Introduction:-

In this Project we generate solar power, store that in a battery and measure the parameters like
voltage, current and power. We generate automatically V-t, I-t, P-t graph by using an advance
technology known as IOT (Internet of Thing). We also generate V-I and P-V graph by
considering the generating value. This is an advance project in which we can see all parameter on
the computer screen through internet. We use solar panel for generating power from sunlight.
Solar Panel gives 18.2V in form of DC. But we use 12V battery. A charge controller is used in
between solar panel and battery which controls the flow of charge. A Lead letter display board as
load. All the analog voltage and current parameter feed to the Node MCU analog pins. Node
MCU ESP8266 has in built ADC which converts analog data to digital form. We connect a
computer to Node MCU module through internet to see all the V-t, I-t, P-t graph. For that internet
connectivity required to both the Node MCU (ESP8266) and the computer we want to see the
graph.
Block Diagram:-

Hardware Used:-
Solar Panel 10W
Solar charge controller 6 Amps
Node MCU (ESP8266)
AT89s52
Battery 12 7.2Ah
Resistors
Capacitors
Transistors

Components Description:-
PV TEHCHNOLOGY

Photovoltaic (PV) solar cells as they are often referred to, are semiconductor devices that convert
sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity. Groups of PV cells are electrically configured into
modules and arrays, which can be used to charge batteries, operate motors, and to power any
number of electrical loads. With the appropriate power conversion equipment, PV systems can
produce alternating current (AC) compatible with any conventional appliances, and operate
in parallel with and interconnected to the utility grid.

HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAIC

The first conventional photovoltaic cells were produced in the late 1950s, and throughout the
1960s were principally used to provide electrical power for earth-orbiting satellites.

In the 1970s, improvements in manufacturing, performance and quality of PV modules helped to

reduce costs and opened up a number of opportunities for powering remote terrestrial
applications, including battery charging for navigational aids, signals, telecommunications
equipment and other critical, low power needs.
In the 1980s, photovoltaic became a popular power source for consumer electronic devices,
including calculators, watches, radios, lanterns and other small battery charging applications.
Following the energy crises of the 1970s, significant efforts also began to develop PV power
systems for residential and commercial uses both for stand-alone, remote power as well as for
utility-connected applications. During the same period, international applications for PV systems
to power rural health clinics, refrigeration, water pumping, telecommunications, and off-grid
households increased dramatically, and remain a major portion of the present world market for
PV products. Today, the industrys production of PV modules is growing at approximately 25
percent annually, and major programs in the U.S., Japan and Europe are rapidly accelerating the
implementation of PV systems on buildings and interconnection to utility networks.

HOW PV CELLS WORK

A typical silicon PV cell is composed of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra-thin layer of

phosphorus-doped (N-type) silicon on top of a thicker layer of boron doped (P-type) silicon. An
electrical field is created near the top surface of the cell where these two materials are in contact,
called the P-N junction.

Since the top of the cell must be open to sunlight, a thin grid of metal is applied to the top instead
of a continuous layer. The grid must be thin enough to admit adequate amounts of sunlight, but
wide enough to carry adequate amounts of electrical energy.
Fig 1.3.1

Light, including sunlight, is sometimes described as particles called "photons." As sunlight

strikes a photovoltaic cell, photons move into the cell.

When a photon strikes an electron, it dislodges it, leaving an empty "hole". The loose electron
moves toward the top layer of the cell. As photons continue to enter the cell, electrons continue
to be dislodged and move upwards.

If an electrical path exists outside the cell between the top grid and the back plane of the cell, a
flow of electrons begins. Loose electrons move out the top of the cell and into the external
electrical circuit. Electrons from further back in the circuit move up to fill the empty electron
holes.

Most cells produce a voltage of about one-half volt, regardless of the surface area of the cell.
However, the larger the cell, the more current it will produce.
The resistance of the circuit of the cell will affect the current and voltage. The amount of
available light affects current production. The temperature of the cell affects its voltage.

Regardless of size, a typical silicon PV cell produces about 0.5 0.6 volt DC under open-circuit,
no-load conditions. The current (and power) output of a PV cell depends on its efficiency and size
(surface area), and is proportional to the intensity of sunlight striking the surface of the cell. For
example, under peak sunlight conditions a typical commercial PV cell with a surface area of 160
cm^2 (~25 in^2) will produce about 2 watts peak power. If the sunlight intensity were 40 percent
of peak, this cell would produce about 0.8 watts.

Fig1.3.2

TYPES OF PV CELLS

The four general types of photovoltaic cells are:

Single-crystal silicon.
 Polycrystalline silicon (also known as multicrystalline silicon).

Ribbon silicon.

Amorphous silicon (abbreviated as "aSi," also known as thin film silicon).

Single-crystal silicon:

Most photovoltaic cells are single-crystal types. To make them,

silicon is purified, melted, and crystallized into ingots. The ingots are sliced into thin wafers to
make individual cells. The cells have a uniform color, usually blue or black.

Polycrystalline silicon:
Polycrystalline cells are manufactured and operate in a similar manner. The difference is
that lower cost silicon is used. This usually results in slightly lower efficiency, but polycrystalline
cell manufacturers assert that the cost benefits outweigh the efficiency losses. The surface of
polycrystalline cells has a random pattern of crystal borders instead of the solid color of single
crystal cells.
 Ribbon silicon:

Growing a ribbon from the molten silicon instead of an ingot makes ribbon-type
photovoltaic cells. These cells operate the same as single and polycrystal cells.

The anti-reflective coating used on most ribbon silicon cells gives them a prismatic rainbow
appearance.

