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Chapter # 1 Introduction to Control Theory

1. Introduction

Engineering is concerned with understanding and controlling the materials and forces
of nature for the benefit of humankind. Control system engineers are concerned with
understanding and controlling segments of their environment, often called systems, to
provide useful economic products for society. The twin goals of understanding and
controlling are complementary because effective systems control requires that the
systems be understood and modeled.
Control engineering is not limited to any engineering discipline but is equally
applicable to aeronautical, chemical, mechanical, environmental, civil, and electrical
engineering. For example, a control system often includes electrical, mechanical, and
chemical components. Furthermore, as the understanding of the dynamics of
business, social and political systems increases, the ability to control these systems
will also increase.

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2. Control System Structure

A control system is an interconnection of components forming a system

configuration that will provide a desired system response. The components (process
to be controlled, controller or actuator) can be represented by a block, as shown in
Fig. 1.1.

Fig.1.1 Control system components

Control systems can be divided into two categories: the open-loop and the closed-
loop systems.
An open-loop system (Fig. 1.1) is a system whose input u(t) does not depend on the
output y(t). We can say u(t) is not a function of y(t). In this system, the actuator is a
motor driving a robot arm. In this case, the process is the arm moving, and the
controlled variable is the angular position of the arm. Earlier tests have shown that
the motor rotates the arm at 5 degrees/second (deg/s) at the rated voltage. Assume
that the controller is directed to move the arm from 0 to 30. Knowing the
characteristics of the process, the controller sends a 6-second power pulse to the

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motor. If the motor is acting properly, it will rotate exactly 30 in the 6 seconds and
stop. On particularly cold days, however, the lubricant is more viscous (thicker),
causing more internal friction, and the motor rotates only 25 in the 6 seconds; the
result is a 5 error. The controller has no way of knowing of the error and does
nothing to correct it.
In contrast to an open-loop control system, a closed-loop control system utilizes an
additional measure of the actual output to compare it with the desired output
response. The measure of the output is called the feedback signal as shown in Fig.
1.2. Therefore, a closed-loop system is a system whose input u(t) depends on the
output y(t). We can say u(t) is a function of y(t).

Fig. 1.2. Closed-loop control system

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A very simple introductory example of an open-loop system is that of driving the car
as shown below. Speed of the car is a function of the position of its accelerator. The
desired speed can be maintained (or desired change in speed can be achieved) by
controlling the force (input / command) on the accelerator pedal, which cause the
carburetor to open or close as to increase or decrease the rate of fuel flow to the
engine, bringing the engine-vehicle speed (output / controlled) to the desired value.

Fig. 1.3. Open-loop system (driving the car)

A very simple introductory example of a closed-loop system is that of the water
heater shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4. Water heater as an example of closed-loop system

Here, the system is the water heater and the output y(t) is the water temperature. The
reference signal r(t) designates the desired range of the water temperature. Let this
desired temperature lie in the range from 65 to 70C. In this example, the water is
heated by electric power, i.e., by a resistor that is supplied by an electric current. The
controller of the system is a thermostat, which works as a switch as follows: when the
temperature of the water reaches 70C, the switch opens and the electric supply is
interrupted. As a result, the water temperature starts falling and when it reaches 65C,
the switch closes and the electric supply is back on again. Subsequently, the water
temperature rises again to 70C, the switch opens again, and so on. This procedure is

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continuously repeated, keeping the temperature of the water in the desired

temperature range.
Another example is tank level control shown in Fig. 1.5. This control system can
maintain the liquid level (h-controlled output) of the tank within accurate tolerance of
the desired liquid level (H reference input). The liquid level is sensed by a float
(feedback path element) which positions the slider arm B on a potentiometer. The
slider arm A of another potentiometer is positioned to H. When the liquid level rises
or falls, the potentiometers (error detectors) give an error voltage (error / actuator
signal) proportional to the change in the liquid level. The error voltage actuates the
motor (plant) through a power amplifier (control elements) to decrease / increase the
opening of the valve V2 to restore the desired liquid level.

