Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm

Ethnomedical uses of Zingiberaceous plants of Northeast India

Tushar a,1 , Supriyo Basak a,1 , Gajen C. Sarma b , Latha Rangan a,
a
Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, North Guwahati, Assam 781 039, India
b
Department of Botany, Gauhati University, Assam 781 014, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Aim of the study: Family Zingiberaceae consists of large number of medicinal plants and is well known
Received 30 April 2010 for its use in ethnomedicine. The objective of this study is to systematically analyse and document the
Received in revised form 9 August 2010 traditional knowledge regarding the use of Zingiberaceous plants for the treatment of various human
Accepted 11 August 2010
ailments from NE India, adding information to the valuation of biodiversity and, to forward suggestions
Available online 18 August 2010
for its sustainable use, conservation and for future pharmacological studies.
Materials and methods: A survey on the utilization of medicinal plants belonging to Zingibereceae of
Keywords:
North-eastern states was carried out by interviewing herbalists followed by collecting plant specimens
Ethnomedicine
Traditional knowledge
and identifying the specimen. Ethnobotanical information on traditional plants was catalogued through
Northeast India structured questionnaires in consultations with traditional healers.
Zingiberaceae Results: A total of 34 species were documented belonging to 9 genera of Zingiberaceae for about 25 types
of ailments, 67.6% of which were used in curing multiple disorders. Arunachal Pradesh hosts maximum
number of Zingiberaceous plant (88%). Rhizomes were found to be the primary plant material as a source
for medication and poultices as the predominant mode of preparation. Gastrointestinal conditions (58%)
and chest and lungs (41%) related ailments were the main categories for which these plants are used.
Conclusions: The study establishes Zingiberaceae as a medicinal family since 41% of all the available
Zingiberaceous plant species in NE were found to possess medicinal value. Some new use of herbs also
appeared in this study for the rst time.
2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction east India politically consists of Arunachal Pradesh (AP), Assam,

The Northeast (NE) region (located between 87 32 E to 97 52 E
latitude and 21 34 N to 29 50 N latitude) known for its genetic
resources world over, is the Biogeographical Gateway to India
and nds place in part of two-biodiversity hotspots in India
(Mittermeier et al., 2003). Ironically this is also one of the worlds
most threatened area and the recent estimates indicate it would not
be long when all this will disappear in the next 1520 years. Out of
the estimated 800 species consumed as food plants in India, about
300 species are found in Eastern Himalaya alone (Singh and Arora,
1978). Despite awareness of their biological diversity, the region
remains disgracefully data-poor for a wide variety of plant taxa.
However the existing traditional knowledge based on plant and
animal resource remains a positive indicator for researcher. North-
Abbreviations: AP, Arunachal Pradesh; GU, Gauhati University; IITG, Indian Insti-
tute of Technology Guwahati; IPNI, International plant names index; NE, northeast.
Corresponding author at: Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Department
of Biotechnology, Room No 201, O Block, IIT Guwahati, North Guwahati, Assam 781
039, India. Tel.: +91 361 2582214; fax: +91 361 2582249.
E-mail addresses: latha rangan@yahoo.com, lrangan@iitg.ernet.in (L. Rangan).
1
Both these authors contributed equally.
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. The
region has a diverse ecotypes ranging from humid evergreen forests
to temperate and alpine vegetation. According to 2001 census, the
region witnesses 130 major indigenous communities and is home
to a number of archaic societies like Abor, Garo, Daa, Khasi, Kuki,
Mishi, Rabha, Naga, Apatani, etc. (Ramakrishnan, 1992; Dutta and
Dutta, 2005; Kala, 2005). These major indigenous communities are
further categorized into sub-tribes, together accounting for close
to 300 (Dutta and Dutta, 2005).
The traditional communities of NE living here for thousands of
years have built a precious knowledge base about the use of the
rich bio-resources of the region. The region has a strong heritage
of herbal remedies and is very much an integral part of indige-
nous culture of NE. The herbal healers are known as bejes, bejinis,
boidyo, kobiraj, maiba, dhonontori, nong ai dawai kynbat, bawlpu
in various ethnic groups. The usage of 2416 plants of ethnomedi-
cal purposes in the country has already been documented, out of
which about 1953 plant species found its uses among different eth-
nic groups inhabiting the NE region of the country alone (Sajem and
Gosai, 2006).
The urbanization and reach of modern health system to remote
places and villages have led to negligence towards traditional
knowledge related to herbal medicine. In the state AP, the aborigi-