Amorphous or thin film silicon:

The previous three types of silicon used for photovoltaic cells have a distinct crystal
structure. Amorphous silicon has no such structure. Amorphous silicon is sometimes abbreviated
"aSi" and is also called thin film silicon.
Amorphous silicon units are made by depositing very thin layers of vaporized silicon in a
vacuum onto a support of glass, plastic, or metal.
PHOTOVOALTAIC MODULES

For almost all applications, the one-half volt produced by a single cell is inadequate. Therefore,
cells are connected together in series to increase the voltage. Several of these series strings of
cells may be connected together in parallel to increase the current as well.

These interconnected cells and their electrical connections are then sandwiched between a top
layer of glass or clear plastic and a lower level of plastic or plastic and metal. An outer frame is
attached to increase mechanical strength, and to provide a way to mount the unit. This package is
called a "module" or "panel" . Typically, a module is the basic building block of photovoltaic
systems.

Groups of modules can be interconnected in series and/or parallel to form an "array." By adding
"balance of system" (BOS) components such as storage batteries, charge controllers, and power
conditioning devices, we have a complete photovoltaic system.

Describing photovoltaic module performance

To insure compatibility with storage batteries or loads, it is necessary to

know the electrical characteristics of photovoltaic modules.

Consider "I" is the abbreviation for current, expressed in amps. "V" is used for voltage in volts,
and "R" is used for resistance in ohms.

A photovoltaic module will produce its maximum current when there is essentially no resistance
in the circuit. This would be a short circuit between its positive and negative terminals.

This maximum current is called the short circuit current, abbreviated I(sc). When the module is
shorted, the voltage in the circuit is zero.Conversely, the maximum voltage is produced when
there is a break in the circuit. This is called the open circuit voltage, abbreviated V(oc). Under
this condition the resistance is infinitely high and there is no current, since the circuit is
incomplete.
These two extremes in load resistance, and the whole range of conditions in between them, are
depicted on a graph called a I-V (current-voltage) curve. Current, expressed in amps, is on the
vertical Y-axis. Voltage, in volts, is on the horizontal X-axis (Figure 1).

A typical current voltage curve

As you can see in Figure 1, the short circuit current occurs on a point on the curve where the
voltage is zero. The open circuit voltage occurs where the current is zero.

The power available from a photovoltaic module at any point along the curve is expressed in
watts. Watts are calculated by multiplying the voltage times the current (watts = volts x amps, or
W = VA).

At the short circuit current point, the power output is zero, since the voltage is zero.At the open
circuit voltage point, the power output is also zero, but this time it is because the current is zero.

There is a point on the "knee" of the curve where the maximum power output is located. This
point on our example curve is where the voltage is 17 volts, and the current is 2.5 amps.
Therefore the maximum power in watts is 17 volts times 2.5 amps, equaling 42.5 watts.

The power, expressed in watts, at the maximum power point is described as peak, maximum, or
ideal, among other terms. Maximum power is generally abbreviated as "I (mp)." Various
manufacturers call it maximum output power, output, peak power, rated power, or other terms.

The current-voltage (I-V) curve is based on the module being under standard conditions of
sunlight and module temperature. It assumes there is no shading on the module.
Standard sunlight conditions on a clear day are assumed to be 1000 watts of solar energy per
square meter (1000 W/m2or lkW/m2). This is sometimes called "one sun," or a "peak sun." Less
than one sun will reduce the current output of the module by a proportional amount. For
example, if only one-half sun (500 W/m2) is available, the amount of output current is roughly

cut in half (Figure 2)

A Typical Current-Voltage Curve at One Sun and One-half Sun

For maximum output, the face of the photovoltaic modules should be pointed as straight toward
the sun as possible.

Because photovoltaic cells are electrical semiconductors, partial shading of the module will
cause the shaded cells to heat up. They are now acting as inefficient conductors instead of
electrical generators. Partial shading may ruin shaded cells.

Partial module shading has a serious effect on module power output. For a typical module,
completely shading only one cell can reduce the module output by as much as 80% (Figure 3).
One or more damaged cells in a module can have the same effect as shading.
A Typical Current-Voltage Curve for an Unshaded Module and for a Module with One Shaded
Cell.

This is why modules should be completely unshaded during operation. A shadow across a
module can almost stop electricity production. Thin film modules are not as affected by this
problem, but they should still be unshaded.

Module temperature affects the output voltage inversely. Higher module temperatures will
reduce the voltage by 0.04 to 0.1 volts for every one-Celsius degree rise in temperature
(0.04V/0C to 0.1V/0C). In Fahrenheit degrees, the voltage loss is from 0.022 to 0.056 volts per
degree of temperature rise (Figure 4).

A Typical Current-Voltage Curve for a Module at 25 C (77 F) and 85 C (185 F)

This is why modules should not be installed flush against a surface. Air should be allowed to
circulate behind the back of each module so it's temperature does not rise and reducing its output.
An air space of 4-6 inches is usually required to provide proper ventilation.

The last significant factor that determines the power output of a module is the resistance of the
system to which it is connected. If the module is charging a battery, it must supply a higher
voltage than that of the battery.

If the battery is deeply discharged, the battery voltage is fairly low. The photovoltaic module can
charge the battery with a low voltage, shown as point #1 in Figure 5. As the battery reaches a full
charge, the module is forced to deliver a higher voltage, shown as point #2. The battery voltage
drives module voltage.

Operating Voltages During a Battery Charging Cycle

Eventually, the required voltage is higher than the voltage at the module's maximum power point.
At this operating point, the current production is lower than the current at the maximum power
point. The module's power output is also lower.

To a lesser degree, when the operating voltage is lower than that of the maximum power point
(point #1), the output power is lower than the maximum. Since the ability of the module to
produce electricity is not being completely used whenever it is operating at a point fairly far from
the maximum power point, photovoltaic modules should be carefully matched to the system load
and storage.
Using a module with a maximum voltage, which is too high, should be avoided nearly as much
as using one with a maximum voltage, which is too low.

