A Practical Guide

To Build
Electronics Projects!
By

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Introduction
We are living in the world of individual self identity making, self empowering and
self motivation. By considering all these aspects, Edgefx Technologies has come
out with a practical guide for self building of the electronics projects. This eBook
will serve as a practical guide for most of the students or graduates who lack the
practical skills for developing even simple electronic circuits.

This eBook is intended to provide a practical reference for all practicing

professionals, students and experienced technicians. This eBook presents the
overall information in a concise and precise manner. Ranging from the basic
components, circuits to the more complex equipments and devices, this book
deals with them all.

This eBook revolves around the implementation of electronic projects, such as

electronics and electrical components working, their selection, and assembly in
a power circuit including testing, cautions and precautions to consider, in
addition to the programming concepts.

This eBook also emphasizes more on the practical application-based examples

in order to enhance the knowledge of the reader. In the concluding sections of
this book, some of the questions and answers are discussed that are relevant to
the topic to ensure that the reader thinks in an unusual way about various
concepts.

- Edgefx Technologies
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1

Basic Electronic Components Usage and Their Testing

1.1 Resistors 1
1.1.1 Types of Resistors 2
1.1.2 Methods to Measure Resistance Values 4
1.1.3 Use of Resistors in Electronic Circuits 5
1.2 Capacitors 7
1.2.1 Types of Capacitors 7
1.2.2 How to Know the Value of Capacitors? 8
1.3 Inductors 10
1.3.1 Types of Inductors 10
1.4 Diodes 12
1.4.1 Types of Diodes 12
1.4.2 Testing of Diodes 15
1.5 Transistors 18
1.5.1 Types of Transistors 18
1.5.2 Testing of Transistors 19
1.6 Introduction to Integrated Circuits (ICs) 22
1.6.1 Operational Amplifiers 22
1.6.2 OPAMP Applications 22
1.6.3 555 Timers 25
1.6.4 Modes of Operation of a Timer 25
1.7 Switching Devices 33
1.7.2 Relays 26
1.7.3 Relay Operations in a Practical Circuit 29
1.8 DC Motors 29
1.8. 1 Ways to Control the Speed of a DC Motor 29
1.9 Indicating Meters 30
1.9.1 Multimeter 30
1.9.2 Types of Multimeters 31
1.10 Microcontroller 32
1.11 Display Systems 33
1.11.1 Types of Display Systems 33
1.12 Circuit Designing Boards 35

Chapter 2

Soldering procedure while assembling the Components

2.1 Soldering 36
2.2 Forms of Soldering 37
2.3 Soldering Tools 37
2.4 Entire Soldering Course of Action 39
2.5 Steps to Keep in Mind for Soldering Safely? 40
2.6 Tips & Tricks for Soldering 41

Chapter 3

Steps for Building an Electronic Circuit

3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 Regulated DC Power Supply to Run an LED Circuit Design 42
3.3 More Examples for Practice 49
3.4 Circuit Simulation using PROTEUS Software 52
Chapter 4

Steps for Building Microcontroller based Electronic Circuits 57

4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 Steps Involved in Developing the Project 58
4.3 More Examples for Practice on Microcontroller Projects 64

Chapter 5

A few Common Mistakes While Working on Electronics Workbench 71

5.1 Common Mistakes while Handling Electronic Circuits 71

Chapter 6

Troubleshooting and Testing of an Unhealthy Electronic Circuit

6.1 Introduction to Troubleshooting and Testing 74

6.2 Troubleshooting Tools 75
6.3 Tips for Troubleshooting the Electronics Circuit 75

Chapter 7
Question and Answers 77
Ending Stuff 86

About the Authors

Rights to the Readers

Legal Information

Correspondence
 Electronic
Introduction Project
Its our previlage to introduce this document with some practical examples to show exactly what electronics
projects are all about. The following figure depicts several electrical and electronic components that are
assembled in a way to obtain a desired output, and the components include resistors, capacitors, diodes,
LEDs and so on.

By observing all these Push Buttons

LEDS

components in this project, one Main Controller

ICs

will acknowledge that before

initiating to start, develop, and Capacitors

build any electronic project, the

Diodes
first and foremost thing is to Cables/Chords

know about all these components

their usage, the way in which
they are assembled and tested,
their soldering process, trouble Transformer
Resistors
shooting methods, results cross Multimeter/Indicator
checking methods, and so on.

Electronic Project

Furthermore, the way of implementing the project has to come across various levels of platforms like
simulation, bread board and printed circuit boards (PCBs). All these levels produce an efficient and reliable
end circuit the one you will find in this document as well.
 Chapter 1

Basic Electronic Components Usage and Their Testing

1.1 Resistors

Resistors are the most commonly used components in electronic circuits and devices.
The main purpose of a resistor is to maintain specified values of voltage and current in an electronic circuit. A
Resistor works on the principle of Ohms law and the law states that the voltage across the terminals of a
resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.

................................................................................................

1.1.1 Types of Resistors

Surface Mount
Wire-wound Resistors Wire Wound Resistors
Resistors
These resistors vary in physical appearance and size.
These wire-wound resistors are commonly a length of wires usually
Thick film Resistors

SIP Network Resistor

made of an alloy such as nickel, chromium, or copper-nickel -manganese Thin film resistors

alloy. These resistors are the oldest type of resistors with excellent
properties like high-power ratings and low-resistive values. During their use,
these resistors could become very hot, and for this reason, they are housed in Variable Resistors

a finned metal case.

................................................................................................

Metal-Film Resistor

These resistors are made from metal oxide or small rods of

ceramic-coated metal. These are similar to carbon-film resistors,
and their resistivity is controlled by the thickness of the coating layer.
The properties like reliability, accuracy and stability are all considerably better for these resistors. These
resistors can be obtained in a wide range of resistance values (from a few Ohms to millions of Ohms).

2
Thick-film and Thin-film

Thin-film resistors are made by sputtering some resistive material on to an insulating substrate (a method of
vacuum deposition), and are therefore more expensive than the thick-film resistors. The resistive element of
these resistors is approximately 1000 Angstroms. Thin-film resistors possess better temperature coefficients,
lower capacitance, low parasitic inductance and low noise.
Usually thick-film resistors are made by mixing ceramics with powered glass, and these films have tolerances
ranging from 1 to 2%, and a temperature coefficient between + 200 or +250 and -200 or -250, respectively.
These are widely available as low-cost resistors and compared to the thin-film, the thick-film resistive
element is thousands times thicker.

Surface Mount Resistors

Surface mount resistors come in a variety of packages, sizes and shapes agreed by the EIA (Electronic
Industry Alliance). These are made by depositing a film of resistive material and thus lack enough space for
color-code bands, owing to their small size.

The tolerance may be as low as 0.02%, and consists of 3 or 4 letters as an indication. The smallest size of the
0201 package is a tiny 0.60mm x 0.30mm resistor, and this three-number code works in a similar way to the
color-code bands on wire-ended resistors.

Network Resistors

Network resistors are a combination of resistances that give identical value to all pins. These resistors are
available in dual inline and single inline packages. Network resistors are commonly used in applications such
as ADC and DAC, pull up or pull down.

Variable Resistors

Most commonly used types of variable resistors are potentiometers and presets. These resistors consist of
fixed value of resistance between two terminals and are mostly used for setting the sensitivity of sensors and
voltage division. A wiper (moving part of the potentiometer) changes the resistance that can be rotated with
the help of a screw driver.

A resistors value is calculated in terms of its resistance. Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current.

3
1.1.2 Methods for Measuring Resistance Values

To find out the color code of a resistor, this standard mnemonic is helpful: B B Roy of Great Britain has a Very
Good Wife (BBRGBVGW). This sequential color code helps us to find out the resistor value by merely seeing
the colors on the resistors.

Using color code:

Each resistor consists of a 4, 5, or 6 color bands

on its surface. The first three (two) colors
represent the resistor value, whereas the 4th
(third) color represents the multiplier value, and
the last one represents the tolerance.

The trick here for the easy finding of the value

of the resistor is this: remember the third band
value. If the third band is black, then ignore
that band because it is a multiple of one, and
the value of the resistor in terms of two digits
is 10,20,50Ohms,respectively.

If the third band is brown, then the value of the

resistor is in terms of hundreds, and if it is orange
it is something like kilo Ohms. In this way, you
can easily find out the value of the resistor by
remembering color codes and their numeric
values.

Resistors color code

4
Using Multimeter:

A simple way to measure resistance is by using a multi-meter. A multi-meter measures the resistance value in
Ohms. There are different types of multi-meters available in the market, which we will discuss in the
subsequent pages of this eBook. There are some rules, as mentioned below, that need to be followed prior to
testing resistance by using a multi-meter.

Put the pointer of the multi-meter in Ohms

mode.

Place the resistor between the two probes

of multi-meter.

If you want a precise resistor value, then

change the pointer to a different range, which
is indicated in the multimeter as 200, 2k,
200k, etc. Therefore, based on the range of
the resistor value, you can change the pointer
to get precise value of the resistor.

Resistance Testing
..............................................................................................................................................................

1.1.3 Use of Resistors in Electronic Circuits

SW1
1. To limit the current to a circuit operating
range: In the below circuit, the current to the LED SW-SPST

is limited by this resistor because full voltage cannot 1k

be applied to the LED, which may result in burning B1

D1
of the LED when the current reaches to infinite levels.
12V
LED-YELLOW

Current Limiting with Resistor

5
2. As a potential divider:

Sometimes the circuit components require reduced voltage levels

than the actual supplied voltage. At that time, these resistors act
as voltage dividers, as shown in the figure. In this combination, the
8K and 4K resistors deliver load voltage (4V) from the actual supplied
voltage (12V).

There is also a possibility of connecting the above diagram with

some simple modifications for varying the voltage across the load. Resistance as Potential Divider

Variable Potential Divider

In the above diagram, a 4K variable resistor is connected in two configurations: in the first configuration, the
voltage across the load varies between 0 to 4 V, by changing the slider from bottom to top. Similarly, in the second
configuration, the voltage range is same, but the precision of these values is changed because the portion of the
4K is by passed from 4K to zero Ohms while the wiper is moved from top to bottom.

This is how one can use the resistors in electronic circuits by knowing their values by color codes or by a
multimeter placing in accordance with the load requirement.

6
1.2 Capacitors

Capacitor is one of the most widely used components in electronic circuit design. It plays an important role in
many of the embedded applications. It is available at different ratings. It consists of two metal plates separated by
a non-conducting substance, or dielectric. A capacitor is a linear passive component used to store electrical
charge and provides reactance to the flow of current. Basically, a capacitor consists of a pair of electrodes,
between which is an insulated dielectric material. The unit of capacitance is farad.

..............................................................................................................................................................

1.2.1 Types of Capacitors

1. Film Capacitors

Film Capacitors are the most explicitly ready among the numerous types of capacitors,
comprising of a generally expansive group of capacitors with the distinction of being in
their dielectric properties. They are available in almost any value, and voltages as high
as 1500 volts. They come in any tolerance ranging from 10% to 0.01%. The Film Film Capacitors
capacitors come with a combination of shapes and case styles.
There are two types of film capacitors: radial lead type and axial lead type. The electrodes of
the film capacitors may be metalized aluminum or zinc, applied on one or both sides of the plastic film,
resulting in metalized film capacitors called film capacitors.

..............................................................................................................................................................

2. Ceramic Capacitors:

Ceramic capacitors are used in high-frequency circuits, such as audio to RF. These are also the best choice
for high-frequency compensation in audio circuits. These capacitors are also called as disc
capacitors. Ceramic capacitors are made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or
ceramic disc with silver, and are then stacked together to make a capacitor. One can
make both low-capacitance and high-capacitance in ceramic capacitors by changing
the thickness of the ceramic disc used.
Ceramic Capacitors

7
3. Electrolytic Capacitors:

These are the most prevalently used capacitors possessing a wide tolerance capacity. Electrolytic capacitors are
available with working voltages up to 500V; although the highest capacitance values are not available at high
voltage, higher temperature units are available, but uncommon. There are two types of electrolytic capacitors:
tantalum and aluminum.

4. Variable Capacitors

A Variable Capacitor is one whose capacitance may be intentionally and repeatedly changed mechanically. These
types of capacitors are used to set the frequency of resonance in LC circuits, for instance, to adjust the radio for
impedance matching in antenna tuner devices.

1.2.2 How to Know the Value of Capacitors?

Capacitors value can be found depending on the types of capacitors whether they are
color-coded or numbered. In the color-coded capacitors, the values are represented as color
bands, and by using a capacitors color-code chart, it is easy to identify the capacitor, as shown
in the figure.