0378-8741/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.032
 Tushar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296
nals continue to live in rural areas having a strong hold to original
ethnic faith with an exception of Apatani, which has 51.4% urban
population. Mizoram has large ethnic population (94.5%) of which
almost 50% reside in urban areas. With this shift of the population
to urban areas, the dependence on modern medicine is likely to
be on rise and thereby depletion of indigenous knowledge health
system. Certain community like Nyishi people still continue to
believe that diseases are due to the evil spirits or because of break-
ing of the traditional rules. The knowledge of producing herbal
medicine in a systematic ritual manner is acquired through ages
by experience and is very much guarded secretly among certain
families and clan. The plants used and the methods of preparation
of herbal medicine are often closely guarded secrets, usually only
passed from father to the eldest son as the death of the former
approaches. The healers from ethnic population keep their eth-
nomedicinal knowledge condential as they justify that sharing
knowledge with others will result in the loss of healinga belief
that is closely safeguarded. Apart from the factor mentioned above,
the reason for the loss of knowledge is attributed to the folklore
nature than a well-documented system. For the conservation of
indigenous knowledge the proper documentation has been sug-
gested (Rao, 2006). Moreover, the naturally occurring molecules
are in great demand as a new potent drug molecule due to ever
evolving microorganisms and their lack of side effects. Further as
the health care cost continues to rise speedily; the attraction of low
cost remedies has stimulated consumers to re-visit the potential of
alternatives (Bouldin et al., 1999).
The family Zingiberaceae well known for its immense medici-
nal values is distributed widely throughout the tropics, particularly
in Southeast Asia. Zingiberaceae family is an important natu-
ral resource that provides many useful products for food, spices,
medicines, dyes, perfume and aesthetics (Jantan et al., 2003). India
is one of the richest and diverse regions for Zingiberaceae, having
22 genera and about 170 species. The NE region of India is a zone
of greatest concentration where 19 genera and about 88 species
are reported (Prakash and Mehrotra, 1995). Most of the members
of Zingiberaceae are found here at wild states, which are yet to
be explored. Local literature survey have pointed out that there
are numerous medicinal plants described for treatment of many
diseases and herbal medicine. However, there is no report on eth-
nobotanical study of Zingiberaceae of NE to be effective in a very
wide range of diseases. There is an utmost need for such studies as
the environmental scenario of the region is changing drastically due
to myriad number of anthropogenic activities and rapid urbaniza-
tion. The conservation of the rich biodiversity and ethnobotanical
information requires strong steps. Various ethnobotanical surveys
and studies are a prerequisite in attaining these goals. The objec-
tive of this study is to document and critically analyse traditional
knowledge regarding the use of Zingiberaceous plants for the treat-
ment of various human ailments from NE India. Such a study may
add information to the valuation of biodiversity and to forward
suggestions for its sustainable use and conservation.
2. Methods
The current ethnopharmacological survey was conducted in
seven states of NE, namely: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura by making eld trips
to parts of NE during the period March 2008 to August 2009.
Trips were made to villages and areas inhabited by indigenous
people during different seasons, so as to include wide number of
species of the family. A total of 14 communities (Apatani, Nyishi,
Hill Miris, Chakma, Khamptis, Adi, Bodo, Lushai, Thai-Ahom, Garo,
Lakher, Pawi, Jaintia and Bork) were visited during the study. As the
members of the family Zingiberaceae are known to bloom during
287
monsoon season, a special account was taken to organize the visits
during this season. Most of the Zingiberaceous plants are rare and
some are endangered too. Moreover many plants grew on slopes
of hills, so at times; it was not only difcult but also inaccessible
for collection and subsequent documentation. Since the choice of
individual informant to be interviewed was of great importance to