The output voltage of a module depends on the number of cells connected in series. Typical
modules use either 30, 32, 33, 36, or 44 cells wired in series.

The modules with 30-32 cells are considered self-regulating modules. 36 cell modules are the
most common in the photovoltaic industry. Their slightly higher voltage rating, 16.7 volts, allows
the modules to overcome the reduction in output voltage when the modules are operating at high
temperatures.

Modules with 33 - 36 cells also have enough surplus voltage to effectively charge high antimony
content deep cycle batteries. However, since these modules can overcharge batteries, they
usually require a charge controller. Finally, 44 cell modules are available with a rated output
voltage of 20.3 volts. These modules are typically used only when a substantially higher voltage
is required.

As an example, if the module is sometimes forced to operate at high temperatures, it can still
supply enough voltage to charge 12-volt battery.

Another application for 44 cell modules is a system with an extremely long wire run between the
modules and the batteries or load. If the wire is not large enough, it will cause a significant
voltage drop. Higher module voltage can overcome this problem.

It should be noted that this approach is similar to putting a larger engine in a car with locked
brakes to make it move faster. It is almost always more cost effective to use an adequate wire
size, rather than to overcome voltage drop problems with more costly 44 cell modules.

PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAYS

In many applications the power available from one module is inadequate for the load. Individual
modules can be connected in series, parallel, or both to increase either output voltage or current.
This also increases the output power. When modules are connected in parallel, the current
increases. For example, three modules which produce 15 volts and 3 amps each, connected in
parallel, will produce 15 volts and 9 amps (Figure 6).
Three Modules Connected in Parallel

If the system includes a battery storage system, a reverse flow of current from the batteries
through the photovoltaic array can occur at night. This flow will drain power from the batteries.
A diode is used to stop this reverse current flow. Diodes are electrical devices which only allow
current to flow in one direction (Figure 7). A blocking diode is shown in the array in Figure 7.

Basic Operation of a Diode

Because diodes create a voltage drop, some systems use a controller which opens the circuit
instead of using a blocking diode.
If the same three modules are connected in series, the output voltage will be 45 volts, and the
current will be 3 amps.
If one module in a series string fails, it provides so much resistance that other modules in the
string may not be able to operate either. A bypass path around the disabled module will eliminate
this problem (Figure 8). The bypass diode allows the current from the other modules to flow
through in the "right" direction.
Many modules are supplied with a bypass diode right at their electrical terminals. Larger
modules may consist of three groups of cells, each with its own bypass diode.
Built in bypass diodes are usually adequate unless the series string produces 48 volts or higher,
or serious shading occurs regularly.
Combinations of series and parallel connections are also used in arrays (Figure 9). If parallel
groups of modules are connected in a series string, large bypass diodes are usually required.

Three Modules Connected in Series with a Blocking Diode and Bypass Diodes
Twelve Modules in a Parallel-Series Array with Bypass Diodes and Isolation Diodes

TYPES OF ARRAYS
Flat-plate stationary arrays

Stationary arrays are the most common. Some allow adjustments in their tilt angle from the
horizontal. These changes can be made any number of times throughout the year, although they
are normally changed only twice a year. The modules in the array do not move throughout the
day (Figure 10). Although a stationary array does not capture as much energy as a tracking array
that follows the sun across the sky, and more modules may be required, there are no moving
parts to fail. This reliability is why a stationary array is often used for remote or dangerous
locations.
Adjustable Array Tilted for Summer and Winter Solar Angles

Portable arrays

A portable array may be as small as a one square foot module easily carried by one person to
recharge batteries for communications or flashlights. They can be mounted on vehicles to
maintain the engine battery during long periods of inactivity. Larger ones can be installed on
trailers or truck beds to provide a portable power supply for field operations (Figures 11)
PV CELLS

A solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the
photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to
capture energy from sunlight such as solar panels and solar cells, while the term photovoltaic
cell is used when the light source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar
panels, solar modules, or photovoltaic arrays. Photovoltaics is the field of technology and
research related to the application of solar cells in producing electricity for practical use. The
energy generated this way is an example of solar energy (also known as solar power).
Photovoltaic cells are manufactured by using different materials with different process of
making. Each type has its own advantages and disadvantages , giving the end user a lot of
choices, so as to consider different parameters.

TYPES OF PV CELLS:

There are four types of photovoltaic cells: multicrystalline silicon, monocrystalline silicon,
ribbon silicon, and thin-film.

MONOCYRSTALLINE PV CELLS

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The starting material is lumps of chemically pure polycrystalline silicon, of a quality close to
semiconductor-grade, produced by the Siemens process. The traditional route for
monocrystalline wafers is the Czochralski process in which a single crystal of up to about
150mm diameter is pulled from molten Si held in a large heated quartz crucible. In the more
recently developed method, Si is cast in a re-useable graphite mould to produce blocks of
multicrystalline silicon (cubes of over 0.5m dimensions). When sawn into bars and then wafers
(just bigger than a compact disc) using a wire saw, the cleaned product is ready for cell
manufacturing.
Single crystal or monocrystalline wafers are made using the Czochralski process.

Czochralski process:
High-purity, semiconductor-grade silicon (only a few parts per million of impurities) is melted
down in a crucible, which is usually made of quartz. Dopant impurity atoms such as boron or
phosphorus can be added to the molten intrinsic silicon in precise amounts in order to dope the
silicon, thus changing it into n-type or p-type extrinsic silicon. This influences the electronic
properties of the silicon. A precisely oriented seed crystal, mounted on a rod, is dipped into the
molten silicon. The seed crystal's rod is very slowly pulled upwards and rotated at the same time.
By precisely controlling the temperature gradients, rate of pulling and speed of rotation, it is
possible to extract a large, single-crystal, cylindrical ingot from the melt. Investigating and
visualizing the temperature and velocity fields during the crystal growth process can avoid
occurrence of unwanted instabilities in the melt. This process is normally performed in an inert
atmosphere, such as argon, and in an inert chamber, such as quartz.