1. ?
By identifying the numbers on the capacitors body, the value of the capacitor can be known, as
shown in the figure. The first digit indicates first value, the second digit indicates the second value, the third
digit is the multiplier, and the fourth alphabet shows the tolerance value.

Capacitor Color Coding

8
2. By the capacitance indicating meters like capacitor meter and LCR meters, the value of
the capacitor can be known.

Capacitor Number Identification

These capacitors can be used for several functions like filtering, storing, time-constant-based applications,
power-factor-correction equipments, etc. These capacitors are available in different ratings and sizes. The
polarization of these capacitors is known by their leads wherein the longer lead is positive and the shorter one is
negative.
..............................................................................................................................................................

Precaution: Dont touch the leads of the capacitor immediately after switching off the circuit as it may
cause shock. As the energy is stored in the capacitor, it takes time
to discharge. Therefore, it is better to short those terminals for a
while to immediately discharge the capacitor.

This is all about the capacitor types and finding their values with
simple techniques.

Capacitance Testing with LCR meter

9
1.3 Inductors
An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field. It generally
consists of a conductor coil, which offers resistance to the applied voltage. It works on the basic principle of
Faradays law of inductance according to which, a magnetic field is created when a current flows through
the wire and, the electromotive force developed opposes the applied voltage.
..............................................................................................................................................................

1.3.1 Types of Inductors

Air Core Inductors

In this type of inductor, core is completely absent. Air Core Inductors offer high reluctance path for the
magnetic flux, thus less inductance. Air core inductors have larger coils to produce higher flux densities.
These are used in high-frequency applications including TV and radio receivers.

..............................................................................................................................................................

Ferro Magnetic or Iron Core Inductors

Due to their higher magnetic permeability, these inductors have high inductance property. These are high-
power inductors but limited in higher frequency capacity due to the hysteresis and eddy current losses.

Types of Inductors

Ferrite Core Inductors

These are the different types of inductors that are advantageous due to decreased cost and low core losses at
high frequencies. Ferrite is a ceramic-based metal oxide around a mixture of Ferric Oxide Fe2O3. Soft ferrites
are used for the core construction to reduce the hysteresis losses.

10
Toroidal Core Inductors

In these inductors, a coil is wounded on a toroid circular former. Flux leakage is very low in this type of inductor.
However, special winding machines are required to design this type of inductor. Sometimes ferrite core is also
used to decrease the losses in the design.
..............................................................................................................................................................

Bobbin based Inductors

In this type, coil is wound on the bobbin. Bobbin wound inductor designs vary widely in terms of power rating,
voltage and current levels, operating frequency, etc. These are mostly used in switch-mode power supplies
and power-conversion applications.
..............................................................................................................................................................

Multi Layer Inductors

A multilayer inductor contains two conductive coil patterns that are arranged in two layers in the upper part of a
multi-layered body. The coils are connected electrically in a consecutive manner in series to two more conductive
coil patterns disposed in the lower part of the multi-layered body. These are mainly used in mobile
communication systems and noise suppression applications.
..............................................................................................................................................................

Thin Film Inductors

These are completely different from the conventional chip-type inductors, and are wound with a copper wire.
In this type, tiny inductors are formed using thin-film processing to create the chip inductor for high-
frequency applications, which ranges from nano Henry.

These are available in different sizes and ratings and the functions of these inductors include filtration, storing
of magnetic energy, flux creation, high-voltage building and opposing sudden changes in current. These
inductors can be tested by using inductance meters or LCR meters.

11
1.4 Diodes

A Diode is a device that restricts a current flow only in one direction. A diode is generally a combination of two
differently doped regions forming a junction at the intersection such that the junction controls the flow of the
charge through the device. These are the main diodes: P-N junction diodes, Photo-sensitive diodes, Zener diodes,
Schottky diodes, Varactor diodes, Photo- sensitive diodes including LEDs, Photo diodes and Photo-voltaic cells.

1.4.1 Types of Diodes

I. P-N Junction Diode

A P-N junction is a semiconductor device, which is formed by a P-type and an N-type semiconductor material. The
P-type has high concentration of holes and the N-type has high concentration of electrons. Holes diffusion is from
P-type to N-type, and electron diffusion is from N-type to P-type. P-N Junction diode can be used as a rectifier
which allows the current to flow in one direction through proper connection. The applications of these diodes
include:

Rectifiers in DC power supply

Demodulation circuits

Clipping and clamping networks

Rectifier Circuit

12
II. Zener Diode:

It is a diode made up of heavily doped P region compared to the N-region, such that it not only allows current flow
in one direction, but also allows the current flow in the opposite direction as well, on the application of sufficient
voltage crossing its breakdown region.

Zener Diode as a voltage regulator: In a DC circuit, a Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator, or as a
voltage reference. The main use of a Zener diode lies in the fact that the voltage across a Zener diode remains
constant for a larger change in input voltage. This makes it possible to use a Zener diode as a constant voltage
device or a voltage regulator.

Zener Diode as a voltage reference: In power supplies and many other circuits, a Zener diode is applicable as a
constant voltage provider, or as a voltage reference. The only condition is that the input voltage should be greater
than the Zener voltage, and the series resistor should have a minimum value such that the maximum current
flows through the device is limited to its rated wattage.

Zener Diode as a voltage clamper: In a circuit involving

AC input source, which is different from the normal P-N
diode clamping circuit, a Zener diode can also be used. The
diode can be used to limit the peak of the output voltage to
a Zener voltage at one side and to nearly about a 0V at the
other side of the sinusoidal waveform.

Applications of Zener Diode

13
III. Light Emitting Diode: It is a special type of P-N junction diode made from the semiconductors like
Gallium Arsenide, which emits light when a suitable voltage is applied. The light emitted by the LED is
monochromatic, i.e., of single color, corresponding to a particular frequency in the visible band of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Applications of Zener Diode

Miniature LEDs

Miniature LEDs are available in the market with a standard size and shape. These LEDs have less than 3mm
diameter, and come with a ready to fit mode; with that they can be directly mounted on the circuit boards. These
LEDs dont need support of any additional cooling systems. In the range of 5v and 12v, different companies
manufacture these LEDs.

LED Stripes

These LED stripes consist of high-powered LEDs that are placed on a thin-flexible circuit board and the backside of
the strip is coated with an adhesive material. Once the power is applied to the LED strip, the whole length of the
strip is illuminated producing a forward light.

High-power LEDs come with different sizes and shapes and a very high output. These LEDs have heat dissipation
so they need to be mounted along with a cooling system (heat sinks), and they can run over 60,000 burning
hours.

Applications of Specific LEDs

As the name indicates these are exclusively manufactured for a particular application only. These applications
include digital display boards in various annunciation systems, digital bill boards, bi color and tri-color LEDs. A
bicolor LED consists of two diodes mounted on a single frame with two pins, in which one pin is anode or cathode.
At different times, this LED can produce two colors while it is in a forward-bias or reverse-bias condition. Similar to
a bicolor diode, a tri color LED consists of two diodes mounted on a single frame, but with three pins.

14
IV. Photo Diode: It is a special type of P-N junction diode whose resistance decreases when light falls
on it. It consists of a P-N junction diode placed inside a plastic enclosure.

The P-N junction may be exposed or packaged with a window to allow light to enter into the P-N junction.
Under the forward-biased state, current passes from the anode to the cathode, while in the reverse-biased
state, the current flows in the reverse direction only if it faces light.

V. Tunnel Diode: It is a heavily doped P-N junction diode wherein the current decreases with
increasing forward voltage. The junction width is reduced with increasing impurity concentration. It is made
from Germanium or Gallium Arsenide.

1.4.2 Testing of Diodes

In multimeter apart from the resistance, current, voltage modes, there is also a diode mode to check various
active components working like P-N junction, Zener, LEDs, etc.

PN Diode:

Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the diode in which the white-band side terminal is cathode
and the remaining is anode. Therefore, connect red probe to the anode and a black to the cathode, and
thus it remains in a forward-biased mode.

If the display shows some resistance value, it

means that the diode is functioning properly.
If it does not show anything, such as 1, it may to
be defective. Similarly, interchange the probes
by connecting the diode in a reverse-bias mode;
if it shows some value of resistance, the diode is
defective because the diode should not conduct
in reverse bias. If it does show anything, which
means it is not a good one.
Testing of Diode

15
LED:
Similar to a P-N diode, LED polarities are also recognized by its leads like longer and shorter for the
anode and cathode terminals, respectively. However, some more methods include flat surface structure
that indicates the cathode, and while in a transparent mode, the bigger terminal is a cathode and the
smaller one is an anode.

In this way, one can recognize the terminals of

the LED. For testing the LED, connect it in the
forward-biased mode with a multimeter by
placing it in the diode mode. If this glow, it means
that it functions properly, or else it is a defective
one. These LEDs are very sensitive to heat;
therefore, take precaution while soldering them
onto the PCB. LED Terminals Identification

The IR LEDs look like white LEDs, but while these are connected to a circuit board they emit infrared light, which
can be sensed by the sensor placed opposite to them. Therefore, the testing is similar to a normal P-N diode which
is in a forward-bias condition, and thus shows some reading in multimeter, while in the reverse-bias condition, it
doesnt show anything. Moreover, it doesnt glow in either of the case.

..............................................................................................................................................................

Photo Diode

Testing of photo diode is not simple because only light falling on it

makes photo diode to conduct. So with multi meter in diode mode it
is not possible to test this but another method is placing the
multimeter in high resistance mode approximately that is selecting
the 2000K.

Afterwards connect the diode in reverse bias condition and allow

some light on it, if multimeter reading changes with changes in
light falling on it indicates that the diode works fine otherwise it
is defective.

16
Zener Diode

Testing of the Zener diode with the multimeter is not simple because the diode needs extra circuitry to know
its rating. In most of the circuits, many technicians get confused to find whether the diode is a normal one or
a Zener diode because the Zener diode looks like a normal diode.

The figure depicted below shows how the Zener diode can be tested with a multimer. In this setup, the Zener
diode is connected in series with a resistance to the main DC power supply. The measured output voltage
across this diode must be, to a certain extent, somewhat less than the main Dc voltage because the Zener
diode conducts only in a reverse-biased condition. If an entire main power is indicated across the Zener
diode, then it could be a normal diode or the rated voltage is less than the supply voltage or the Zener is open.

Zener Diode Testing

In this setup the testing is simulated, wherein 12V

from the battery is applied to the Zener diode
through a resistor. The voltage across the zener
diode is approximately 6.2V because the rating of
the Zener diode is 6V. So, this diode is functioning
properly.

Testing of Zener Diode

17
1.5 Transistors
Transistors are the devices that generally transform resistance from one part of the circuit to another. Transistors
can be voltage-controlled or current-controlled. A transistor can work as an amplifier or as a solid state switch.

1.5.1 Types of Transistors

1. BJT or Bipolar Junction Transistor:

A BJT is a current-controlled device consists of a layer of N-type semiconductor material sandwiched between
two layers of P-type semiconductor material. It consists of three terminals: an emitter, a base and a collector. The
collector-base junction is less doped compared to the emitter-base junction. The emitter-base junction is
forward-biased, whereas the collector base junction is reverse biased in normal transistor operation. Bipolar
Junction Transistors comes as two types, P-N-P and N-P-N.

P-N-P transistor consists of a layer of N-doped semiconductor material between the two layers of P-doped
material. The base current entering in the collector is amplified at its output. That is when the PNP transistor is on
wherein its base is pulled low relative to the emitter. The arrows of the P-N-P transistor symbol the direction of
current flow when the device is in the forward-active mode.

N-P-N transistor consists of a layer of P-doped semiconductor between the two layers of N-doped material. By
amplifying the current at the base, we get the high collector and emitter current. That is when the N-P-N transistor
is on wherein its base is pulled low relative to the emitter.

When the transistor is in on state, the current

flow is in between the collector and the emitter
of the transistor. Based on the minority carriers
in the P-type region, the electrons move from
the emitter towards the collector. It allows
greater current and faster operations; Owing
to this single reason, most of the bipolar
transistors in use today are NPN.

Types of Transistors

18
2. FET or Field Effect Transistor

A FET is a voltage controlled device. The Ohmic contacts are taken from the two sides of the N type bar. It
consists of three terminals: a Gate, a Drain and a Source. The voltage applied across the Gate-Source and the
Drain-Source terminal controls the flow of the current through the device.

It is generally a high-resistance device. It can be a JFET (junction Field effect transistor), which consists of an N-
type substrate, on the side of which a bar of the opposite type, or a MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET) is
deposited, which consists of an insulated layer of silicon oxide between the metallic Gate contact and the
substrate.