Fig. 1.5. Tank level control system

The general block diagram of a closed-loop control system is characterized by a
feedback loop as shown in Fig. 1.6. An error detector compares a signal obtained
through feedback element (which is a function of the output response) with the
reference input. Any difference between these two signals produces an error or
actuating signal that actuate the control elements, which in turn alter the conditions in
the plant (controlled process) in such a manner to reduce the error.

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Fig. 1.6. Closed-loop control system structure

3. Transfer Functions
Physically, a control system is a collection of components and circuits connected
together to perform a useful function. Each component in the system converts energy
from one form to another; for example, we might think of a temperature sensor as
converting degrees to volts or a motor as converting volts to revolutions per minute.
To describe the performance of the entire control system, we must have some
common language so that we can calculate the combined effects of the different
components in the system. This need is behind the transfer function concept.
Technically, the transfer function (TF) must describe both the time-dependent and
the steady state characteristics of a component, expressed as:

Consider the system shown in Fig. 1.7; it consists of an electric motor driving a gear
train, which is driving a winch. Each component has its own characteristics:
The motor (under these conditions) turns at 100 rpm for each volt (Vm) supplied; the
output shaft of the gear train rotates at one-half of the motor speed; the winch (with a
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3-inch shaft circumference) converts the rotary motion to linear speed. The individual
transfer functions are given as follows:

Fig. 1.7. Total transfer function

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4. Analog and Digital Control Systems

In an analog control system, the controller consists of traditional analog devices and
circuits, that is, linear amplifiers. The first control systems were analog because it
was the only available technology. In the analog control system, any change in either
set point or feedback is sensed immediately, and the amplifiers adjust their output (to
the actuator) accordingly.
In a digital control system, the controller uses a digital circuit. In most cases, this
circuit is actually a computer, usually microprocessor- or microcontroller-based. The
computer executes a program that repeats over-and-over (each repetition is called an
iteration or scan). The program instructs the computer to read the set point and
sensor data and then use these numbers to calculate the controller output (which is
sent to the actuator). The program then loops back to the beginning and starts over
again. The total time for one pass through the program may be less than 1 millisecond
(ms). The digital system only looks at the inputs at a certain time in the scan and
gives the updated output later. If an input changes just after the computer looked at it,
that change will remain undetected until the next time through the scan. This is
fundamentally different than the analog system, which is continuous and responds
immediately to any changes. However, for most digital control systems, the scan time
is so short compared with the response time of the process being controlled that, for
all practical purposes, the controller response is instantaneous.
The physical world is basically an analog place. Natural events take time to
happen, and they usually move in a continuous fashion from one position to the next.
Therefore, most control systems are controlling analog processes. This means that, in
many cases, the digital control system must first convert real-world analog input data
into digital form before it can be used. Similarly, the output from the digital
controller must be converted from digital form back into analog form. Figure 1.8
shows a block diagram of a digital closed-loop control system. Notice the two

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additional blocks: the digital-to-analog converter (DAC) and the analog-to-digital

converter (ADC).

Fig. 1.8. Digital and analog control system

5. Process Control
It refers to a control system that oversees some industrial process so that a uniform,
correct output is maintained. It does this by monitoring and adjusting the control
parameters (such as temperature or flow rate) to ensure that the output product
remains as it should.
The classic example of process control is a closed-loop system maintaining a
specified temperature in an electric oven, as illustrated in Fig. 1.9. In this case, the
actuator is the heating element, the controlled variable is the temperature, and the
sensor is a thermocouple (a device that converts temperature into voltage). The
controller regulates power to the heating element in such a way as to keep the
temperature (as reported by the thermocouple) at the value specified by the set point.

Fig. 1.9. Process Control of oven temperature

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Another example of process control is a paint factory in which two colors, blue and
yellow, are mixed to produce green. To keep the output color constant, the exact
proportions of blue and yellow must be maintained. The setup illustrated in Fig. 1.10
(a) accomplishes this with flow valves 1 and 2, which are manually adjusted until the
desired hue of green is achieved. The problem is that, as the level of paint in the vats
changes, the flow will change and the mixture will not remain constant.