Due to the efficiencies that can be gained by the adoption of common wafer specifications, the
semiconductor industry has for some time used wafers with standardized dimensions. Currently,
high-end device manufacturers use 200 mm and 300 mm diameter wafers. The crystal ingots
from which these wafers are sliced can be up to 2 meters in length, weighing several hundred
kilograms. Larger wafers allow improvements in manufacturing efficiency, as more chips can be
fabricated on each wafer, so there has been a steady drive to increase silicon wafer sizes. The
next step up, 450 mm, is currently scheduled for introduction in 2012. Silicon wafers are
typically about 0.20.75 mm thick, and can be polished to a very high flatness for making
integrated circuits, or textured for making solar cells.
The process begins when the chamber is heated up to approximately 1500 degrees Celsius, to
melt the silicon. When the silicon is fully melted, a small seed crystal mounted on the end of a
rotating shaft is slowly lowered until it just dips below the surface of the red-hot molten silicon.
The shaft rotates counterclockwise and the crucible rotates clockwise. The rotating rod is then
drawn upwards very slowly, allowing a roughly cylindrical boule to be formed. The boule can be
from one to two meters, depending on the amount of silicon in the crucible.
In the early days of the technology, the boles were smaller, only a few inches wide. With
increasing technology, nowadays up to 300 mm (12-inch)- wide boules can be grown. The width
is controlled by precise control of the temperature, the speeds of rotation and how fast the seed
holder is withdrawn. Widths of 400 mm (16 inches) are expected in the next several years. This
is one reason for the rapidly decreasing cost of chips in recent years, because more LSI chips can
be created from a single wafer with the same number of fabrication process steps.
The electrical characteristics of the silicon are controlled by adding material like phosphorus or
boron to the silicon before it is melted. The added material is called dopant and the process is
called doping.
When silicon is grown by the Czochralski method, the melt is contained in a silica (quartz)
crucible. During growth, the walls of the crucible dissolve into the melt and Czochralski silicon
therefore contains oxygen at a typical concentration of 10 18 cm3. Oxygen impurities can have
beneficial effects. Carefully chosen annealing conditions can allow the formation of oxygen
precipitates. These have the effect of trapping unwanted transition metal impurities in a process
known as gettering. Additionally, oxygen impurities can improve the mechanical strength of
silicon wafers by immobilizing any dislocations that may be introduced during device
processing. It was experimentally shown in the 1990s that the high oxygen concentration is also
beneficial for radiation hardness of silicon particle detectors used in harsh radiation environment.
Therefore, radiation detectors made of Czochralski- and Magnetic Czochralski-silicon are
considered to be promising candidates for many future high-energy physics experiments. It has
also been shown that presence of oxygen in silicon increases impurity trapping during post-
implantation annealing processes.
However, oxygen impurities can react with boron in an illuminated environment, such as
experienced by solar cells. This results in the formation of electrically active boronoxygen
complex that detracts from cell performance. Module output drops by approximately 3% during
the first few hours of light exposure.

MULTICYRSTALLINE PV CELLS:
Techniques for the production of multicrystalline silicon are more simple, and therefore cheaper,
than those required for single crystal material. However, the material quality of multicrystalline
material is lower than that of single crystalline material due to the presence of grain boundaries.
Grain boundaries introduce high localised regions of recombination due to the introduction of
extra defect energy levels into the band gap, thus reducing the overall minority carrier lifetime
from the material. In addition, grain boundaries reduce solar cell performance by blocking carrier
flows and providing shunting paths for current flow across the p-n junction.

Manufacturing Process
The feedstock (made by purification of silicon or by alternative refining methods) is charged in a
silicon nitride coated quartz crucible and heated until all the silicon is melted. Heat is then
extracted from the bottom of the crucible by moving the heat zone up compared to the crucible
and / or cooling the bottom of the crucible. Often the crucible is lowered away from the heat
zone and simultaneously the bottom is revealed to a cooling source.

A temperature gradient is created in the melt and the solidification will start at the bottom and
crystals will grow upwards, and grain boundaries will grow parallel to the solidification
direction. To obtain a directional solidification the solidification heat must be transported through
the steadily growing layer of solid silicon. It is necessary to maintain a net heat flux over the
solid-liquid interface and the temperature at the lower part of the crucible must be decreased
according to the increase in solid silicon thickness to maintain a steady growth rate. The growth
rate is proportional to the temperature gradient difference between the solid and the liquid
silicon.

Impurity Distribution in Directionally Solidified Ingots:

Due to the fact that most elements are more soluble in liquid than in solid silicon, impurities
dissolved in the melt will segregate and the element concentration in the ingot will in most cases
increase upwards in the ingot following Scheils equation when the melt solidifies from the
bottom and up.
The exponential distribution will create a heavily contaminated thin layer at the top of the
resulting ingot.

The Scheil equation assumes no diffusion in the solid state, complete mixing in the liquid state
and equilibrium at the solid/liquid interface. If convection is not sufficient to provide complete
mixing in the liquid phase, solute atoms are rejected by the advancing solid at a greater rate than
they can diffuse into the bulk of the melt. A concentration gradient is thus developed ahead of the
solid. This enriched region will determine the rate of solute incorporation into the solid front.
This region is called a diffusion boundary layer. Scheils equation is still valid if an effective
distribution coefficient is used.

Forming of Precipitates:
Precipitates may form after saturation is met, and Scheils equation will no longer be valid. The
amount of super saturation needed for precipitates to form will vary with the chemical
composition and the growth conditions in the system.