Including the above transistors, some of the switching devices used in the electronic circuits are given below.

..............................................................................................................................................................

TRIACS or SCR

An SCR or Silicon Controlled Rectifier is a three

terminal device which is generally used as a solid
state switch in power electronics. It is a combination
of two back-to-back diodes having 3 junctions. The
current through the SCR flows because of the
voltage applied across the anode and cathode, and it
is controlled by the voltage applied across the Gate
terminal. It is also used as a rectifier in AC circuits.

1.5.2 Testing of Transistors Transistor Terminals Identification

BJT

Before testing a transistor we have to identify the terminal of it, and to know that, turn the flat surface of the
transistor up, so the extreme left one is a collector, the middle is base and the right one is an emitter, as
shown in the figure. For the N-P-N and P-N-P transistors identification, we should know the series numbers
such as BC547, 548, 549, which are all NPN transistors in which the arrow represents downwards. Though
this is a very common configuration, many special types have a different configuration.

19
 Before testing a transistor we have to identify the terminal of it, and to know that, turn the flat surface of the
transistor up, so the extreme left one is a collector, the middle is base and the right one is an emitter, as
shown in the figure. For the N-P-N and P-N-P transistors identification, we should know the series numbers
such as BC547, 548, 549, which are all NPN transistors in which the arrow represents downwards. Though
this is a very common configuration, many special types have a different configuration.

For testing a transistor, one must have to imagine that the diodes are connected between the base to the
collector and the base to the emitter pins, but there is no diode in between the emitter and the collector.

Similarly, it shows some value for the base to the emitter, but nothing for the collector to the emitter,

and if this happens for an N-P-N transistor, then it

works fine, otherwise it is defective. Repeat the
same process for a P-N-P transistor by connecting
probes in a reversed order to the process done for
P-N transistor.

We can thus use these transistors for several

functions, but most of the projects use transistors
as switches. The way in which these transistors are
connected to the electronic projects is described Transistor Testing
below.

In the above circuit, if the base to the emitter path is closed, which means, the current passes only from

the collector to the emitter while the LED glows.

This means that when the base is high, then the LED
is turned on because it is then grounded via emitter.
In this way, a transistor is used as a switch in most
of the cases.

Transistor as Switch

20
MOSFET

The terminals are identified by placing the flat

surface to the ground, and then starting from the left
these are represented as a gate, a drain and a source,
as shown in the figure. For testing an N-chanel
MOSFET with a multimeter, put the red probe at the
gate, and the black at the source by putting the
multimeter in a resistance mode. The multimeter
then shows some low resistance between the drain
and the source.
MOSFET Testing

Next, reverse the probes, this time the multimeter shows very-high resistance. If these conditions are
satisfied, then the MOSFET is healthier. However, if both cases show same or very-low value, then it is
defective. The MOSFETs are of N and P types, but most popularly the N-type is preferred for high-frequency
switching operations.
..............................................................................................................................................................

Thyristor or SCR

For testing a thyristor, we have to identify the terminals from

the figure, and the testing involves keeping the meter in
resistance mode because we have to apply some current to it.
Then short the anode and gate terminals because without
triggering by gate it cannot conduct. Therefore, we can
observe some reading on the meter due to its conduction even
after the short is removed, otherwise the Thyristor is defective.

Right side circuit shows the thyristor conduction test wherein

shorting the anode and gate for a moment causes the lights to
Thyristor Testing
turn on. The light can be turned off either by removing the power
supply or by applying a reverse voltage across the thyristor as shown in the other switch of the figure.

Follow the same procedure for finding the terminals and testing of TRIAC.

21
1.6 Introduction to Integrated circuits (Ics)
1.6.1 Operational Amplifiers

Operational amplifiers are the basic building blocks of analogue electronic circuits. They are linear devices with
all properties of a DC amplifier. We can use external resistors or capacitors to the Op Amp in many different ways
to make different forms of amplifies such as Inverting amplifier, Non-inverting amplifier, Voltage follower,
Comparator, Differential amplifier, Summing amplifier, Integrator, etc. Op Amps may be single, dual, quad, and so
on.
..............................................................................................................................................................

1.6.2 OPAMP applications

1. Amplification

The amplified output signal from the Op Amp is the difference between the two input signals.

The diagram shown above is the Op-Amp simple connection. If both the inputs are supplied with the same voltage,
the Op Amp then takes the difference between the two voltages and it becomes 0. The Op Amp
multiplies this with its gain 1,000,000 so the output voltage is 0. When 2 volts is given to one input and 1 volt to
the other, then the Op Amp takes its difference and multiplies it with the gain that is, 1 volt x 1,000,000.
But this gain is very high, so to reduce the gain, the feedback from the output to the input is usually done through a
resistor.
Vcc

+
Output Operational Amplifier
-

Gnd

The diagram shown above is the Op-Amp simple connection. If both the inputs are supplied with the same voltage,
the Op Amp then takes the difference between the two voltages and it becomes 0. The Op Amp multiplies this
with its gain 1,000,000 so the output voltage is 0. When 2 volts is given to one input and 1 volt to the other, then
the Op Amp takes its difference and multiplies it with the gain that is, 1 volt x 1,000,000. But this gain is very
high, so to reduce the gain, the feedback from the output to the input is usually done through a resistor.

22
Inverting Amplifier

Inverting Amplifier

Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in the circuit in such a fashion that R1 feeds the input signal while R2
returns the output to the Inverting input. Here, when the input signal is positive the output remains negative
and vice versa. The voltage change at the output relative to the input depends on the ratio of the resistors R1
and R2. R1 is selected as 1K and R2 as 10K. If the input receives 1 volt and, due to voltage gain R2/R1, which
is 60K/10K = 6 the output becomes 6V.

..............................................................................................................................................................

Non-inverting Amplifier
Vcc

The circuit shown above is a Non-inverting amplifier. Here, the

Non-inverting input receives the signal while the Inverting input Input +
Output
-
is connected between R2 and R1. When the input signal moves R2

either positive or negative, the output will be in phase and keeps

the voltage at the inverting input same as that of Non-inverting
R1

input. The voltage gain in this case will be always higher than Gnd

1 so (1+R2/R1).
Non-inverting Amplifier

23
2. Voltage Follower

Here, it provides high-input impedance and low-output

impedance for the signal .When the input voltage changes,
the output and the inverting input will change equally.
These are also used as buffers in logic circuits.

Voltage Follower

..............................................................................................................................................................

3. Comparator

Operational amplifier compares the voltage applied at one input to the voltage applied at the other input.
When the voltages supplied to both the inputs are of the same magnitude and the same polarity, then the Op-
Amp output is 0Volts. In the below circuit, the voltage at non -inverting terminal + is +3V, and at the
inverting terminal -is 2.5V. So the output is high, and therefore, the LED glows. In this way, one can use this
Op-Amp as comparator in electronic circuits. Most of the digital applications and electronic projects use this
Op-Amp mainly as a comparator circuit.

Some of the Op-Amps are

internally pulled up and some
are not. LM324 is internally
pulled up, where as LM339
is not. So without the resistor
R2, as shown in the above
figure, it will not work.

Op Amp as a Comparator

24
1.6.3 555 Timers

555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit used in a variety of applications like Timer, multi-vibrator, pulse generation,
oscillators, etc. It is a stable timer capable of producing fairly accurate timing pulses. With a mono-stable
operation, the delay is controlled by one external resistor and one capacitor. With a stable operation, the
frequency and duty cycles are accurately controlled by two external resistors and one capacitor.

..............................................................................................................................................................

1.6.4 Modes of Operation of Timer

555 timers possess three operating modes: mono-stable, a stable, and bi-stable. Each mode represents a
different type of circuit that has a particular output.

Astable Mode (Free Running Mode)

An a stable mode has no stable state, and therefore, referred to as astable mode. The output continuously
switches state between high and low without any invention from the user, called wave. This mode of operation can
be used for controlling the speed of a motor by continuously switching the motor on and off at regular intervals of
time, as used in flash lamps and LEDs. It can be used as a clock pulse for the digital IC circuits. It can also be used
as a frequency divider and as a pulse with modulator also.

In astable multi-vibrator mode, the pin2 and pin6 are shortened. The connections remaining constant for pin no 4
and 8, reset pin is connected to positive power supply and pin3 is the output. Capacitor c1 charges via R2 and R3.
When the voltage across the capacitor is 2/3 of the supply, the threshold comparator senses this and ips the
internal circuitry to the other state.

Astable Mode of 555 Timers

25
Then the output becomes low and discharge transistor turns on. The capacitor now discharges through resistor
R2 voltage drops to 1/3 of the supply voltage. At this instant, the trigger comparator senses the capacitor voltage
and ips the circuit back to its initial state. The cycle continuously repeats, and the output is a rectangular
waveform. The output is high while the capacitor charges and low while the capacitor discharges, and also the
charging period is more compared to the discharging period as charging involves two resistors, but for
discharging one resistor is involved, which is shown in the figure.
..............................................................................................................................................................

Mono-Stable Mode (One-Shot)

In this mode of operation, the output stays in low state until it gives a low-trigger input. This type of operation is
used in push to operate systems. When a triggering input is given by the push button, as shown in the below
figure, then the output goes a high state and comes back to its original state after the RC time constant of R6C3.

Monostable multi vibrators have only

one stable state that remains as such
until an input pulse occurs, and if the
pin no. 6 and 7 are shorted, it is called a
monostable multi vibrator. It produces
a single pulse when it is in triggering
state, and then goes back to its normal
state after RC period of time. The output
is high while the input is low, and the Mono-Stable Mode of Timer
output is low while the input is high.

..............................................................................................................................................................

Bistable Mode (Schmitt Trigger)

In the bi-stable state it has two stable states. Taking the trigger input low, makes the output of the circuit high;
taking the reset input low, makes the output of the circuit to go into a low state. This mode can be used in
automated railway system.

These are the timer based operations, and we normally use monostable and astable operations while
implementing projects. Therefore, the readers have to understand these circuits while facing complex circuits.

25
1.7 Switching Devices

Switch is an electro-mechanical component that can make or break an electrical circuit automatically or
manually. A switch mainly works with on (open) and off (closed) mechanism. Numerous circuits hold switches
that control how the circuit works or actuate different characteristics of the circuit. The classification of switches
depends on the connection they make. Two vital components that confirm what sorts of connections a switch
makes are pole and throw.

The terms pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact variations. The number of poles is the number
of separate circuits that are controlled by a switch. The number of throws is the number of separate positions
that the switch can adopt. A single-throw switch has one pair of contacts that can either be closed or opened. A
double-throw switch has a contact that can be connected to either of the two other contacts; a triple-throw has a
contact that can be connected to one of the three other contacts.

..............................................................................................................................................................

SPST

A Single Pole Single throw (SPST) is a basic on or off switch that just connects or breaks the connection between
two terminals. The power supply to a circuit is switched by the SPST switch. These types of switches are also
called as toggle switches. A toggle switch has two contacts: one is input and the other,
output. From the typical light switch diagram, it controls one wire (pole) and makes one connection (throw). This
is an on or off switch. When the switch is closed or on, then the current flows through the terminals and the bulb in
the circuit glows.

SPST Switch

26
SPDT

The single pole double throw (SPDT) switch is a three terminal

switch: one for input and the other two for the outputs. It
connects a common terminal to one or the other to two other
terminals. For using the SPDT as SPST switch, just use the COM
terminal instead of other terminals.

The above circuit diagram clearly demonstrates the process

when the SPDT switch is moved back and forth. This type of
switches is used in a three-way circuit to turn a light on or
SPST Switch
off from two locations: one from the top and the other from the
bottom of a stairway. When the switch A is closed, then the current flows through the terminal and only the
light A remains on, and the light B remains off. When the switch B is closed, then the current flows through
the terminal and only the light B remains on and the light A goes off. In this setup, the two circuits or paths
are controlled by one way or source.

And, the other types of switches include DPST, DPDT and reed switches, but most of the projects use the
above discussed two basic switches.

..............................................................................................................................................................

1.7.2 Relays

Relays are the primary protection as well as switching devices

in most of the control processes or equipments. All the relays
respond to one or more electrical quantities like voltage or
current such that they open or close the contacts or circuits.

Classification or the types of relays depend on the function for

which they are used. Some of the categories include protective,
reclosing, regulating, auxiliary and monitoring relays.