Fig. 1.10. Process color Control

To maintain an even flow from the vats, we could add two electrically operated flow
valves (and their controls) as shown in (b). Each valve would maintain a specified
flow of paint into the mixer, regardless of the upstream pressure. Theoretically, if the

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blue and yellow flows are independently maintained, the green should stay constant.
In practice, however, other factors such as temperature or humidity may affect the
mixing chemistry and therefore the output color.
A better approach might be the system shown in (c); a single sensor monitors the
output color. If the green darkens, the controller increases the flow of yellow. If the
green gets too light, the flow of yellow is decreased. This system is desirable because
it monitors the actual parameter that needs to be maintained. In real life, such a
straightforward system may not be possible because sensors that can measure the
output directly may not exist and/or the process may involve many variables.

6. Multi-Process Control
In a large plant such as a refinery, many processes are occurring simultaneously and
must be coordinated because the output of one process is the input of another. In the
early days of process control, separate independent controllers were used for each
process, as shown in Fig. 1.11. The problem with this approach was that, to change
the overall flow of the product, each controller had to be readjusted manually.

Fig. 1.11. Multi-process control (Individual local controllers).

A new system was developed in which all independent controllers were replaced by a
single large computer as illustrated in Fig.1.12, this system is called direct digital
control (DDC). The advantage of this approach is that all local processes can be
implemented, monitored, and adjusted from the same place. Also, because the
computer can see the whole system, it is in a position to make adjustments to
enhance total system performance. The drawback is that the whole plant is dependent
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on that one computer. If the computer goes off line to fix a problem in one process,
the whole plant shuts down.

Fig. 1.12. Multi-process control (direct digital control).

The advent of small microprocessor-based controllers has led to a new approach
called distributed computer control (DCC), illustrated in Figure 1.13. In this
system, each process has its own separate controller located at the site. These local
controllers are interconnected via a local area network so that all controllers on the
network can be monitored or reprogrammed from a single supervisory computer.
Once programmed, each process is essentially operating independently. This makes
for a more robust and safe system, because all the local processes will continue to
function even if the supervisory computer or network goes down.

Fig. 1.13. Multi-process control (distributed computer control).

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7. Sequential Control
A sequentially controlled system controls a process that is defined as a series of tasks
to be performed; this means a sequence of operations, one after the other. Each
operation in the sequence is performed either for a certain amount of time, in which
case it is time-driven, or until the task is finished (as indicated by, say, a limit
switch), in which case it is event-driven. A time-driven sequence is open-loop
because there is no feedback, whereas an event-driven task is closed-loop because a
feedback signal is required to specify when the task is finished.
The classic example of a sequentially controlled system is the automatic washing
machine. The first event in the wash cycle is to fill the tub. This is an event-driven
task because the water is admitted until it gets to the proper level as indicated by a
float and limit switch (closed loop). The next two tasks, wash and spin-drain, are each
done for a specified period of time and are time-driven events (open loop). A timing
diagram for a washing machine is shown in Fig. 1.14.

Fig. 1.14. Timing diagram for an automatic washing machine.

Another example of a sequentially controlled system is a traffic signal. The basic
sequence may be time-driven: 45 seconds for green, 3 seconds for yellow, and 45
seconds for red. The presence or absence of traffic, as indicated by sensors in the
roadbed, however, may alter the basic sequence, which is an event-driven control.
Many automated industrial processes could be classified as sequentially controlled
systems. An example is a process where parts are loaded into trays, inserted into a

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furnace for 10 minutes, then removed and cooled for 10 minutes, and loaded into
boxes in groups of six. In the past, most sequentially controlled systems used
switches, relays, and electromechanical timers to implement the control logic. These
tasks are now performed more and more by small computers known as
programmable logic controllers (PLCs), which are less expensive, more reliable,
and easily reprogrammed to meet changing needsfor example, to put eight items in
a box instead of six.