Diffusion of Impurities:
In addition to the Scheil distribution the impurity distribution will depend on diffusion.
Impurities will diffuse into the solidified silicon from the crucible walls and bottom as well as
from the coating. Back-diffusion can also occur as impurities diffuse from the heavily
contaminated top layer back into the bulk material after solidification, or from the boundary
layer during solidification. Both in-diffusion from the crucible and coating and back-diffusion
are temperature dependent and the impurity distribution varies with varying temperature profile
during growth and the subsequent cooling.

Boron Doped Silicon:

Boron is an acceptor in silicon, and multicrystalline silicon ingots made by directional
solidification are often pre-doped with boron. A small amount of boron is added together with the
feedstock prior to melting and solidification. Boron is most commonly used because it is the
doping element with the distribution coefficient closest to 1 (k0 = 0.8). The distribution profile
will thus not vary as much with height as the other doping elements.

CHARGE CONTROLLER DESIGNS

Two basic methods exist for controlling or regulating the charging of a battery from a PV module
or array - shunt and series regulation. While both of these methods are effectively used, each
method may incorporate a number of variations that alter their basic performance and
applicability. Simple designs interrupt or disconnect the array from the battery at regulation,
while more sophisticated designs limit the current to the battery in a linear manner that maintains
a high battery voltage.

The algorithm or control strategy of a battery charge controller determines the effectiveness of
battery charging and PV array utilization, and ultimately the ability of the system to meet the
electrical load demands. Most importantly, the controller algorithm defines the way in which PV
array power is applied to the battery in the system. In general, interrupting on-off type controllers
require a higher regulation set point to bring batteries up to full state of charge than controllers
that limit the array current in a gradual manner.

Some of the more common design approaches for charge controllers are described in this section.

Shunt Controller Designs

Since photovoltaic cells are current-limited by design (unlike batteries), PV modules and arrays
can be short-circuited without any harm. The ability to short-circuit modules or an array is the
basis of operation for shunt controllers.

Figure 12 shows an electrical design of a typical shunt type controller. The shunt controller
regulates the charging of a battery from the PV array by short-circuiting the array internal to the
controller. All shunt controllers must have a blocking diode in series between the battery and the
shunt element to prevent the battery from short-circuiting when the array is regulating. Because
there is some voltage drop between the array and controller and due to wiring and resistance of
the shunt element, the array is never entirely shortcircuited, resulting in some power dissipation
within the controller. For this reason, most shunt controllers require a heat sink to dissipate
power, and are generally limited to use in PV systems with array currents
less than 20 amps.
Shunt controller
The regulation element in shunt controllers is typically a power transistor or MOSFET,
depending on the specific design. There are a couple of variations of the shunt controller design.
The first is a simple interrupting, or on-off type controller design. The second type limits the
array current in a gradual manner, by increasing the resistance of the shunt element as the battery
reaches full state of charge.

Shunt-Interrupting Design

The shunt-interrupting controller completely disconnects the array current in an interrupting or

on-off fashion when the battery reaches the voltage regulation set point. When the battery
decreases to the array reconnect voltage, the controller connects the array to resume charging the
battery. This cycling between the regulation voltage and array reconnect voltage is why these
controllers are often called on-off or pulsing controllers. Shunt-interrupting controllers are
widely available and are low cost, however they are generally limited to use in systems with
array currents less than 20 amps due to heat dissipation requirements.

Shunt-Linear Design

Once a battery becomes nearly fully charged, a shunt-linear controller maintains the battery at
near a fixed voltage by gradually shunting the array through a semiconductor regulation element.
In some designs, a comparator circuit in the controller senses the battery voltage, and makes
corresponding adjustments to the impedance of the shunt element, thus regulating the array
current. In other designs, simple Zener power diodes are used, which are the limiting factor in
the cost and power ratings for these controllers. There is generally more heat dissipation in
shunt-linear controllers than in shunt-interrupting types.
Series Controller Designs

As the name implies, this type of controller works in series between the array and battery, rather
than in parallel as for the shunt controller. There are several variations to the series type
controller, all of which use some type of control or regulation element in series between the array
and the battery. While this type of controller is commonly used in small PV systems, it is also the
practical choice for larger systems due to the current limitations of shunt controllers.

Figure 13 shows an electrical design of a typical series type controller. In a series controller
design, a relay or solid-state switch either opens the circuit between the array and the battery to
discontinuing charging, or limits the current in a series-linear manner to hold the battery voltage
at a high value. In the simpler series interrupting design, the controller reconnects the array to the
battery once the battery falls to the array reconnect voltage set point. As these on-off charge
cycles continue, the on time becoming shorter and shorter as the battery becomes fully charged.

Because the series controller open-circuits rather than short-circuits the array as in shunt-
controllers, no blocking diode is needed to prevent the battery from short-circuiting when the
controller regulates.

Series controller

Series-Interrupting Design
The most simple series controller is the series-interrupting type, involving a one-step control,
turning the array charging current either on or off. The charge controller constantly monitors
battery voltage, and disconnects or open-circuits the array in series once the battery reaches the
regulation voltage set point. After a pre-set period of time, or when battery voltage drops to the
array reconnect voltage set point, the array and battery are reconnected, and the cycle repeats. As
the battery becomes more fully charged, the time for the battery voltage to reach the regulation
voltage becomes shorter each cycle, so the amount of array current passed through to the battery
becomes less each time. In this way, full charge is approached gradually in small steps or pulses,
similar in operation to the shunt-interrupting type controller. The principle difference is the series
or shunt mode by which the array is regulated.

