
the opening order given to the fault breaker (t = 6 cycles).
Then, the series capacitor stops discharging and its voltage
oscillates around 220 kV .
346
ISSN: 2321-0869, Volume-2, Issue-5, May 2014
3.5 Three-Phase-to-Ground Fault
Change the fault type to a three-phase-to-ground fault by
checking Phases A, B, and C in the Fault Breaker block.
Restart the simulation. Notice that during the fault the energy
dissipated in the MOV builds up faster that in the case of a
line-to-ground fault. The energy reaches the 30 MJ threshold
level after 3 cycles, one cycle before opening of the line
breakers. As a result, the gap is fired and the capacitor
voltage quickly discharges to zero through the damping
circuit.
IV. SIMULATION MODELS
Grid electricity is generally distributed as three phase
balanced voltage waveforms forming the common 3-phase
sinusoidal AC system. One of the characteristics of the AC
system is its sinusoidal voltage waveforms, which must
always remain as close as possible to that of a pure
sine-wave. If it is distorted beyond certain acceptable
limits, as is often the case on power source networks
comprising nonlinear type loads, the supply waveform
must be cleaned and corrected. The distorted waveform is
usually composed of a number of dominant sine waves of
different harmonic frequencies, including the
fundamental one at the 60 Hz. power frequency, referred
as the fundamental frequency, and the rest is referred to as
the integral harmonic ripple component with
frequencies which are multiple of that of the fundamental.
Harmonic effective quantities are generally expressed in
terms of their RMS-value since the heating or loss effect
depends on this total sum squared value of the distorted
waveform.
V. SYSTEM MODELS
Figure depicts the single line diagram of radial utilization
system feeding a nonlinear type load. The load bus is
connected to the switched/modulated Smart Power Filter
(SMPF). SMPF can be used to improve electric supply power
quality by reducing harmonic content in supply current by
minimizing waveform distortion, notching and voltage
fluctuations (swell, sag). Rs and Ls represent the equivalent
source transformer feeder resistance and inductance. and
represent the supply and load voltage respectively.
Fig. 3 Single Line Diagram of Radial Utilization System
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 Effect of Thyristor Based Modulated Power Filter Compensator on Power Quality

When Load Is Linear

Without Filter Compensation
This case addresses the power quality enhancement scheme
using modulated power filter compensator. The use of the power factor @ phase A
switched modulated power filter compensator is to enhance
power quality in low voltage distribution systems under 0.5
unbalanced and fault conditions. The simulation results are
0
shown and are done with and without the modulated power
compensating filter. The software used in this case is the -0.5
Matlab/Simulink. 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
The Modulated power filter is controlled by a dynamic
tri-loop controller. The purpose of this dynamic controller is power factor @ phase B
to minimize switching transients, maximize power/energy 1
utilization and to improve power factor under unbalanced
load and fault conditions. The major components of the AC 0.5
system are: Three phase-four wire AC power supplies; Novel
Modulated power Filter; Tri -loop dynamic error driven error 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
controller and Single phase load.
NLL _A

In N

A
a
b
aA
A A
aA

bB
NLL _B
power factor @ phase C
bB B B
B
C
c
n cC
C
1 km Feeder
C
cC In N 1
25 kv/600 v
Transformer Bus Load Bus
400 kVA NLL _C
A

MPFC 0.5
A

In N
Cn
s1

s2

C
A

25 KV AC source s1
C
A

B
C

[In ] -K- In
PWM
Three -Phase Fault
Linear Load
0
s2

Controller
-0.5
Continuous
[In ]

Goto
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
powergui
i
-
+

Current Measurement
Time (s)
Zn +
v [Vn]
-
Rg

[Vn]
Fig 7 Load Power Factor without compensation
VL V
From 3
[In ] IL I
Scope 2
From 2 Load

In

Nutral Harmonic
In
With Filter
Load Harmonic

Compensation
Fig. 4 Matlab- Simulink functional model of the 3Phase-4
Wire Model
power factor @ phase A
1
Ei Et
1 signalrms 0.8
sigma 1 sigma 2
In
Irms Gama I
0.8
1
Delay 1 Pulses s1
PID Signal
(s)
0.15 1.8
Saturation
2
s2
0.6
I1 ref Gama n PWM Generator

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

En

1
power factor @ phase B
|u| 1.2
0.001 s+1 rEh
Transfer Fcn 2 Abs Gama h
1

Fig. 5 Tri loop dynamic Variable structure-sliding mode

control Scheme
2 B 0.5
1 A 3 C
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
C
A