Attraction Type Electromagnetic Relay

27
Attraction Type Electromagnetic Relays

These relays can work with both AC and DC supply and

attract a metal bar or a piece of metal when power is
supplied to the coil. This can be a plunger being drawn
towards the solenoid or an armature being attracted
towards the poles of an electromagnet, as shown in the
figure. These relays dont have any time delays so these
are used for instantaneous operation.

Induction Type Relay

Induction Type Relays

These are used as protective relays in AC systems alone and are usable with DC systems. The actuating force for
contacts movement is developed by a moving conductor that may be a disc or a cup, through the interaction of
electromagnetic fluxes due to fault currents. These are of several types like shaded pole, watt-hour and induction
cup structures and are mostly used as directional relays in power-system protection and also for high-speed
switching operation applications.
..............................................................................................................................................................

Solid State Relays

Solid State uses solid state

components to perform the
switching operation without
moving any parts. The control
energy required is much lower
compared to the output power
to be controlled by this relay
that results in the power gain,
which is higher when compared
to the electromagnetic relays.
These are of different types: reed relay coupled SSR, transformer coupled SSR, photo-coupled SSR, and so on.

28
1.7.3 Relay Operation in practical circuit

In most of the electronic circuits relays

are used as isolation devices for isolating
a signal level circuit from the power level
circuit. In the below figure, a relay is used
to switch the load as well as to isolate this
load from the electronic circuit due to
different voltage levels. When the switch
SW1 is closed, the relay coil gets the
supply from a battery through a transistor.
This coil emerging attracts the contact
which moves from NC to NO such that a
lamp glows.
Relay Operation

..............................................................................................................................................................

1.8 DC Motor
DC motor speed control is one of the most useful features of the motor. By controlling the speed of the motor, you
can vary the speed of the motor according to the requirements and can get the required operation. Most of the
projects use this motor for performing mechanical actions.

1.8.1 Ways to Control the Speed of a DC Motor

1. Flux Control Method

In this method, the magnetic flux due to the field

windings is varied in order to vary the speed of the motor.
As the magnetic flux depends on the current flowing
through the field winding, it can be varied by varying the
current through the field winding. This can be achieved
Flux Control of DC motor
by using a variable resistor in a series with the field
winding resistor.

29
2 Armature Control Method

With this method, the speed of the DC motor can be controlled by controlling the armature resistance to control
the voltage drop across the armature. This method also uses a variable resistor in series with the armature.

When the variable resistor reaches its minimum value, the

armature resistance is at normal one, and therefore, the
armature voltage drops. When the resistance value is
gradually increased, the voltage across the armature
decreases. This in turn leads to decrease in the speed of
the motor.

Armature Control of DC motor

3. Voltage Control Method

Both the above mentioned methods cannot provide speed control in the desirable range. Moreover, the flux
control method can affect commutation, whereas the armature control method involves huge power loss due to
its usage of resistor in series with the armature. Therefore, a different method is often desirable the one that
controls the supply voltage to control the motor speed.

In such a method, the field winding receives a fixed voltage, and the armature gets a variable voltage.

..............................................................................................................................................................

1.9 Indicating meters

1.9.1 Multimeter

A Multimeter is an electronic instrument, every electronic technician and engineer widely uses this piece of test
equipment. Multimeter is mainly used to measure the three basic electrical characteristics of voltage, current
and resistance. It can also be used to test continuity between two points in an electrical circuit. The following
description mainly describes the basic information of a multimeter, its applications and types.

30
1.9.2 Types of Multimeters
There are different types of multimeter like Analog, Digital and Fluke multimeters.

..............................................................................................................................................................

Digital Multimeter

The most widely used multimeter is a digital multimeter (DMM). A DMM

performs many functions from AC to DC. It has two probes: positive and
negative that are indicated with black and red color, as shown in the
figure. The black probe is connected to a COM JACK and the red probe is
connected by user requirement to measure ohm, volt or amperes. The
jack marked V and the COM jack on the right of the picture are used for
measuring voltages, resistance and for testing a diode. The two jacks are
used when a LCD display shows what is being measured (volts, ohms, Dc
amps, etc.). An overload protection prevents damage to the meter and the
circuit, and thus protects the user.
Digital Mulitmeter
..............................................................................................................................................................

Analog Multimeter

An Analog Multimeter or VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter) is constructed

using a moving coil meter and a pointer to indicate the reading on the
scale. The moving coil meter consists of a coil wound around a drum
placed between two permanent magnets.

As current passes through the coil, a magnetic field is induced in the coil
which reacts with the magnetic field of the permanent magnets and the
resultant force causes the pointer attached to the drum to deflect on the
scale, indicating the current reading. It also consists of springs attached
to the drum which provides an opposing force to the motion of the drum to
control the deflection of the pointer. Analog Multimeter

31
Fluke Multimeter

Fluke multimeters are protected against the transient voltage. It is a

small portable device used to measure voltage, current and test diodes.
This multi meter has multi selectors to select a desired function. The
fluke MM automatically ranges to select most measurements and also
measures an AC current.

This means that the magnitude of the signal need not have to be known or
determined to take an accurate reading; it directly moves to the
appropriate port for the desired measurement. A fuse attached with this
multimeter prevents damages if the multimeter is connected to a wrong
port.

Fluke Multimeter

1.10 Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a small, low-cost and self contained computer-on-a-
chip that can be used as an embedded system. A few microcontrollers may
utilize four-bit expressions and work at clock rate frequencies, which usually
include:

An 8 or 16-bit microprocessor

A little measure of RAM

Programmable ROM and flash memory

Parallel and serial I/O

Timers and signal generators

Analog to Digital and Digital to Analog conversion

32
Microcontrollers usually must have low-power requirements since many devices they control are battery-
operated. Microcontrollers are used in many consumer electronics, car engines, computer peripherals and test or
measurement equipment. And these are well suited for long lasting battery applications. The dominant parts of
microcontrollers being used nowadays are implanted in other apparatus.

These microcontrollers are the heart of the projects in many microcontroller based projects. For more information
about the microcontroller types and their programming, you can refer our first eBook that covers this topic in
detail.

..............................................................................................................................................................

1.11 Display systems

Display devices are the output devices for presentation of information in text or image form. An output device is a
device that provides a way to depict information to the outside world. For displaying information in an appropriate
manner, display devices need to be controlled by some other external devices. Controlling can be done by
interfacing these displays with the controlling devices.

1.11.1 Types of Display Systems

Display Using LED

Light emitting diode (LED) is the most commonly used device for displaying the status of microcontroller pins.
These display devices are commonly used for the indication of alarms, inputs and timers. There are two ways in
which we can connect LEDs to a microcontroller unit. These two ways are active high logic and active low logic.
Active high logic means LED will be on if the port pin is 1 and LED will be off if the pin is 0. Active high means LED
will be off when the port pin is 1 and LED will be on when the port pin is 0.

Display Using LED

33
7-Segment LED Display

7-Segment LED display can be used for displaying digits and a few characters. A seven-segment display consists
of 7 LEDs arranged in the form of Square 8 and a single LED as dot character. Different characters can be
displayed by selecting the required LED segments. A 7-seven segment display is an electronic display, which
displays 0-9 digital information. They are available in common cathode mode and common anode mode. There
are state lines in the LED, anode is given to the positive terminal and cathode to the negative terminal, and then
the LED glows.

In a common cathode, the negative terminals of all

LEDs are connected to the common pins to the ground,
and a particular LED glows when its corresponding pin
is given high. The cathodes of all LEDs are connected
together to a single terminal, and the anodes of all
LEDs are left alone.

In a common anode arrangement, the common pin is

given a high logic and the LED pins are given low to
display a number. In common anode, all the anodes
7-Segment LED Display
are connected together and all the cathodes are left
alone. Thus when we give, the first signal is high or 1,
then only, there is a lean in the display, if not, there is
no lean in the display.

Dot Matrix LED Display

A Dot matrix LED display contains a group of LEDs as a

two-dimensional array. They can display different
types of characters or a group of characters. Dot
matrix display is manufactured in various dimensions.
Arrangement of LEDs in the matrix pattern is made in
either of the two ways: Row anode-column cathode or
Row cathode-column anode. By using this dot matrix
display, we can reduce the number of pins required for Dot Matrix LED Display
controlling all the LEDs.

34
A dot matrix is a two-dimensional array of dots used to represent characters, symbols and messages. Dot matrix is
used in displays. It is a display device used to display information on many devices like machines, clocks, railway
departure indicators, etc.

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Liquid crystal display (LCD) has a material that joins together the properties of both liquid and crystals. They have
a temperature range within which the particles are essentially as mobile as they might be in a liquid; however,
they are gathered together in an order form similar to a crystal.

An LCD is much more informative output device than a

single LED. An LCD is a display that easily shows characters
on its screen. It has a couple of lines to large displays. Some
LCDs are specially designed for specific applications to
Liquid Crystal Display
display graphic images. 162 LCD (HD44780) module is
commonly used. These kinds of modules are being replaced by 7-segments and other multi-segment LEDs.

LCD can be easily interfaced with a microcontroller to display a message or status of the device. It can be
operated in two modes: 4-bit mode and 8-bit mode. This LCD has two registers: command register and data
register. It has three selection lines and 8 data lines. By connecting the three selection lines and data lines with
the microcontroller, the messages can be displayed on the LCD.

..............................................................................................................................................................

1.12 Circuit Designing Boards

PCBs

Printed Circuit Board is essential for building a circuit. A PCB is used

to arrange the components and connect them with the electrical
contacts. Generally preparing a PCB requires a lot of effort like
designing the PCB layout, fabricating and testing the PCB.
Commercial type of PCB design is a complicated process involving
the drawing using PCB design software like ORCAD, EAGLE, making
mirror sketch, etching, tinning, drilling, etc.

PCBs

35
These are of different types: single-sided, double-sided and
multilayer types. In order not to confuse readers further, the
circuit boards designing concept is not being dealt in-depth.
However, these boards are very important to do the projects in an
effective and best manner. Bread board implementation is a bit
complex process and involves usage of lots of wires for making
connections, as shown below in the figure. For a simple circuit
implementation and learning, it is better to use a bread board.
Bred board

It is our suggestion to use the simulation software wherever possible to test these electronic circuits first, and
then go for a real-time implementation by using a breadboard or PCBs.

Chapter 2

Soldering Procedure while Assembling the Components

Soldering Process, Tools, Tips & Tricks

2.1 Soldering

A procedure in which two or more metal products are fixed as

one by liquefying and running a space-filler metal (solder) in the
joint is known as Soldering. The space filler metal has lower
liquefying or melting temperature than the working piece.
Soldering is applied in electronics, plumbing and meta-work
from flashing to ornaments.

Soldering Procedure

36
2.2 Forms of Soldering

Soldering is differentiated into two forms:

1. Soft Soldering: It is a procedure for fixing very minute complex parts possessing low melting temperature,
which have been damaged during the soldering procedure performed at high temperature. In the soft soldering
process, a tin-lead alloy is used as space filler metal. The liquefying temperature of the space filler alloy must not
be less than 400oC or 752oF. As a heat source, a gas torch is used for the process. A few examples of the soft-
soldering metals include: tin-lead for common usage; cadmium-silver for strength at higher temperature; tin-zinc
for bonding aluminum; lead-silver for strength above room temperature; zinc-aluminum for aluminum and
deterioration confrontation; and tin-silver and tin-bismuth for electrical products.

2. Hard Soldering: In this procedure, a hard solder unites two parts of metals by spreading out into the holes of
the work-piece that are opened due to high temperature. The space filler metal holds higher temperature more
than 450oC or 840oF. It consists of two elements: brazing & silver soldering.

Silver Soldering: It is an unsoiled procedure helpful to fabricate tiny equipments, carrying out odd maintenance
and manufacturing tools. It makes use of an alloy including silver as space filler metal. Though silver gives free
running distinctiveness, yet silver soldering is not recommended for space filling, and therefore, different flux is
suggested for precise silver soldering.

Brazing: Brazing is a procedure for uniting two parts of the base metals by creating liquefied metallic space filler,
which runs by vessel attraction through the joints and cools down to give a hard union via atomic magnetism and
diffusion. It generates a very sturdy joint. It makes use of a brass metal as a space filler agent.

..............................................................................................................................................................

2.3 Soldering Tools

1. The Soldering Iron or Gun: The primary thing you need here is a soldering iron, which is used as a heat source
for melting solder. Soldering guns of 15W to 30W series are fine for the majority of electronics or printed circuit
board job. For soldering heavy pieces and thick cable, you need to spend on an iron of higher wattage approx 40W
and above or a larger solder gun.

The major distinction between an iron and a gun is that an iron looks like a pencil and comprises a pin-point heat
supply for exact job, whereas a gun is in a common gun shape with a higher wattage point heated by running
electrical current straightforward through it.