Similar to the shunt-interrupting type controller, the series-interrupting type designs are best
suited for use with flooded batteries rather than the sealed VRLA types due to the way power is
applied to the battery

Series-Interrupting, 2-step, Constant-Current Design

This type of controller is similar to the series-interrupting type, however when the voltage
regulation set point is reached, instead of totally interrupting the array current, a limited constant
current remains applied to the battery. This trickle charging continues either for a pre-set period
of time, or until the voltage drops to the array reconnect voltage due to load demand. Then full
array current is once again allowed to flow, and the cycle repeats. Full charge is approached in a
continuous fashion, instead of smaller steps as described
above for the on-off type controllers.

Series-Linear, Constant-Voltage Design

In a series-linear, constant-voltage controller design, the controller maintains the battery voltage
at the voltage regulation set point. The series regulation element acts like a variable resistor,
controlled by the controller battery voltage sensing circuit of the controller. The series element
dissipates the balance of the power that is not used to charge the battery, and generally requires
heat sinking. The current is inherently controlled by the series element and the voltage drop
across it.
Series-linear, constant-voltage controllers can be used on all types of batteries. Because they
apply power to the battery in a controlled manner, they are generally more effective at fully
charging batteries than on-off type controllers.

Series-Interrupting, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Design

This algorithm uses a semiconductor-switching element between the array and battery, which is,
switched on/off at a variable frequency with a variable duty cycle to maintain the battery at or
very close to the voltage regulation set point. Although a series type PWM design is discussed
here, shunt-type PWM designs are also popular and perform battery charging in similar ways.
Similar to the series-linear, constant-voltage algorithm in performance, power dissipation within
the controller is considerably lower in the series interrupting PWM design.

By electronically controlling the high speed switching or regulation element, the PWM controller
breaks the array current into pulses at some constant frequency, and varies the width and time of
the pulses to regulate the amount of charge flowing into the battery. When the battery is
discharged, the current pulse width is practically fully on all the time. As the battery voltage
rises, the pulse width is decreased, effectively reducing the magnitude of the charge current.

The PWM design allows greater control over exactly how a battery approaches full charge and
generates less heat. PWM type controllers can be used with all battery type, however the
controlled manner in which power is applied to the battery makes them preferential for use with
sealed VRLA types batteries over on-off type controls. To limit overcharge and gassing, the
voltage regulation set points for PWM and constant voltage controllers are generally specified
lower than those for on-off type controllers.

WORKING OF SOALR CHARGE CONTROLLER

When connecting a solar panel to a rechargeable battery, it is usually necessary to use a

charge controller circuit to prevent the battery from overcharging and to avoid power wastage.

Solar charger controller is typically configured for a three stage charging process, Bulk,
Absorption and Float. The three-stage charge process provides a somewhat higher charge voltage
to charge the battery quickly and safely. Once the battery is fully charged a somewhat lower
voltage is applied maintain the battery in a fully charged state without excessive water loss. The
three stage charge process charges the battery as quickly as possible while minimizing battery
water loss and maintenance.
 Figure 1: Bulk charge curve
Bulk charge:
When charge starts the Solar charger controller attempts to apply the bulk charge voltage to the
battery. The system will switch to Bulk charge if the battery is sufficiently discharged and/or
insufficient charge current is available to drive the battery up to the bulk voltage set point.
During the Bulk charge stage the unit delivers as much charge current as possible to rapidly
recharge the battery. Once the charge control system enters Absorption or Float, the unit will
again switch to Bulk charge if battery voltage drops below the present charge voltage set point.
Absorption charge:
During this stage, the unit changes to a constant voltage mode where the absorption voltage is
applied to the battery. When charge current decreases to the float transition current setting, the
battery is fully charged and the unit switches to the float stage.

Float charge:
During this stage, the float voltage is applied to the battery to maintain it in a fully charged state.
When battery voltage drops below the float setting for a cumulative period, a new bulk cycle will
be triggered.

The above charging process ensures that the battery is not overcharged thus ensuring long life of
operation. Recently developed charge controllers also use a new technology called the maximum
power point tracking that allows the charge controller to keep of the maximum power voltage as
operation conditions change thus maximizing the output.
 Solar charge controller essentially uses the property of the PV cell being a constant current type
device as shown in fig 2.

ESP8266 NodeMcu WiFi Development Board :

NodeMCU is an open source IoT platform. It includes firmware which runs on the ESP8266 Wi-
Fi SoC from Espressif Systems, and hardware which is based on the ESP-12 module.

Features :
802.11 b/g/n
Integrated low power 32-bit MCU
Integrated 10-bit ADC
Integrated TCP/IP protocol stack
Integrated TR switch, balun, LNA, power amplifier and matching network
Integrated PLL, regulators, and power management units
Supports antenna diversity
WiFi 2.4 GHz, support WPA/WPA2
 Support STA/AP/STA+AP operation modes
Support Smart Link Function for both Android and iOS devices
SDIO 2.0, (H) SPI, UART, I2C, I2S, IR Remote Control, PWM, GPIO
STBC, 1x1 MIMO, 2x1 MIMO
A-MPDU & A-MSDU aggregation & 0.4s guard interval
Deep sleep power < 5uA
Wake up and transmit packets in < 2ms
Standby power consumption of < 1.0mW (DTIM3)
+20 dBm output power in 802.11b mode
Major Applications
Major fields of ESP8266EX applications to Internet-of-Things include:
Home Appliances
Home Automation
Smart Plug and lights
Industrial Wireless Control
Baby Monitors
IP Cameras
Wearable Electronics

LED

Light Emitting Diodes (LED) have recently become available that are white and bright,
so bright that they seriously compete with incandescent lamps in lighting applications. They are
still pretty expensive as compared to a GOW lamp but draw much less current and project a
fairly well focused beam.

The diode in the photo came with a neat little reflector that tends to sharpen the beam a
little but doesn't seem to add much to the overall intensity.

When run within their ratings, they are more reliable than lamps as well. Red LEDs are
now being used in automotive and truck tail lights and in red traffic signal lights. You will be
able to detect them because they look like an array of point sources and they go on and off
instantly as compared to conventional incandescent lamps.