Cf
power factor @ phase C
C
A

B
A

1
C
+

0.8
1 g
2
s1
1
S1
Rf 0.6
Lf

2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

s2 g

1
2
Time (s)
S 2

4 Cn

Fig. 6 Modulated Power Filter Compensator Scheme Fig 8 Load Power Factor with compensation

347 www.erpublication.org
 International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR)
ISSN: 2321-0869, Volume-2, Issue-5, May 2014

Load Current (rms)/pu @ phase A Load Voltage (rms)/pu @ phase A

1.5 1

1
0.5
0.5
0
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.36
Load Current (rms)/pu @ phase B Load Voltage (rms)/pu @ phase B
1
1

0.5 0.5

0
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.36
Load Current (rms)/pu @ phase C Load Voltage (rms)/pu @ phase C
1 1

0.5 0.5

0
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.36
Time (s) Time (s)

Fig 9 Load current without compensation

Fig 11 Load voltage without compensation

Load Current (rms)/pu @ phase A

1 Load Voltage (rms)/pu @ phase A
1.5

0.5
1

0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0
4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
x 10 4
Load Current (rms)/pu @ phase B x 10
0.4 Load Voltage (rms)/pu @ phase B
1.5

0.2 1

0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0
4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
x 10 4
Load Current (rms)/pu @ phase C x 10
0.4 Load Voltage (rms)/pu @ phase C
1

0.2
0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0
Time(s) 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
x 10
Time (s) 4
x 10

Fig 10 Load current with compensation

Fig 11 Load voltage with compensation

348 www.erpublication.org
 Effect of Thyristor Based Modulated Power Filter Compensator on Power Quality

S1
Power/pu @ phase A 1

0.8
0.2
0.6
0.1 0.4

0 0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
0.15 0.2 0.25

Power/pu @ phase B
S2
0.2
1

0.1 0.8

0.6

0 0.4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.2

0
Power/pu @ phase C 0.15 0.2 0.25
0.2 Time(s)

Fig 13 Compensator S1 and S2

0.1

0 VI. WHEN LOAD IS NOT LINEAR

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time (s)
This case addresses another power quality enhancement
scheme also using modulated power filter compensator. This
Fig 11 Load power without compensation case presents a novel dynamic voltage regulator Power filter
and capacitor correction compensator scheme to enhance
power utilization and improve power quality in low voltage
distribution systems under the nonlinear load conditions.
The modulated power filter is controlled by a dynamic
tri-loop error driven PID controller. The purpose of this
Power/pu @ phase A dynamic hybrid Tri-functional compensator is to minimize
feeder switching transients, maximize power/energy
0.2 utilization and to improve power factor under unbalanced
load and fault conditions. The functional
0.1
MATLAB/SIMULINK model of a radial distribution system
0 with the proposed dynamic hybrid reactive power
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 compensation scheme is presented.
I I I

Power/pu @ phase B Transmission line V V V

25kv 2km
0.2 Measurement 1 Measurement 2 Measurement 3
i
+ - i i
+ - + -

1 2
0.1
Load 1 2MVA@PF=0.8 + v Load 2 1.5MVA@PF=0.8 + v
- - Load 3 1.5MVA@PF=0.8 + v
+ v -
-
0 Linear Transformer

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 138 kv 25kv

Scope

I
Power/pu @ phase C I I

0.2 I V
V
V

IL Measurement 5 Measurement 4
g [S1] Measurement 6
Harmonic Analysis 2
1
i +
i + i +
-
0.1 In
i
-
+
i
-
+ -
-

N.L.Load Controller +
+ v -
[S2] v -
+ Load 5 1MVA@PF=0.8 load 4 1MVA@PF=0.8
VL v -
0 [S1] PWM1
Voltage Measurement 6
Load 6 1MVA@PF=0.8

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.02 0.25 0.3 0.35 IL [IL]

[S2] PWM2
Time (s) PF
[PF]
g

1
2

Continuous

Fig 12 Load power with compensation powergui V6

349 www.erpublication.org
 International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR)
ISSN: 2321-0869, Volume-2, Issue-5, May 2014
Fig 14 Simulink model of the radial distribution system with
the non- linear load

Ev
1 1
1
V1 ref Gama V Et PWM
PWM1
1
1 rms
signal -K-
PID Signal(s)Pulses
VL 0.02s+1 Et
Gain 1 2
Vrms1 Transfer Fcn 1 Saturation PWM2
PWM Generator
3
PF

V1 ref1 0.98

Epf
1
rms 0.5
2 signal K- 0.02s+1
IL Gain
Vrms2 Transfer Fcn 2 Gama P rEp Current and voltage waveforms of the nonlinear load without
compensation
Delay 2