37
For a hobbyists electrical usage, a soldering iron is usually a device of choice as it has pointed tip, and its low
temperature facility is best suited for a printed-circuit-board job (like putting together kits). A solder gun is
normally applied in hardware soldering like fixing heavy measure cables, soldering band to a chassis or stain
glass job.

2. Solders: Solder space filling materials are available in the form of several different alloys forvarious
applications. In an electrical gathering, the eutectic alloy of 37% lead & 63% tin or 60 by 40, which is nearly
equal in liquefying temperature is the filling material of choice. Other filling material alloys are used for
mechanical assembly, plumbing and for many more applications.

Regular soldering formulations are based on tin and lead, they are mentioned below. The division symbolizes
fraction of tin initially, and then lead adding up to 100%.

63/37: dissolves at 183 C or 361 F (eutectic: the mere mix that dissolves at a point, instead of over a range)

60/40: dissolves amid 183190 C or 361374 F

50/50: dissolves amid 185215 C or 365419 F

Other ordinary solders comprise low-temperature formulations (habitually bismuth), which are regularly applied
to join previously soldered joints, without unsoldering former links; and the high-temperature formulations
(habitually contain silver), which are applied for high-temperature process, or for initial fixing of pieces that are
not capable of turning into unsoldered pieces during further processing.

Alloying silver together with new metals alters the liquefying temperature, bondage, wet characteristics, and
tensile potency. Of the entire brazing alloys, silver-solder alloys possess maximum strength and are widely
applicable. Special alloys exist with characteristics like- high strength, improved electrical conductivity and
higher deterioration confrontation.

38
A few of the other soldering associated objects are given below:

Soldering Iron: A solder iron is a device used for soldering by

hands. It delivers heat to soften the solder so that it can run into
the gaps amid two work pieces. Soldering irons are frequently
brought into play for setting up, maintenance, and limited
fabrication work in electrical assembly.

Solder Flux: A flux is a chemical clean-up material, pouring

agent, or distilling agent. In soldering metals, flux serve in
three-fold function: it eradicates rust from the objects to be
soldered; it shuts air out as a result stopping extra rust, and by
Soldering Tools
facilitating mix improves dripping uniqueness of the fluid
solder.

Soldering Paste: Soldering cream or solder paste is employed to join the leads of incorporated chip
packages to connection ends (lands) in the circuit blueprint on a printed circuit panel.
..............................................................................................................................................................

2.4 Entire Soldering Course of Action

The fundamental soldering process is executed by the following steps:

1. Tin the Soldering Tip: Prior to bringing into play a fresh solder tip or a previous grimy tip, we should tin that
tip. The procedure of covering a soldering tip in the midst of a thin cover of solder is known as tinning. This
helps in transferring heat amid the tip and the part youre soldering. It also provides the solder a foundation
from which it flows.

2. Heat up the Iron: Heat up the solder iron or gun carefully. Make certain that it has completely reached to a
temperature as you are about to liquefy loads of solder on it. This is particularly vital because if the solder
iron is new it possibly will be enclosed within some sort of covering to put off rust.

3. Set Up a Little Space: As the soldering gun is heating up, set up a small space to toil. Get a small piece of wet
sponge and put it in the bottom of your soldering guns stand, or in a bowl close at hand. Put down a portion of
cardboard in situation you drop solder iron (you possibly can) and make certain you have space to toil at
ease.

39
4. Coat the Tip of the Solder Gun Thoroughly: Thoroughly cover the tip of the soldering gun in a soldering
cream. It is extremely vital to coat the complete tip. You will make use of a significant amount of solder
cream throughout this procedure and it will ooze, so be prepared. If you leave any point of the tip
exposed, it develops a tendency to gather flux remainders and will not conduct temperature splendidly.
Therefore,coat the solder gun tip up and down entirely around it to completely wrap it in a liquefied
solder.

5. Clean the Soldering Gun Tip: As you are sure that the solder tip is completely covered in the solder, clean
up the tip on the damp piece of a sponge to get rid of the entire flux remainder. Carry out this activity without
delay ensuring that there is no instance for the flux to dry off and go hard.

You are done! You just have tinned your soldering iron tip. This ought to be done anytime you substitute the tip or
wipe it so that the soldering iron retains the first-class heat transferring abilities.

2.5 Steps to keep in mind for soldering safely?

As soldering in general is not a dangerous activity, but still there are some points that should be kept in mind. The
primary and the most evident thing is that soldering is done at high temperatures. Soldering guns have a
temperature of approx 3500 F or more, and can cause serious burns, very rapidly. Therefore, ensure and make use
of a stand to hold the solder iron and keep the wire away from highly crowded areas. Solder iron itself can drop;
therefore, evade soldering above uncovered parts of the body.

Make sure to work in a properly lit room or region where you have ample space to spread out different scattered
parts all around. Make sure that your face is never over and above the soldering points because smokes from the
flux and other coverings will disturb your respiratory system and eyes. Most of the soldering comprises lead;
therefore, you must evade touching your face while operating with a solder iron, and at all times, rinse your hands
prior to eating anything.

40
What is Solderability?

Solderability of a substrate is an evaluation of the easiness with which a solder assembly can be crafted to that
bits and pieces.

2.6 Tips & Tricks for Soldering

Soldering is the process that requires practicing the most. These tips must assist you to become successful in
your endeavor, and if anything goes wrong, you can stop practicing it, and get ready to do some serious tasks.

Use Heat sinks: Heat sinks are a necessity for the wires of sensitive gears like transistors & ICs. If you do not
have a clip on heat sink, then a couple of pliers are an excellent alternative.

Keep the solder iron tip neat: A neat iron tip signifies improved heat conductivity and an improved joint. Make
use of a damp piece of sponge to wipe off the tip amid joints. Maintain the tip of solder well tinned.

Double check joints: When complicated circuits are being assembled, it is a fine practice to verify joints after
soldering them. Bring into play a magnifying glass to visually scrutinize the joint and a measuring device to
test resistance.

Solder minute parts initially: Solder jumper leads, resistors, diodes and all other minute parts prior to moving
ahead to solder bigger parts such as transistors & capacitors. This formulates assembling much effortless.

Fit sensitive parts at the end: Put in MOSFETs, CMOS, ICs and other stagnant sensitive parts at the end to
evade damaging them while assembling the other components.

Use sufficient aeration: The majority of soldering fluxes must not suck in air. Evade breathing the fumes
formed and make certain that the region you are functioning in has sufficient aeration to put a stop to buildup
of toxic smoke.

41
 Chapter 3

Steps to Build Electronic Circuits

3.1 Introduction

There can be many reasons why we need to build a circuit. At times we may need to glow a lamp, run a motor, etc.
All these devices: a lamp, a motor, and a LED are what we call as loads. Each load requires a certain current or
voltage to start its operation. This voltage may be a constant DC voltage or an AC voltage. However, it is not
possible to build a circuit just with a source and a load. We need a few more components that help in proper flow
of charge, and process the charge supplied by the source such that appropriate amount of charge flows to the
load.

The common circuit in every electronic project is power supply block. Maximally all the projects use this block to
get regulated DC power supply. So, here is the designing process of this circuit:

..............................................................................................................................................................

3.2 Regulated DC Power Supply to run an LED Circuit Design

Regulated DC Power Supply

42
Theory behind the circuit

AC voltage from the supply at 230V is first stepped down to a low voltage AC using a step-down transformer. A
transformer is a device with two windings: primary and secondary, wherein the voltage applied across the primary
winding appears across the secondary winding by the virtue of inductive coupling. As the secondary coil has
lesser number of turns, the voltage across the secondary coil is less than the voltage across the primary for a step-
down transformer.

1. This low AC voltage is converted to a pulsating DC voltage using a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier is an
arrangement of 4 diodes placed in bridged form in such a way that the anode of one diode and the cathode of
another diode are connected together to a positive terminal of the voltage source; and, in the same way, the anode
and cathode of another two diodes are connected to the negative terminal of the voltage source. Also, the
cathodes of two diodes are connected together to the positive polarity of the voltage, and the anode of two diodes
is connected together to the negative polarity of the output voltage. For each half cycle, the opposite pair of
diodes conducts, and a pulsating DC voltage is obtained across the bridge rectifiers.

2. The pulsating DC voltage thus obtained contains ripples in the form of AC voltage. To remove these ripples a
filter is needed which filters out the ripples from the DC voltage. A capacitor is placed in parallel to the output
such that the capacitor (because of its impedance) allows high- frequency AC signals to pass through by getting
bypassed to the ground and a low-frequency or DC signal is blocked. Thus the capacitor acts as a low-pass filter.

3. The output produced from a capacitor filter is the

unregulated DC voltage. To produce a regulated DC voltage, a
regulator that develops a constant DC voltage is used.

43
Step 1: Circuit Designing

To design a circuit, we need to have an idea about the values of each component required in the circuit. Let us
now see how we can actually design a regulated DC-power-supply circuit.

Decide the regulator to be used and its input voltage

Here our requirement is to have a constant voltage of 5V at
20mA with the positive polarity of the output voltage. For this
reason, we need a regulator that will provide a 5V output. An
ideal and efficient choice for this purpose would be the
regulator IC LM7805. Our next step is to calculate the input
voltage requirement for the regulator. For a regulator, the
minimum input voltage should be the output voltage added by a
value of three. In that case, to have a voltage of 5V, we need a
minimum input voltage of 8V. Let us settle down for an input of Regulator IC
12V.

Decide the value of the filter capacitor

The value of the filter capacitor depends on the amount of the

current drawn by the load; the quiescent current (ideal current)
of the regulator; the amount of allowable ripple in the DC
output; and, the time period.

For the peak voltage across the transformer, the primary to be

17V (12*sqrt2), and the total drop across the diodes to be
(2*0.7V) 1.4V, and the peak voltage across the capacitor is about Filter Capacitor
15V approx. We can calculate the amount of allowable ripple by
the formula below:

V = VpeakCap- Vmin

As calculated, VpeakCap = 15V, and Vmin is the

minimum voltage input for the regulator. Thus, V is (15-
7) = 8V.

Now, the Capacitance, C = (I*t)/ V, Diodes

44
Now, I is the sum of the load current plus the quiescent current of the regulator, and I = 24mA (Quiescent current
is about 4mA and load current is 20mA). Also, t = 1/100Hz = 10ms. The value of t depends upon the frequency
of the input signal, and here the input frequency is 50Hz.

Thus, substituting all the values, the value of the C comes to be around 30microFarad. So, let us select a value of
100microFarad to be on a safer side.

Decide the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of the diodes to be used

Since the peak voltage across the transformer secondary is 17V, the total PIV of the diode bridge is about (4*17),
i.e., 68V. So, we have to settle down for diodes with PIV rating of 100V each. Remember, the PIV is the maximum
voltage that can be applied to the diode in its reverse-biased condition, without causing breakdown.
..............................................................................................................................................................

Step 2. Circuit Drawing and Simulation

Now that you have the idea of the values for each component and the whole circuit diagram, let us get into
drawing the circuit using circuit building software and simulate it.

Circuit Drawing and Simulation

Here, our choice of the software is Multisim.

45
The following are the steps to draw a circuit using Multisim and simulate it.

1. On your windows panel, click on the following link: Start -> Programs > National > Instruments > Circuit
design suite 11.0 > multisim 11.0.

2. A multisim software window appears with a menu bar and a blank space resembling a breadboard, to draw
the circuit.

3. On the menu bar, select place, and then Components.

4. A window appears with the title: select the components.

5. Under the heading Database, select Master Database from the drop-down menu.

6. Under the heading group- select the required group. If you want to go for a voltage or current source or
ground. If you want to go for any basic component like a resistor, a capacitor etc. Here, first you have to place
the input AC supply source, and therefore, select Source >Power Sources > AC power. After the
component is placed (by clicking the ok button), set the value of RMS voltage to 230 V and frequency to
50Hz.

7. Now, again under the components window, select basic, then transformer, and then select TS ideal. Since for
an ideal transformer, the inductance of both the coils is same, to achieve our output, we have to change the
secondary coils inductance. Now, we know that the ratio of the inductance of the transformer coils is equal
to the square of the ratio of turns. As the turns ratio required in this case is 19, therefore we have to set the
secondary coil inductance to 0.27mH. (Primary coil inductance is at 100mH).

8. Under the components window, select basic, then diodes, and then select the diode IN4003. Select 4 such
diodes and place them in a bridge rectifier arrangement.

9. Under the components windows, select basic, then Cap _Electrolytic and select the value of the capacitor to
be 20microFarad.