LEDs are monochromatic (one color) devices. The color is determined by the band gap of
the semiconductor used to make them. Red, green, yellow and blue LEDs are fairly common.
White light contains all colors and cannot be directly created by a single LED. The most
common form of "white" LED really isn't white. It is a Gallium Nitride blue LED coated with a
phosphor that, when excited by the blue LED light, emits a broad range spectrum that in addition
to the blue emission, makes a fairly white light.

There is a claim that these white LED's have a limited life. After 1000 hours or so of
operation, they tend to yellow and dim to some extent. Running the LEDs at more than their
rated current will certainly accelerate this process.

There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LEDS. One is
to use individual LEDS that emit three primary coloursred, green, and blueand then mix all
the colours to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert
monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same
way a fluorescent light bulb works. Due to metamerism, it is possible to have quite different
spectra that appear white.
 LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out
of silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that
are added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.

When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light
bulbs produce light by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons
directly and not via heat, they are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

Fig 3.1(a): circuit symbol

Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or
electronic equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional
lighting technologies. Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.

Types of LEDS

LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package is the most
common, estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the
actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared
LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages,
such as those found on blinkers and on cell phone keypads. The main types of LEDs are miniature,
high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color.
 Fig 3.1(b) Different types of LEDS

PUSH BUTTONS

Fig.4.8 (a): Push Buttons

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism

for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard
material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the
human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased
switches, though even many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to
return to their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms for the "pushing" of the
button, such as press, depress, mash, and punch.
Uses:

In industrial and commercial applications push buttons can be linked together by a

mechanical linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the other button to be released.
In this way, a stop button can "force" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used
in simple manual operations in which the machine or process have no electrical circuits for
control.

Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that the
operator will not push the wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are red for stopping the
machine or process and green for starting the machine or process.

Red pushbuttons can also have large heads (mushroom shaped) for easy operation and to
facilitate the stopping of a machine. These pushbuttons are called emergency stop buttons and
are mandated by the electrical code in many jurisdictions for increased safety. This large
mushroom shape can also be found in buttons for use with operators who need to wear gloves for
their work and could not actuate a regular flush-mounted push button. As an aid for operators
and users in industrial or commercial applications, a pilot light is commonly added to draw the
attention of the user and to provide feedback if the button is pushed. Typically this light is
included into the center of the pushbutton and a lens replaces the pushbutton hard center disk.

The source of the energy to illuminate the light is not directly tied to the contacts on the
back of the pushbutton but to the action the pushbutton controls. In this way a start button when
pushed will cause the process or machine operation to be started and a secondary contact
designed into the operation or process will close to turn on the pilot light and signify the action
of pushing the button caused the resultant process or action to start.

In popular culture, the phrase "the button" refers to a (usually fictional) button that a
military or government leader could press to launch nuclear weapons.
Push to ON button:

Fig. 4.8(b): push on button

Initially the two contacts of the button are open. When the button is pressed they become
connected. This makes the switching operation using the push button.

BC547

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:

The BC547 transistor is an NPN Epitaxial Silicon Transistor. The BC547 transistor is a
general-purpose transistor in small plastic packages. It is used in general-purpose switching and
amplification BC847/BC547 series 45 V, 100 mA NPN general-purpose transistors.
 BC 547 TRANSISTOR PINOUTS

An NPN Transistor Configuration

We know that the transistor is a "CURRENT" operated device and that a large current
(Ic) flows freely through the device between the collector and the emitter terminals. However,
this only happens when a small biasing current (Ib) is flowing into the base terminal of the
transistor thus allowing the base to act as a sort of current control input. The ratio of these two
currents (Ic/Ib) is called the DC Current Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or
nowadays Beta, (). Beta has no units as it is a ratio. Also, the current gain from the emitter to
the collector terminal, Ic/Ie, is called Alpha, (), and is a function of the transistor itself. As the
emitter current Ie is the product of a very small base current to a very large collector current the
value of this parameter is very close to unity, and for a typical low-power signal transistor this
value ranges from about 0.950 to 0.999.

4 RESISTORS

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by

producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance
with Ohm's law:
 V = IR

Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely
commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can
dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-
known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum
permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends
upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by
design.

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated
circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors
must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the
constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger
value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as
well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors
are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.

The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common

commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may
require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific
application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some
precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must
sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.

The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law;
this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an
issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. [1] A
family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of
the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing
of circuits using them.

Units

The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ), kilohm (1 k =
103 ), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.

The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens

(SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = 1.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

CAPACITORS

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of

conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the
conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a
mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly
separated conductors.
 An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.

The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and
quality factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic
circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-
conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other
purposes.

A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated

by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Theory of operation

Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric

(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region The non-

conductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms,
the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper,
vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A
capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no
influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges
on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of
one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt
across the device. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric
circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the
ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In
this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage

Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in
a capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric
field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium
position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored,
is given by:[11]

Current-voltage relation

The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow
of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the
dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one
that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on
one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus
the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the
voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to
represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,

Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,
 .

The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the
electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the
capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

DC circuits

A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of
voltage V0 is known as a charging circuit. If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch
is open, and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation,

At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The
initial current is then i (0) =V0 /R. With this assumption, the differential equation yields
where 0 = RC is the time constant of the system.

As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the voltage across the resistor and
the current through the entire circuit decay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged
capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage
replacing V0 and the final voltage being zero.

Applications

Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that
it is a rare electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.