8. Motion Control
It is a broad term used to describe an open-loop or closed-loop electromechanical
system wherein things are moving.
8.1 Servomechanism
It is the traditional term applied to describe a closed-loop electromechanical control
system that directs the precise movement of a physical object such as a radar antenna
or robot arm. Typically, either the output position or the output velocity (or both) is
controlled. An example of a servomechanism is the positioning system for a radar
antenna, as shown in Fig. 1.15. In this case, the controlled variable is the antenna
position. The antenna is rotated with an electric motor connected to the controller
located some distance away. The user selects a direction, and the controller directs
the antenna to rotate to a specific position.
8.2 Numerical Control (NC)
It is the type of digital control used on machine tools such as lathes and milling
machines. These machines can automatically cut and shape the workpiece without a
human operator. Each machine has its own set of axes or parameters that must be
controlled; as an example, consider the milling machine shown in Fig. 1.16. The
workpiece that is being formed is fastened to a movable table. The table can be
moved (with electric motors) in three directions: X, Y, and Z. The cutting-tool speed
is automatically controlled as well. To make a part, the table moves the workpiece

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past the cutting tool at a specified velocity and cutting depth. In this example, four
parameters (X, Y, Z, and rpm) are continuously and independently controlled by the
controller. The controller takes as its input a series of numbers that completely
describe how the part is to be made. These numbers include the physical dimensions
and such details as cutting speeds and feed rates.

Fig. 1.15. Motion Control (Servomechanism)

Fig. 1.16. Motion Control (Numerical Control)

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8.3 Robotics
Industrial robots are classic examples of position control systems. In most cases, the
robot has a single arm with shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints, as well as some kind of
hand known as an end effector as shown in Fig. 1.17. The end effector is either a
gripper or other tool such as a paint spray gun. Robots are used to move parts from
place to place, assemble parts, load and off-load NC machines, and perform such
tasks as spray painting and welding.

Fig. 1.17. A pick-and-place robot

9. Brief History Of Automatic Control

Control systems have been in existence since ancient times. A well-known ancient
automatic control system is the regulator of Heron of Alexandria as shown in Fig.
1.18. This control system was designed to open the doors of a temple automatically
when a fire was lit at the altar located outside the temple and to close the doors when
the fire was put out. In particular, the regulator operated in the following way: the
fire, acting as the input to the system, heated the air underneath the altar and the
warm (expanded) air pushed the water from the water container (pot 1) to the bucket

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(pot 2). The position of the water container was fixed, while the bucket was hanging
from ropes wrapped around a mechanism (the door spindles) with a counterweight
W. When pot 2 was empty, this mechanism, under the pull of the counterweight W,
held the doors closed. When pot 2 was filled with adequate amount of water from pot
1, it moved downwards, while the counterweight W moved upwards. As a result of
the downward motion of pot 2, the door spindles turned and the doors opened. When
the fire was put out, water from pot 2 returned to pot 1, and the counterweight W
moved downwards forcing the gates to close.

Fig. 1.18 The regulator of Temple gate

The use of control started to advance in the second half of the 18 th century, due to
James Watt, who, in 1769, invented the first centrifugal speed regulator (Fig. 1.19)
which subsequently has been widely used in practice, most often for the control of
locomotives.

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Fig. 1.19. James Watt speed regulator

In particular, this regulator was used to control the speed of the steam engine. This is
accomplished as follows: as the angular velocity of the steam engine increases, the
centrifugal force pushes the masses (m) upwards and the steam valve closes. As the
steam valve closes, the steam entering the engine from the boiler is reduced and the
steam engines angular velocity decreases, and vice versa: as the angular velocity of
the steam engine decreases, the masses (m) go down, the steam valve opens, the
amount of steam entering the engine increases, resulting in an increase of the angular
velocity. This way, one can regulate the speed of the engine.
Automatic control theory and its applications have developed rapidly in the last 60
years or so. The period 19301940 was important in the history of control, since
remarkable theoretical and practical results, such as those of Nyquist and Black, were
reported. During the following years and until about 1960, further significant research
and development was reported, due mainly to Ziegler and Nichols, Bode, Wiener and
Evans. All the results of the last century, and up to about 1960, constitute what has
been termed classical control. Progress from 1960 to date has been especially
impressive, from both the theoretical and the practical point of view. This last period
has been characterized as that of modern control, the most significant results of
which have been due to L. Zadeh, Kalman and many others.

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