10. Under the components window, select power, then Voltage_ Regulator, and then select LM7805 from the
drop-down menu.

11. Under the components window, select diodes, then select LED, and from the drop-down menu, select LED
green.

12. Using the same procedure, select a resistor with the value of 100 Ohms.

46
13. As we have known all the components, and have an idea about the circuit diagram, let us get
into drawing the circuit diagram on the multisim platform.

14. To draw the circuit, we have to make proper connections between the components using wires.
To select wires, go to Place, and then to wire. Remember to connect the components only if a
junction point appears. In multisim, the connecting wires are indicated by red color.

15. To get an indication of the voltage across the output, follow the given steps. Go to Place ->
Components - > Indicator, and to Voltmeter, and then select the first component.

16. Now your circuit is ready to be simulated.

17. Now click on Simulate then select Run.

18. Now you can see the LED at the output blinks, which is indicated by the green-color moving
arrows.

19. You can verify whether you are getting the correct value of the voltage across each component
by placing a Voltmeter in parallel.

Simulation of Circuit

47
Step 3: Place the Components in the PCB

After going through this process, one can start building the
above circuit on a PCB by careful soldering as we have
discussed earlier. Place the components in a desired position
on the PCB after testing them to know whether they are
working properly or not.

Assembling Components in PCB

Step 4: Test the Circuit

Test this power supply block with a multimeter by placing it in different positions like transformer, diode output,
capacitor side and also across the regulator.

Testing the Circuit

Based on this simple concept, you can get the basic idea of simulating, assembling and testing of the simple
circuit. For further practice with the basic concepts, you can start doing the following simple electronic circuits
that are simulated in MultiSim software.

48
3.3 More Examples for Practice
1. Overload protection of the transformer

Many of the electronic circuits function improperly due to the overloading of a transformer connected to the
respective circuit. Due to the overloading of the transformer, the current drawn by the circuit will be very high to
increase the heat which in turn causes insulation failure and other problems. This simple circuit operates with the
relay turning off the load when the overload occurs.

Circuit Diagram

Overload protection of the Transformer

Circuit description

This circuit consists of a capacitor that is charged to the voltage given after being rectified from the secondary of a
transformer. Double-pole single-through switch operates the relay contacts. SCR is connected across the load
such that when the current flow is increased to the load, it causes to open the contacts of the relay so that the
circuit is prevented from overvoltage. Relay with two contacts (NO and NC) are connected such that a normal
operating condition blub glows through the NC contact, and when the load current increases, the NO is operated
to indicate the over current by the LED.

..............................................................................................................................................................

Operation

The current starts flowing to the load through the NC contact of the relay when the DPST switch is closed. As the
SCR is still a cutoff region, the relay coil doesnt get energized. This load current can be varied by varying the
potentiometer across the load. This current prompts to trigger the SCR, so that it starts conducting resulting in
the coil to get energized. So the power to the load is interrupted when the current across the load is increased. In
this way, the circuit which is connected to the secondary of the transformer is protected against overloads.

49
2. Fuse failure indication

If any fault occurs in the electric circuit, we cannot predict the fault area without observing inner
parts of the circuit, so we have to unscrew all the parts. Moreover, if it is a fuse failure, which
means, it reduces the time to unscrew all those parts so fuse failure indication is a primary fault
indication.

Circuit Diagram

Fuse failure indication

Circuit Description

It is a simple circuit comprises of simple diodes and LEDs. Green and red LEDs are used to indicate the fuse normal
and blown conditions, respectively. Zener diode is connected in such a way that both the LEDs shouldnt be
conducting at a time. This circuit is designed in such a way that it operates even with the mains power supply.
Here, a lamp is connected as a load.
..............................................................................................................................................................

Operation

In normal operating conditions, the fuse is in active or working condition due to the normal current flowing to the
load. So the green LED glows to indicate that the fuse is in an active state. For the fuse to be in a blown off
condition, there is a simple SPST switch, which is operated so that the current starts flowing through the other
parallel path of this circuit and indicates the fuse blown off state by the red LED.

50
3. DC Motor Control using 555 IC Timer

By using a 555 IC Timer is the simple way of controlling a DC motor. It is the economical way of
controlling low-rated motors. In this simple circuit, the duty cycle of a motor is varied by the timer
so that the motor speed can be changed.

Circuit Diagram

DC motor control using 555 IC Timer

Circuit Description

In this circuit, timer is connected as astable multivibrator. Variable resistor is connected between the seventh and
sixth pins of the timer so as to vary the pulse time period at the output of the timer. The output from the timer
drives the N-P-N transistor to switch the motor on. Here, a lamp is used in place of the motor to observe the
voltage being varied by the intensity of the light. We can place the DPDT switch at the supply contacts of the
motor to control the motor in either direction.

..............................................................................................................................................................

Operation

Timer starts generating the timing pulses according to the RC values when the circuit is switched on. These
pulses drive the N-P-N transistor that acts as switch to the path of the motor load. If a duty cycle is more, the
average voltage applied to the motor is also high, so the motor runs at a high speed; and, if this duty cycle is low,
eventually the motor speed becomes low. In this way, we can control the speed of the motor by simply varying the
potentiometer of the timer.

In addition to the multisim, we will discuss a simulation software used to simulate several electronic circuits, and
has the facility & provision to do the projects on several microcontrollers.

51
3.4 Circuit Simulation using PROTEUS Software
PROTEUS is one of the most famous simulation and PCB designing softwares. It is integrated with the simulation
and basic SPICE simulation capability to make a complete electronics design system. It reduces development
time when compared to the other embedded designing process. Let us see with an example how to use the
PROTEUS software for simulation.

The Following steps are involved in the simulation process using PROTEUS :

STEP 1: Select the device from the display bar by typing the device name (Ex: Logic gates, switches and basic
electronic devices).

PROTEUS Software

STEP 2: Placing the components

Components Library

52
STEP 3: Place <<register>> on the drawing area and right-click on the resistor, and then select <<edit properties>>

Component Range Selection

STEP 4: Component reference: This is assigned automatically.

Component value: Editable

Component Placing

53
STEP 5: Source selection

Source Library

STEP 6: Place voltage source (VSOURCE) in a drawing area, and then right-click on VSOURCE; next select <<edit
properties>>, and then click <<OK>>

Circuit Designing by Proteus

54
STEP 7: Wire connection, click on the wire auto router, and then connect the component terminal as required by
the topology.

Making Connections in Proteus

STEP 8: Adding terminal/Ground: Click on <<Terminal>>, Select <<ground>>, and then place <<Ground>> in the
drawing area.

Circuit Connecting with Ground

55
STEP 9: Output could be the voltage or current of any element in the circuit. Measurements in PROTEUS mostly
the voltage or current probes. The Current probe should be on a horizontal wire.

Circuit simulating in Proteus

There are two types of simulations: Interactive simulation - mostly used for digital signals, and the other Graph
based simulation - mostly used for analog signals.

STEP 10: Click on<<Graph node>>, and select <<Analogue>>, and then place the graph window on the drawing area
<<analogue prospice>>.

Results on Proteus

56
STEP 11: <<Edit Transient Graph>>start/stop time

<<Add Transient Trace>>

Already placed probe waveforms are chosen

Different <<left/right>> y-axis scale could be selected

Then start<<Simulation Run>>

Output Waveforms

Chapter 4

Steps to Build Microcontroller based Electronic Circuits

4.1 Introduction

As we have discussed about the microcontroller earlier, it is a single chip with a processor, memory along with the
input/output pins embedded inside it. We often use microcontrollers for embedded applications, and as a
controller to control any actuators such as motors or displays. So lets look at a step-by-step procedure to build
microcontroller-based projects.

Consider this simple project: designing a LED flash light system using a Microcontroller.

A LED flash-light system can produce light through a light-emitting diode. The incandescent lights used in
traditional flash lights consume more energy and have very less life time. The LED lights on the other hand,
consume less energy and have long life.

57
Basic Idea behind the Design

A Microcontroller generates output logic pulses so that the LED light is switched on and off at frequent intervals.
It is a 40-pin microcontroller. The Crystal interfaced to the input pins of the microcontroller provides accurate
clock signals at the crystal frequency.

4.2 Steps for Developing the Project

Step1: Circuit Designing

A 8051 microcontroller crystal operates at 11.0592 MHz frequency as it can give exact clock pulses for data
synchronizing. Two capacitors are connected to the crystal oscillator with a range of 20pf to 40pf, which is used
to stabilize the clock signals. The 8051 microcontroller at times goes to block the state or missing time
calculation.

At that time we need to reset the microcontroller. When the microcontroller is reset, it takes some time delay with
the help of the 10k resistor and 10uf capacitor.

Circuit Components

Hardware Components Software Components

Yellow LED Keil compiler

Crystal Proteus software

Reset Embedded C language

8051 microcontroller

Capacitors

Resistors

58
Circuit Connections

The 5v DC supply is given to the 40-pin of the microcontroller which drives the circuit. The crystal is connected to
the 18 and 19 pin of the microcontroller. The reset circuit is interfaced at the 9-pin of the microcontroller. The
Yellow LED is connected to the pin P 0.2 of the microcontroller.

Step 2: Microcontroller Program Coding

First open the Kiel uVison2 software. This shows the menu bar with file, edit, view, project and tools option.

Select the project option, and then select the New Project Option from the drop-down menu. Give a name to
the project and click Save button to save the project. A folder named target is created.

Select a microcontroller for your project. For instance, we are selecting Atmel. Select the exact type of the
Atmel microcontroller from the drop-down menu. Here 89C51 microcontroller is selected. A folder with the
name source group is created in the target folder.

Click on the File menu from the menu bar. Select New file from the drop-down menu.

Write the code on the blank space.

Microcontroller Program Coding

59
The LED Flash Light program

#include<reg51.h>
Save this code with .C extension.
sbit LED= P0^2;
Right-click on the source group folder icon and select add
void delay( unsigned int a);
files to group option.
void main()
A window appears. Select the C file to be added.
{ LED=0;
Select the debug menu. It checks the program for any errors.
While (1)
Right click on the target folder icon.
{ LED=0;
Select the option for Target option.
delay(600);
A target window opens with a menu bar. Click on the Target
LED=1;
menu.
delay(600);
Set the crystal frequency for the microcontroller.
}
Click on the Output menu. A window appears.
}
Click on the create hex file button. A hex file is created.
void delay (unsigned int b)

{ unsigned int k;

for(k=0;k<b;k++);

60
Step 3: Circuit Drawing

This circuit is designed with the help of Proteus software. It is circuit designing software having a database of
components which can be used to build the circuit. Each and every component is available in the components
library.

Circuit Drawing

Open the Proteus software. A window with a menu bar appears.

Click on the file menu.

Select new design from the drop down menu.

Click on the library menu.

Select pick devices/symbol from the drop-down menu.

Select the relevant comment by double clicking on it, so that the component appears on the window.

Add all the components and draw the circuit with proper connections.

61
 Simulating the Circuit

Step 4: Code Dumping

Loading the code to the microcontroller is called

dumping. Microcontrollers understand only binary
language. So we need to load the hex code into the
microcontroller. There are lots of softwares available
in the market for loading the code to the
microcontroller. Here, we are using Willer
programmer software to dump the code to the 8051
microcontroller. The programmer kit comes with a
software, along with the hardware kit.
Code Dumping

This software needs to be installed onto the computer. The hardware kit comes with a socket, on which the
microcontroller is placed. Here are the steps to load the code onto the microcontroller:

62
 The hardware (programmer kit) is interfaced to the
computer through a serial cable.

The microcontroller is placed on the socket of the

hardware kit. Press the lock button to ensure the
microcontroller is connected to the board.

Open the software installed in the computer. It will

display some operating modes.

Select any mode. A window with a menu bar appears.

Click on the file menu and select load file option Code Dumping Procedure
from the drop-down menu.

Click on the auto button so that the hex file is loaded

to the microcontroller.

Step 5: Simulating the Circuit

Open the project in the proteus software.
Click on the Debug menu.
Select the Start debugging option. The LED starts
blinking, which indicates the circuit is running.
After some time, select the Stop debugging option. The
LED will then stop blinking.
If the above circuit works good, then go for the
hardware implementation on the PCB as we have
previously discussed about assembling, soldering
and testing the circuit. For further practice with
different microcontroller based projects, you can
follow the below circuits.

