NICOLE C.
MAPILI
THE THIRD ACT OF THE MIND
-REASONING
REASONING
Ability to acquire knowledge beyond
experience.
If we know that everything has
atoms must be able to reflect light
If we know that all green men on
mars have atoms
Then we know with certainty that all
little green men on mars must be
able to reflect light
Universal truths: 2 + 2 = 4
We can know necessary and
unchangeable truths that it
necessarily follows.
If A is B and B is C, then A must
necessarily be C.
ARGUMENTATION
The essential structure of every
argument consists of a relationship
between two parts: premises and
conclusion.
Conclusion what you are trying to
prove
Premises your reasons, your
evidence, your proof
Premise indicators: because, since,
but, on account of, for, inasmuch as,
insofar as, for the reason that, etc.
Conclusion indicator: therefore, thus,
hence, so, ergo, consequently, it follows
that, we may conclude that, etc.
Before we proceed, it is but necessary to
note again that arguments can only be
valid or invalid neither true or false nor
clear or unclear. Since arguments are
composed of propositions (premises and
conclusions), it is necessary that each
proposition have a truth value of its own.
In other words, the truth value of the
conclusion or premises do not
necessarily affect the VALIDITY of the
argument.
All evil spirits are birds (False)
And all sparrows are evil spirits (False)
Therefore, all sparrows are birds (True)
We can see from the example the
conclusion logically follows from the
premises despite their falsity. IT IS
VALID. In fact, it was shown likewise
that one can arrive at TRUE
conclusions despite the presence of
false premises.
Premises and Conclusions, being
propositions can only be true of false
The argument, the whole of it, is where
we adduce VALIDITY
SYLLOGISMS
In formal logic, reasoning is
expressed through syllogisms.
It is presupposed here that the
reasoning we utilize is that of
deduction we are in search for
necessary truth.
Syllogism literally means connected
thought
Syn (together) + logos (thought/
idea)
FOUNDATIONS OF THE SYLLOGISM
1. Dictum de omni - the law about all.
Whatever is universally true of a subject
must be true of everything contained in that
subject.
a. If X must be true of all S, then it
must be true of every single S
b. The universal is the foundation of
syllogism.
2. Dictum de nullo the law about
none. Whatever is universally false of a
subject must be false of everything
contained in that subject.
a. If X is not true of any S, of S as
such, then X must not be true of any single
S.
3. Two things identical with one
another one and the same third thing are
identical with each other.
a. All men are mortal; Socrates is a
man; Thus...
4. If there are two things, one of
which is identical with a third thing and
the other of which is not, then those two
things are not identical with each other.
a. No men are angels; and Socrates is
a man; therefore
5. (3) and (4) assume the LAW OF
IDENTITY
A things is what it is
6. The (3) and (4) supposes likewise the
LAW OF NON-
CONTRADICTION
A thing is not what it isnt; X is not non-X.
7. Lastly, the (3) and (4) assume as
well the LAW OF EXCLUDED
MIDDLE
NICOLE C. MAPILI
a thing is [only] either X or not X. A
Predicate must either be affirmed or denied
of a subject no third possibility.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE SYLLOGISM
All men are mortal
And Socrates is a man
Therefore Socrates is mortal
From the example:
1. There can only be three
propositions: two premises and a
conclusion.
2. There can only be three terms. Each
terms is only used twice.
3. Subject of the conclusion = MINOR
TERM
4. Predicate of the conclusion =
MAJOR TERM
5. The term that is not present in the
conclusion = MIDDLE TERM
6. The premise containing the minor
term = MINOR PREMISE
7. The premise containing the major
term = MAJOR PREMISE
Premise indicators: because, since, but,
on account of, for, inasmuch as, insofar as,
for the reason that, etc.
Conclusion indicator: therefore, thus,
hence, so, ergo, consequently, it follows
that, we may conclude that, etc.
Some Filipinos are responsible people,
And all teachers are responsible people,
Since some Filipinos are teachers,
Inasmuch as all Christians are God-
fearers,
And some Christians are Filipinos,
It follows that some Filipinos are God-
fearers,
And some plants are not trees,
Because no roses are trees,
It follows that some plants are roses,
Because no politicians are loyal
Filipinos,
And some teachers are highly paid
persons,
Some professional people are teachers,
Hence, some persons who are
competent to rule the
For the reason that all highly paid
persons arecountry are not politicians,
professional people,
And all loyal Filipinos are competent to
rule the country,
All heroes are not afraid to die,
Since, some valuable things are not
useful too,
Some heroes are Filipinos,
Hence, some valuable things are not
machines, consequently,
some Filipinos are not afraid to die,
CHECKING SYLLOGISMS FOR THEIR
VALIDITY
(Aristotles Six Rules)
Rule 1: A syllogism must have three (3) and
only three (3) terms.
Violation: Fallacy of Four Terms
Rule 2: A syllogism must have three (3) and
only three (3) propositions.
Violation: Unnamed
Rule 3: The MIDDLE TERM must be
DISTRIBUTED (universal) at least once.
Violation: Fallacy of Undistributed Middle
Rule 4: No term that is undistributed in the
premise may be distributed in the
conclusion
Violation: Fallacy of Illicit Minor or Major
Term(Corollary Rules)
Rule 5: No syllogism can have two (2)
negative premises.
NICOLE C. MAPILI