Fig 15 Dynamic Tri-loop error driven PID controller

V.I

i I
Signal(s)Pulses g + +
-
V
PWM Generator Current Measurement 7
1 A - Measurement 7
In
Terminator 1 2 Universal Bridge
+
v -

Voltage Measurement 1

25 kV/0.8kV
Voltage Measurement
+ v
-

Current and voltage waveforms of the nonlinear load with

compensation

Fig 16 Compensation Switching

Without Filter Compensation and With Filter

Compensation

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 Effect of Thyristor Based Modulated Power Filter Compensator on Power Quality

Voltage waveforms of the linear load without [6] Carson W. Taylor, Improving Grid Behavior, IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 36,
N6, June 1999, pp. 40-45
compensation [7] Canadian Electrical Association, Static Compensators for Reactive Power
Control, Cantext Publications, 1984.
[8] L. Gyugyi, Reactive Power Generation and Control by Thyristor Circuits,
IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, vol. IA-15, n 5, pp. 521-532,
Sept./Oct. 1979.
[9] L. Gyugyi, R. Otto, T. Putman, Principles and Applications of Static,
Thyristor-Controlled Shunt Compensators, IEEE Trans. on PAS, vol.
PAS-97, n 5, pp. 1935-1945, Oct. 1980.
[10]. A. M. Sharaf and M. A. Habli, Demand Side Management and Energy
Conservation Using Switched Capacitor Compensation, Proceedings of
the International Conference ICCCP01 Muscat, Oman, Feb 2001.

[11]. A. M. Sharaf, S Abu-Azab Power Quality Enhancement of Time

Dependent Interharmonic Loads Proceedings of the Nonth International
IEEE Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power ICHPS2000,
Orlando, FL, October 2000.

[12]. A.M. Sharaf, Caixia Guo, and Hong Huang. A novel smart
compensation for energy/power quality enhancement of nonlinear loads,
Proceedings of the 1997 Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer
Voltage waveforms of the linear load with compensation Engineering, CCECE, May 25-28, 1997, St. Johns, Newfoundland,
Canada.
[13]. W. Mack Grady, Harmonics and how they relate to power factor,
Proceedings of the EPRI Power Quality Issues and Opportunities
Conference, San Diego, CA, November 1993.

[14]. A.M. Sharaf, Pierre Kreidi, Dynamic compensation using

switched/modulated power filters, Proceedings of the IEEE
Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering
CCECE 2002, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, May 12-15, 2002

[15]. A.M. Sharaf, Pierre Kreidi, Power quality enhancement and harmonic
reduction using dynamic power filters, 7th International Conference on
Modeling and Simulation of Electric Machines, Converters and Systems.
ELECTRIMACS 2002. Montreal, Quebec, Canada, August 18-21, 2002.
[16]. A.M. Sharaf, Pierre Kreidi, Power quality enhancement and harmonic
compensation scheme for asymmetrical nonlinear loads, 10th International
Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference. EPE-PEMC 2002
Cavtat & Dubrovnik, Croatia, September 9-11, 2002.
[17]. A.M. Sharaf, Pierre Kreidi, Power quality enhancement using a
unified compensator and switched filter, International Conference on
Voltage waveforms and P-Q profile without and with Renewable Energy and Power Quality-ICREPQ2003, Vigo-Spain,
compensation April 9-11, 2003

[18]. A.M. Sharaf, Pierre Kreidi, Power quality enhancement using a unified
switched capacitor compensator, Proceedings of the IEEE Canadian
VII. CONCLUSION Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering CCECE 2003,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada, May 4-7, 2003

Reactive power compensation is shown in this paper using a

single phase equivalent diagram and a three phase
equivalent network diagram with a series compensator.
Simulation is also done for linear and non linear loads and
the outcomes of power, voltage and current is shown with the
help of simulated waveforms in Matlab . Power quality is
enhanced with the use of modulated power filter
compensator.

REFERENCE

[1] T. J. Miller, Reactive power Control in Electric Systems,John Willey &

Sons, 1982.
[2] E. Wanner, R. Mathys, M. Hausler, Compensation Systems for Industry,
Brown Boveri Review, vol. 70, pp.330-340, Sept./Oct. 1983.
[3] G. Bonnard, The Problems Posed by Electrical Power Supply to Industrial
Installations, in Proc. of IEE Part B, vol. 132, pp. 335-340, Nov. 1985.
[4] A. Hammad, B. Roesle, New Roles for Static VAR Compensators in
Transmission Systems, Brown Boveri Review, vol. 73, pp. 314-320, June
1986.
[5] Nickolai Grudinin and Ilya Roytelman, Heading Off Emergencies in Large
Electric Grids, IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 34, N 4, April 1997, pp. 43-47.

351 www.erpublication.org