63
4.3 More Examples for Practice on Microcontroller Projects
1. LED Interfacing to Microcontroller

Description
+5v
LEDs are most commonly used in many applications for indicating output. They find huge
range of applications as indicators during test to check the validity of the results at LED
different stages. They are very cheap and easily available in a variety of shapes, colors and
sizes.
R
The principle of operation of LEDs is very easy. A simple LED also serves as a basic display
device as its on and off state expresses meaningful information about a device. The
common available LEDs have a 1.7v voltage drop, which means, when we apply above 1.7V,
the diode conducts. The diode needs 10mA current to glow with full intensity.

LED Interfacing to Microcontroller

64
Source code:

#include<reg51.h>
void main()
{
unsignedint I;
while(1)
{
P0=0x00;
for(i=0;i<30000;i++);
P0=0xff;
for(i=0;i<30000;i++);
}
}

2. 7-Segment Display Interfacing Circuit

A Seven-segment display is the most basic electronic display. It consists of eight LEDs that are associated in a
sequential manner so as to display digits from 0 to 9 when proper combinations of LEDs are switched on. A 7-
segment display uses seven LEDs to display digits from 0 to 9 and the 8th LED is used for dot.

7-Segment Display interfacing circuit

65
Source code:

#include<reg51.h>
sbit a= P3^0;
void main()
{
unsigned char n[10]= {0x40,0xF9,0x24,0x30,0x19,0x12,0x02,0xF8,0xE00,0x10};
unsignedinti,j;
a=1;
while(1)
{
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
P2=n[i];
for(j=0;j<60000;j++);
}
}
}

66
3. LCD Interfacing to Microcontroller

LCD stands for a liquid crystal display that displays the characters per line. Here 16 by 2 LCD display can display 16
characters per line and there are 2 lines. In this LCD each character is displayed in 5*7 pixel matrix.

#include<reg51.h>
#define kam P0
sbitrs= P2^0;
sbitrw= P2^1;
sbit en= P2^2;
voidlcd_initi();
voidlcd_dat(unsigned char );
voidlcd_cmd (unsigned char );
void delay(unsigned int );
void display(unsigned char
*s, unsigned char r);
void main() LCD Interfacing to Microcontroller
{
lcd_initi();
lcd_cmd(0x80); voidlcd_initi()
delay(100); {
display("EDGEFX TECHLNGS", 15); lcd_cmd(0x01); voidlcd_cmd(unsigned char cmd)
lcd_cmd(0xc0); delay(100); {
display("KITS & SOLTIONS",15); lcd_cmd(0x38); kam=cmd;
while(1); delay(100); rs=0;
} lcd_cmd(0x06); rw=0;
void display(unsigned char delay(100); en=1;
*s, unsigned char r) lcd_cmd(0x0c); delay(100);
{ delay(100); en=0;
unsignedint w; } }
for(w=0;w<r;w++) voidlcd_dat(unsigned char dat) void delay( unsigned int n)
{ { {
kam = dat; rs=1; unsigned int a;
lcd_dat(s[w]); rw=0; for(a=0;a<n;a++);
} en=1; }
} delay(100); en=0; }

67
4. Stepper Motor Interfacing Circuit

A stepper motor is one of the most commonly used motors for precise angular movement. The advantage of using
a stepper motor is that the angular position of the motor can be controlled without any feedback mechanism. The
stepper motors are widely used in industrial and commercial applications. They are also commonly used as in
drive systems such as robots, washing machines, etc.

Stepper motor interfacing circuit

Source code:

#include<reg51.h> a=0; d=1; void delay()

sbit a=P3^0; b=1; delay(); {
sbit b=P3^1; c=1; a=1;
sbit c=P3^2; d=1; b=1; unsigned char i,j,k;
sbit d=P3^3; delay(); c=1; for(i=0;i<6;i++)
a=1; d=0; for(j=0;j<255;j++)
void delay(); b=0; for(k=0;k<255;k++);
c=1; }
void main() d=1; } }
{ delay();
a=1;
while(1) b=1;
{ c=0;

68
5. Matrix Keypad Interfacing to 8051

Keypad is a widely used input device with lots of applications such as telephone, computer, ATM, electronic lock,
etc. A keypad is used to take input from the user for further processing. Here a 4 by 3 matrix keypad consisting of
switches arranged in rows and columns is interfaced to the microcontroller. A 16 by 2 LCD is also interfaced for
displaying the output.

Matrix keypad interfacing to 8051

Source code:
void main()
{
#include<reg51.h> lcd_initi();
#define kam P0 lcd_cmd(0x80);
sbitrs=P2^0; delay(100);
sbitrw=P2^1; display("0987654321", 10);
sbit en=P2^2; while(1);
sbit c1=P1^4; }
sbit c2=P1^5;
sbit c3=P1^6; void display(unsigned char *s, unsigned char r)
sbit r1=P1^0; {
sbit r2=P1^1;
sbit r3=P1^2; unsigned int w;
sbit r4=P1^3; for(w=0;w<r;w++)
voidlcd_initi(); {
voidlcd_dat(unsigned char );
voidlcd_cmd (unsigned char ); lcd_dat(s[w]);
void delay(unsigned int ); }
void display(unsigned char *s, unsigned char r); }

69
voidlcd_initi() en=1;
{ delay(100);
lcd_cmd(0x01); en=0;
delay(100); }
lcd_cmd(0x38); voidlcd_cmd(unsigned char cmd)
delay(100); {
lcd_cmd(0x06); kam=cmd;
delay(100); rs=0;
lcd_cmd(0x0c); rw=0;
delay(100);
} en=1;
delay(100);
voidlcd_dat(unsigned char dat) en=0;
{
kam = dat; }
rs=1; void delay( unsigned int n)
rw=0; {

unsignedint a;
for(a=0;a<n;a++);
}
}

70
 Chapter 5

A Few Common Mistakes While Working on Electronics Workbench

5.1 Common Mistakes while Handling Electronic Circuits

1. Attaching Batteries

Batteries are the most common source of power supply for most
of the electronic projects. Often in many projects, batteries are
preferred to be used as DC power supplies than using the complex
way of converting the AC supply to DC power. We often see many
people joining batteries head on playfully, sometimes - without
even noticing what they have done. If you give two PP3 batteries
to a person and leave him for a while, most probably, he will have a
curiosity to join them together due to their symmetrical nature.
Attaching Batteries for Projects
But never allow such thing to happen as it could damage your
batteries.

..............................................................................................................................................................

2. Leaving Wire Joints Open

Leaving electrical wire joints open can cause short circuits and the
consequences can be very dangerous. It can lead to a short circuit
damaging not only your circuit but also predisposing it to a great
disaster. You might be well aware of how disastrous a short circuit
can really be. Also, if you dare to hold the uncovered wire joint with
bare hands, it may cause current to pass through your body
(Remember your body is a perfect conductor) and you would be at a
greater risk of getting an electric shock and endangering your life.
So, always cover the open joints with an insulating tape. One more
Open Wire Joints
tip is that make joints at unequal lengths so that it can reduce the
probability of getting shortened.

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3. Misplacing Soldering Iron

Misplacing the soldering iron can cause a lot of damage. If you put
it beside any circuit or wire by mistake, you may cause the wire to
short circuit or the circuit to burn. The solder is actually a molten
metal, and if it comes in connection with the wires accidently, it
can short circuit the wires and also the hot-molten metal can burn
the circuit. We strictly recommend you to use a good soldering
iron stand and never forget to place your iron in the stand. And
also, never ever try to hold the soldering iron tip with bare hands.
Misplacing Soldering Iron

..............................................................................................................................................................

4. Soldering for a Long Time at the Same Place

Never solder a single pin for a long time. Components get overheated and
may get burnt. Also for your circuit to look presentable, remember to
solder the pin in an effective way so that the solder doesnt spread to
nearby places, i.e., to the other holes on the PCB. If you feel that the joint is
not getting soldered properly, then try applying some flux. If you are
soldering any heat sensitive component, then it is recommended to use a
socket for it. If you need to solder it directly, then use a heat sink at the
soldering point so that the heat is dissipated quickly and prevents the
Overheating Of Soldering Iron
component from overheating. A simple crocodile clip will also work as a
heat sink.

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5. Reversing Power Supply Polarity

Most of us might have applied the power supply with wrong polarity
at-least once in a while erroneously. This can damage the circuit
sometimes. To avoid this, we recommend you to use elements
instead of berg sticks, as shown in the figure below, for connecting
power supply, and also use naps for the batteries. For protecting your
circuit from damage when reverse polarity is applied, you can use a
diode with sufficient power ratings in the reverse-bias condition
Power Supply Polarity reversing
connected to the source pins.

6. Touching CMOS ICs with a Charged Hand

CMOS ICs are very sensitive to static charge. They may get damaged
when static charge is applied. Our hands are usually charged when
they get rubbed with other materials like clothes. If we touch CMOS
ICs with our charged hands, it may damage the ICs as our hands are
conductors and a static charge passes through our body. So, the next
time when you are touching a CMOS IC, it is recommended to first
touch a grounded metal like legs of an iron table, so that the static
charge is discharged. These days, some ICs have inbuilt protection Touching CMOS ICs with a Charged Hand

against static charge, but still it is recommended to earth your hands

before touching as the static voltage buildup on our body can be
unbelievably high.

6. Removing ICs from the Socket without Using a Lever

Removing an IC from its socket with our hands can cause the pins to
bend or break. If you want to remove an IC, it is recommended to use
a lever like a screwdriver, as shown in the figure. You can use any
other sophisticated tools if available but never pluck the ICs with
hand.

Removing Ics

73
8. Soldering ICs without Using Sockets
It is not a good practice to solder an IC by hand. If it is soldered for a long time, then the IC can get damaged due to
overheat. So, first solder the IC socket and then insert the IC after the socket gets cooled. One more mistake that
may be possible is soldering the socket when the IC is still inserted in the socket. If that happens, then the socket
solves no purpose. We need to solder the empty socket first and insert the IC after soldering. So, remember never
to solder the IC directly on the circuit board, without using the socket.

Chapter 6

Troubleshooting and Testing of Unhealthy Electronic Circuit

6.1 Introduction to Troubleshooting and Testing

It is very common for the hobbyists and circuit designing learners to anticipate the desired or actual results after
completion of the circuit at once. The unexpected results of the electronics circuit may require some
troubleshooting and testing procedures for making it a ready to use project.

Troubleshooting is the process that determines

the cause of the problem in the electronic circuit
by examining the affected area of it, and then by
taking appropriate action. For minor problems,
troubleshooting requires a little knowledge
about the circuit and its components working
because it involves checking the connections
only. However, the major problems of these
circuits require deeper knowledge of circuit
operation and the way of using various
Troubleshooting and Testing of Electronic Circuit
troubleshooting tools.

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6.2 Troubleshooting Tools

Troubleshooting process involves checking the terminal voltage across different components and devices in the
circuit; checking the continuity of the current for open circuit faults, components like resistor, capacitor,
transistors and their status checking whether they are functioning or not and so on. For doing all these things,
some tools are necessary, which we have already discussed above .Some of these include:

Digital or Analog multimeter

Oscilloscope

LCR meters

Variable Power supply with a metered indication

6.3 Tips to Troubleshoot the Electronics Circuit

Before starting to do the troubleshooting process, some safety and precautionary measures must be taken to
prevent the shocks against the live circuits. This troubleshooting process can be a visual or physical inspection.
Start this process only after confirming the problem in the circuit, which may be about the desired results or
improper working conditions of the circuit.

Visual Inspection

Remove the power supply to the circuit and wait for some
time to discharge current in some components so that you
can hold it without fearing.

Check for the exploded or burnt parts of the circuit by

seeing and smelling them.

Look for the loose, bad connections and also check the
ground paths.

Check for the overlapped traces in the PCB.

Observe the soldered points whether they are correctly

soldered or not. And also, check for the shorts or touches Shorts on the adjacent soldered points

on the adjacent soldered points.

If anyone of the above mentioned things happens, then go for the required action like de-soldering the shorted
points, soldering the loose parts or the connections, replacing the burnt components with the new ones, etc.

75
Practical Assessment

If the problem is not solved by the above process, then it has to be confirmed that the problem in the circuit is a
major one. This procedure must be carried out by plugging the circuit to the main power supply so that it is
possible to test in different ways.

Power supply block checking: Keep the multimeter probes across the transformer, diodes, capacitor and
regulator IC, and check whether appropriate values are found or not by inserting the multimeter in volts
mode.

Check the Individual Components: Check the voltage across individual component, and if any component
doesnt show any voltage across it, then switch off the supply, and then again test the components by
respective meters like LCR for capacitor, diode by multimeter, and so on.

Check the main controller: Test the main controller base power supply with respect to the ground without
placing controller on it. And also, check whether some pins are shorted or not for special ICs like timer and
Op- Amps and, for the microcontroller, check respective power supply pins voltage.