Violation: [Fallacy of] Exclusive All violence is aggression

Premises
No violence is just
Rule 6: If one (1) premise is negative, the
Therefore, Some aggressions are not just
conclusion must be negative; and if the
conclusion is negative, one premise must
be negative.
Example:
Violation: Unnamed
Compassion is a virtue
Justice is not compassion
A violation of either of the corollaries
also violates one of the six rules of Therefore, justice is not a virtue
Aristotle. However, it is but helpful to
state these corollaries for it is easier to
identify. Rule 5: Two terms negatively related to one
third term are not necessarily identical or
CHECKING SYLLOGISMS FOR THEIR unidentical with each other
VALIDITY
Corollary 1: No syllogism may have two
particular premises. Example:
Corollary 2: If a syllogism has a Odd numbers are not even numbers
particular premise, it must have a
particular conclusion. Three is not an even number T

RULES EXPLAINED herefore, three is an odd number

Rule 1: One can only connect two ideas

with a common bridge only one third term. Example:
Ryle 2: Syllogisms, by definition, should Birds are not fish
have three (3) propositions. This is a
MEDIATE (bridged) inference Humans are not fish

If an argument contains only two Therefore, humans are birds

propositions (2), it is an immediate
inference: conversion, obversion and
contraposition Rules 3 and 4 concern with the
distribution of terms
In diagramming, if there is a way that one
These two rules pertain to the essential
can diagram the premise without having
structure of the syllogism
the conclusion, the argument is invalid
Rule 3: The reason the middle term must
be distributed at least once is because if it is
not, then the minor term and the major term Rules 5 and 6 concern negative
may be related to two totally different parts premises
of the extension of the middle term that 1. Some dogs are creatures of God;
justifies the relationship they bear to each Since creatures of God are animals; And
other in some animals are dogs;
the conclusion
Example:
2. Jogging is good for the body; But
All dogs are animals milk is good for the body; Therefore,
milk is jogging.
All cats are animals DOGS CATS
Therefore, all dogs are cats
3. And fruits are sweet;
*In both instances, the middle term is
particular Some mangoes are sweet;
Rule 4: False or Hasty But all mangoes are sweet;
Generalization/Assumptions. Example:
NICOLE C. MAPILI
4. No servants of the country are
government officials;
But some government officials are
corrupt persons;
6. Jeremy is a writer of fairy tale
stories; But Jeremy is a student;
Therefore, all students are writers of
fairy tale stories.
7. All machines are useful tools;
But some valuable things are useful
tools; Therefore, some valuable things
are machines.
8. Chocolates are houses
; And houses are white;
But chocolates are brown;
9. Some fruits are sweet;
But some fruits are sour;
In this case, some corrupt persons are
servants of the Therefore, some fruits
are sweet.
country.
10. No chimpanzee are rational animals;
For the reason that all snakes are
animals; But no philosophers are
chimpanzees;
And some animals are lovable
creatures; Therefore, no philosophers
are rational animals.
Some lovable creatures are snakes.