BATTERIES

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

To properly select batteries for use in stand-alone PV systems, it is important that system
designers have a good understanding of their design features, performance characteristics and
operational requirements. Because the demand for energy does not always coincide with its
production, electrical storage batteries are commonly used in PV systems. The primary functions
of a storage battery in a PV system are to:

1. Energy Storage Capacity and Autonomy: to store electrical energy when it is produced by the
PV array and to supply energy to electrical loads as needed or on demand.

2. Voltage and Current Stabilization: to supply power to electrical loads at stable voltages and
currents, by suppressing or 'smoothing out' transients that may occur in PV systems.

3. Supply Surge Currents: to supply surge or high peak operating currents to electrical loads or
appliances.

Battery Design and Construction:

Battery manufacturing is an intensive, heavy industrial process involving the use of hazardous
and toxic materials. Batteries are generally mass produced, combining several sequential and
parallel processes to construct a complete battery unit. After production, initial charge and
discharge cycles are conducted on batteries before they are shipped to distributors and
consumers.

Some important components of battery construction are described below.

Cell:
The cell is the basic electrochemical unit in a battery, consisting of a set of positive and negative
plates divided by separators, immersed in an electrolyte solution and enclosed in a case. In a
typical leadacid battery, each cell has a nominal voltage of about 2.1 volts, so there are 6 series
cells in a nominal 12 volt battery. Figure 1 shows a diagram of a basic lead-acid battery cell.

Active Material:
The active materials in a battery are the raw composition materials that form the positive and
negative plates, and are reactants in the electrochemical cell. The amount of active material in a
battery is proportional to the capacity a battery can deliver. In lead-acid batteries, the active
materials are lead dioxide (PbO2) in the positive plates and metallic sponge lead (Pb) in the
negative plates, which react with a sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution during battery operation.

Electrolyte:
The electrolyte is a conducting medium, which allows the flow of current through ionic transfer,
or the transfer of electrons between the plates in a battery. In a lead-acid battery, the electrolyte is
a diluted sulfuric acid solution, either in liquid (flooded) form, gelled or absorbed in glass mats.
In flooded nickel cadmium cells, the electrolyte is an alkaline solution of potassium hydroxide
and water. In most flooded battery types, periodic water additions are required to replenish the
electrolyte lost through gassing. When adding water to batteries, it is very important to use
distilled or de-mineralized water, as even the impurities
in normal tap water can poison the battery and result in premature failure.

Grid:
In a lead-acid battery, the grid is typically a lead alloy framework that supports the active
material on a battery plate, and which also conducts current. Alloying elements such as
antimony and calcium are often used to strengthen the lead grids, and have characteristic effects
on battery performance such as cycle performance and gassing. Some grids are made by
expanding a thin lead alloy sheet into a flat plate web, while others are made of long spines of
lead with the active material plated around them forming tubes, or what are referred to as tubular
plates.

Plate:
A plate is a basic battery component, consisting of a grid and active material, sometimes called
an electrode. There are generally a number of positive and negative plates in each battery cell,
typically connected in parallel at a bus bar or inter-cell connector at the top of the plates. A
pasted plate is manufactured by applying a mixture of lead oxide, sulfuric acid, fibers and water
on to the grid. The thickness of the grid and plate affect the deep cycle performance of a battery.
In automotive starting or SLI type batteries, many thin plates are used per cell. This results in
maximum surface area for delivering high currents, but not much thickness and mechanical
durability for deep and prolonged discharges. Thick plates are used for deep cycling applications
such as for forklifts, golf carts and other electric vehicles. The
thick plates permit deep discharges over long periods, while maintaining good adhesion of the
active material to the grid, resulting in longer life.
Separator:
A separator is a porous, insulating divider between the positive and negative plates in a battery,
used to keep the plates from coming into electrical contact and short-circuiting, and which also
allows the flow of electrolyte and ions between the positive and negative plates. Separators are
made from micro porous rubber, plastic or glass-wool mats. In some cases, the separators may be
like an envelope, enclosing the entire plate and preventing shed materials from creating short
circuits at the bottom of the plates.

Element:
In element is defined as a stack of positive and negative plate groups and separators, assembled
together with plate straps interconnecting the positive and negative plates.

Terminal Posts:
Terminal posts are the external positive and negative electrical connections to a battery.

A battery is connected in a PV system and to electrical loads at the terminal posts. In a lead-acid
battery the posts are generally lead or a lead alloy, or possibly stainless steel or copper-plated
steel for greater corrosion resistance. Battery terminals may require periodic cleaning,
particularly for flooded designs. It is also recommended that the clamps or connections to battery
terminals be secured occasionally as they may loosen over time.

Cell Vents:
During battery charging, gasses are produced within a battery that may be vented to the
atmosphere. In flooded designs, the loss of electrolyte through gas escape from the cell vents it a
normal occurrence, and requires the periodic addition of water to maintain proper electrolyte
levels. In sealed, or valve-regulated batteries, the vents are designed with a pressure relief
mechanism, remaining closed under normal conditions, but opening during higher than normal
battery pressures, often the result of overcharging or high temperature operation. Each cell of a
complete battery unit has some type of cell vent.

Flame arrestor vent caps are commonly supplied component on larger, industrial battery systems.
The venting occurs through a charcoal filter, designed to contain a cell explosion to one cell,
minimizing the potential for a catastrophic explosion of the entire battery bank.

Case:
 Commonly made from a hard rubber or plastic, the case contains the plates, separators and
electrolyte in a battery. The case is typically enclosed, with the exception of inter-cell connectors
which attach the plate assembly from one cell to the next, terminal posts, and vents or caps which
allow gassing products to escape and to permit water additions if required. Clear battery cases or
containers allow for easy monitoring of electrolyte levels and battery plate condition. For very
large or tall batteries, plastic cases are often supported with an external metal or rigid plastic
casing.

Conclusion:-
Finally we design entire project tested all parameter and found everything work properly. We are
able see the V-t, I-t, P-t graph.