Place the ICs on the base, and give the input to the controller and then check whether the output control signals
are coming or not at appropriate pins.

Check the loads by metered power supply: Check the outputs by removing the main controller like
microcontroller signal to final control devices and apply metered-power supply so that the problem area can
be easily recognized.

76
 Chapter 7

Question and Answers

Is it necessary to check the polarity of the Resistor?

Basically resistors are non-Polarized, so regardless of the polarity we can insert them into the circuit. The
design of resistors is in such a way that they exhibit symmetrical electric characteristics in both the
directions.

What happens if I connect a capacitor in reverse polarity to the supply?

If capacitors, mostly electrolytic capacitors, are connected to AC or DC supply with wrong polarity then they
may blowout or explode. The polarized field of the dielectric is maintained by correct polarity, if this is not,
then the two plates act as short, and therefore, dangerous current flows and burns them.

What is meant by sinking and sourcing of current particularly in turning the LED in different ways?

V4 R2
Q1
V1 V3

V2 R1

Q3

Sinking and Sourcing

We can connect the LED in two modes: either sinking or sourcing mode, for switching it by a transistor. In a
sourcing mode (1st diagram), the control device as a transistor sends the power to the LED, whereas in the sinking
mode, the transistor receives the power from the LED. In both the modes, the transistor acts as a switching device,
but the way of connecting to the power supply and to the ground is different. These two modes are differentiated
based on the safety of the equipments.

77
 How can I measure the current using a low-cost multimeter?

Multimeters are capable of measuring voltages as well as current which can be DC. AC current
measurement is not possible in low-cost multimeters, and is somewhat different from the DC, but most
of the electronic components testing DC mA current are measured by connecting probes in series to
such components.

For voltage measurement, we connect the probes across the components, but for current measurement,
we have to remove one end of the component from the circuit and connect a red probe to that end, and a
black probe to the point where the component is removed. In this way, one can know the current flowing
to that component by placing the multimeter in amperes mode.

How hot should be a soldering iron for a better soldering?

Anyhow, solder melts at 450 degree temperature. Therefore, it is recommended to maintain it

at 650-800 degrees Fahrenheit temperature. When working with a leaded solder, it is good to
use 700 degrees for surface mount parts and 750 for through whole parts. For unleaded parts,
750 degrees and 800 degrees is recommended for surface mount and through whole parts
respectively.

Can we give DC to a single-phase transformer?

No, a transformer does not work on DC. For transferring of voltages from one coil to the other, induced EMF is
necessary to produce the linking flux in the secondary coil according to Faradays laws of electromagnetic
induction principle. As there is no induced EMF in the primary due to the constant current of DC, a large
current flowing to the primary causes burning in the transformer.

How the IR sensors work?

There are different types of IR sensors available in the market today, which can be varied depending on their
mounting, frequency ranges, sizes, and so on.

78
 An IR sensor consists of an IR LED and detector circuit. In some applications, these two are placed in exactly
opposite direction to each other, and in some applications, they are placed side by side. In a 180 degree
opposition, this IR beam obstruction detects the object, whereas in the side by side reflection of this beam,
due to the object, detects the motion.

This IR beam is emitted at certain frequency typically 36-48 KHz, and mostly 38 KHz is used. This frequency
of pulses sending and receiving depends on the encoder and decoder circuits used.

How the Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) are designed?

PCBs vary depending on the complexity of the circuit like single, double sided and multi layered PCBs.
They consist of conductive tracks and pads that are impressed from copper sheets and finally laminated
on non-conductive substrate.

At first, these PCBs layout is prepared by using designing tools or software like CAD, Proteus, EAGLE,
Board Station, CADstar, etc. And this layout is printed to copper sheets.

Can we give the microcontroller output directly to drive relays, thyristors and other final control
devices directly?

No, because the microcontroller output is digital, and therefore, cannot drive the analog devices like
thristors. So, in between these, Opto-isolators are used to drive the thyristor with the use of the
microcontroller output. These opto-isolators are also used to protect the microcontroller against the
ground loops.

Similarly, in relays, coil takes a larger current compared to the microcontroller output, so there is need to use
relay driver IC to drive the relay to supply appropriate current to the coil.

79
 Can we give DC to a single-phase transformer?

No, because the microcontroller output is digital, and therefore, cannot drive the analog devices like
thristors. So, in between these, Opto-isolators are used to drive the thyristor with the use of the
microcontroller output. These opto-isolators are also used to protect the microcontroller against the ground
loops.

Similarly, in relays, coil takes a larger current compared to the microcontroller output, so there is need to use
relay driver IC to drive the relay to supply appropriate current to the coil.

Why I have to use motor driver IC to drive the motors like DC and stepper motors?

As we have discussed above, the microcontroller output is a control signal that ranges in between a small or
low current, and therefore, cant drive the motor directly and needs a driver IC. Not only for the motor, but
also for a bunch of LEDs, we need multiplexer IC; for speaker we need audio amplifier IC, and for larger loads
we need a relay driver. And also, certain applications require different rotations of motor as in the case of a
robot, it needs left, right, forward and backward movements. In this case, an H-bridge motor driver IC is
needed to drive the motor in all directions.

How to choose a microcontroller against some advanced controllers like PIC, Arduino, Raspberry Pi,
etc.?

Nowadays many microcontrollers are available for a simple circuit design to reduce extra hardware
systems. Simple 8051 microcontrollers are the basic controller, and are the best option to get the root
knowledge on microcontrollers. A few other microcontrollers like PIC, ARM, Arduino, etc. come with
additional inbuilt features. This differentiation also depends on several other factors like the number of
bits, instruction set, ADC, timers and counters, etc.

80
 What are the steps to keep in mind before programming a microcontroller?

The following steps must be kept in mind before programming a microcontroller:

o Program must be logical and not too lengthy so that the memory can be conserved.

o It should be simple and easily understandable.

o Ports of the microcontroller must be selected for efficient usage of pins.

o Programming through C is the best option for the beginners because C is user friendly and flexible as it
doesnt require an in-depth knowledge of registers compared to the other assembly level languages.

For a certain low-cost application which controller is the best option, for instance, whether the 555
timer or the 8051 microcontroller?

To use a 555 timer, we need extra hardware components, whereas if we use a microcontroller only
programming concept does the job. Moreover, a microcontroller is more reliable and less complexity is
involved with the microcontroller.

81
Testimonials about Edgefxkits.com

1. Using TV Remote as a Cordless Mouse for the Computer

Lingaraj Hiremath

I saw one of the project in your website and purchased the project from you and I like your service and guidance
very much. I like my project very much and the components which you have given me very clearly. Finally Edgefx
people are giving a good projects and support to the engineering students.

2. Density Based Traffic Signal with Remote Override in Emergency

P S Kiran

I have searched in Google and came to know about your website and seen the past reviews. I felt that your service
and products is good. Then I got confidence to purchase the project from Edgefx technology. The quality of the
project and service provided by Edgefx is very good. I am satisfied.

3. Speed Checker to Detect Rash Driving on Highways

Sumanthch

I bought from you because i was convinced that you are one of the top leading sites in delivering good products.
The benefit is that it was delivered fast and it was in good working condition. Please check the program used for
microcontroller before sending and also send videos of making that particular project not a random video of
making of general project (such as soldering etc). Students get benefit mostly. I am also a student. This project
helped me in my academics. Yah i didn't expect that you send a readymade kit in DIY kit also which was a very
good idea.

82
4. Street Light that Glows on Detecting Vehicle Movement

R.SharadaPriyadarshini

Website is really cool with all the details of the projects available. We wanted a project that is close to our
instrumentation domain with sensor and automation. We had no doubts at all, we are confident about the output.
We heard through word of mouth and came to know it is really good. Perfect soldering good to look at, neatly
fabricated and loved the way that kit is packed with tutorial cd , abstract , etc. Perfect, keep going and come up
with many more innovative projects and implementing new ideas.

5. Site feedback

Devendra Doda

The website is well established and everything is clear about the projects and their cost. I was initially concerned about the
trainer, PCB design. I purchased the project kits as I observed that this concept is very trustful to the students as well as
faculty members for knowledge based and industry exposure. Good concept of making the project. I will be extremely
happy if the project is performed and run also on the zero voltage PCB.

7. Contactless Liquid Level Controller

O.P.Vyas

I had a question whether the kit will work properly or not. If some problem is there then who will solve it or will
anybody respond to it. I was having the feeling that you are having a wider range and may be i will get after sales
service also. Good material nicely packed. Some problems i faced but i always got the proper response whenever i
contacted to Edgefx.

8. Long Range FM Transmitter with Audio Modulation

Shivam Mishra

I purchased Edgefx kit with your dealer JauhariInfotech-Allahabad because your products are fully tested and timely
deliverable. Your service is awesome everything as properly working there is no problem with the elements which are used.
You can improve your future delivery by reducing its cost and by purchasing better phone help line services.

83
9. Sun Tracking Solar Panel

Abhishek Mishra

Yes, I saw the website it was fine, very easy to use and user friendly even. I had question that it should be more complex and
different from others. I decided to buy a kit from Edgefx, because by seeing the projects in the site. I bought DIY kit and i liked
it. Provide higher end projects.

10. Detecting Power Grid Synchronization Failure on Sensing Frequency or Voltage Beyond

Sandeep

My main concern was within stipulated we will get output or not. But I am happy as other vendors do not provide
proper design, so output is a major problem. Got clear details in the CD/DVD.

11. UPFC Related Display of Lag and Lead Power Factor

Yogesh

I selected this project based on output video and abstract/ output related queries. I was not clear before purchase
about Micro controller coding/ commends. But I am happy now. Output video is so clear to get information. PCB
layout is so nice.

12. Railway Track Security by GSM with User Programmable Number Features

Vishal Kale

Output video enables even a layman also to decide the kit / kit type are good. I liked the different kit types and all the
material needed for project we got in kit itself. Working good / easily able understand. Everything about the kit is good.

84
13. Wireless Power Transfer

Simardeep Singh

Edgefx kits are awesome. They are trustable as they say. Their ideas are just amazing. This project helped me a lot. It was
amazing project was delivered on time thanks to Fedex. Edgefx support team is also very nice. Thanks to even sadiq who
helped me a lot. The kit was well organized properly working no hardware failure full report full access. Overall project was
awesome. Its 10 out of 10.

14. Wireless Electronic Notice Board by GSM With User Programmable Number Features

Karan Desai

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did not think of anything else. Amazing support from your team. Pleasant response no calls were unattended,
Hats-off to your team. Presently you have system that works and is totally sufficient for my exploits and sincere,
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15. Tampered Energy Meter Monitoring Conveyed to Control Room by GSM with User
Programmable Number Features

Gopinadh

The process of doing project is straight forward and clear so it took minimum time for us. We got complete notes,
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85
 Conclusion

About the Edgefx Team

The credit for each and every bit of information added to this eBook goes to the team of Edgefx technical writers
and authors. The team of Edgefx, has been relentlessly working to ensure that the researched and practically
implemented and pragmatically proven written work of this eBook must serve the purpose of its readers. With the
unmatched technical expertise and pioneering works in the field of electronics, electrical and robotic engineering
Edgefx Kits and solutions is providing technical solutions and project kits to millions of engineering students
around the globe, since 1997. The credit for the projects and the circuits goes to the technical team of the Edgefx.

Right to readers

This book is intended to give practical knowledge on building the electronic projects in the simplest way possible
with the practical circuit examples. Any person interested and looking forward to have this book can enjoy the
privilege and authority to download, reprint and distribute this book. However, no person is entitled to make any
modifications or alternations to the book and to use it for his or her own monetary profits.

Legal Info

The content, information, concepts, technical inputs, and other such data is the sole property of the Edgefx
Technologies and the team involved in research and writing. Therefore, the technical content including the
images is solely authorized as the copyrighted material of the Edgefx technologies. The information written in
each and every chapter is written based on relevant research and inputs by the team of authors. The projects and
circuits mentioned in this book are the properties of Edgefx team and are fully tested and authenticated.

86
 Ways to Interact with the

Edgefx Team
https://www.facebook.com/edgefx
https://www.facebook.com/edgefx You
Tube

If you are an engineering student, looking for projects, then the following link will be of immense
help to you:

http://www.edgefxkits.in

If you are looking forward to the technical solutions and information on any topic relevant to
electronics, electrical, robotics and communication, then click the links given below:

http://www.elprocus.com/

You can also contact us through the social media by liking the following Facebook pages:

https://www.facebook.com/edgefx

https://www.facebook.com/elprocus

87