the reliability of the information, all contacts were established with
elderly and local practitioners. Before interviewing any respondent,
the study team members explained the objectives of the study,
methods and the plans for use of the data that were to be gener-
ated from the interviews. Verbal consent to conduct the interviews
was sought from every respondent before the interview and was
granted in every case. We selected healers who utilized medicinal
plants as therapeutic substance and treated patients outside their
immediate circle of family and friends. Particularly in some cases
they were the only known healer in the region. A total number of
370 healers were interviewed. The healers were asked to identify
the plant species from his/her collection as well as from the natural
habitat. A structured interview form was used to collect informa-
tion in the local language and respondents were queried for the
herbal remedy known to him or her for various diseases. Tradi-
tional healers identied some of the not immediately recognized
diseases based on the symptoms and physical examinations. Cer-
tain diseases are known to healers not by name but by the specic
symptoms and condition, as exhibited by patient. These include
gastric ulcer, pulmonary tuberculosis, gravel, pneumonia, ascites
and diabetes. The name of such disease has been assigned based
on the symptoms described by the healers. Since the traditional
healers diagnose ailments only by physical examination so at times
the disease is identied at a late and acute phase as in pulmonary
tuberculosis and ascites. The mode of preparation and administra-
tion were also recorded. The acquired data were also cross-checked
for its pharmacological signicance with the available literature. All
doubtful and misleading cases where the informants showed little
knowledge concerning the identication of plant species either in
the eld or from specimens were excluded from this survey and the
information provided was discarded. A medicinal use was accepted
as valid only if it was conrmed by at least two separate healers. The
information obtained was documented in a tabular form. The data
included the botanical name, local name, location, plant parts used,
mode of preparation, administration and their utility as remedy for
treating human diseases. The list of major ailments was compiled
and the number of plants utilized in treatment was determined.
The collected plants along with the rhizome and owers were
properly tagged and maintained in the departmental green house,
IITG and botanical garden of Gauhati University (GU). Hooker
(1875) and Petersen (1889) were used as reference for identica-
tion of the plants. The features were also preserved as herbaria for
future reference at Botanical Garden, GU and a copy of the same is
being maintained at IITG with the authors. Taxonomists at Botany
Department GU, Assam, later identied the specimens. The botan-
ical name was written as in IPNI database.
3. Results and discussion
The survey involved 34 plants belonging to 9 genera of the fam-
ily Zingiberaceae from NE region of India. Most of the plant species
grow naturally in the different regions and their properties are
important in traditional herbal medicine. Therefore some plants
are commonly cultivated for its use as spice and vegetables. The
number of healers from a particular community varied from 3 to
79. During the process of this study, an average of 31 healers per
community was interviewed. The average male informer to female
informer ratio was found to be 6:5. Interestingly in Garo community
from Meghalaya the number of female informer was found to be

Table 1
List of plants and their application in context to ethnomedicine as prevalent in use by various ethnic communities of NE region, India.
Botanical name
Alpinia allughas (Retx) ROS.
Alpinia bracteata Rosc. (Syn
Alpinia calcarata).
Alpinia galanga L.
Alpinia malaccensis Rosc.
Alpinia nigra BURTT.
Amomum aromaticum
Roxb.
Amomum dealbatum Roxb.
Amomum linguiforme
Benth. and Hook.f.
Amomum subulatum Roxb.
Amomum zingiber L.
Costus speciosus Sm.
Local name
Deotora (Chakma,
Arunachal Pradesh)
Latara (Khasi)
Karphul, Kulajan
(Assamese); Kanghoo
(Manipuri); Aaichal (Mizo);
King Pang (Khampti,
Arunachal Pradesh)
Puprere (Adi, Arunachal
Pradesh)
Pullei (Manipuri); Tora
(Assamese)
Borelachi (Chakma,
Arunachal Pradesh);
Bodaelachi (Assamese)
Aidu (Mizo); Alach
(Kokborok); Alachi
(Tripura)
Karpur (Tai-ahom)
Bara elachi (Bengali)
Ardraka (Sanskrit)
Jamlakhuti (Assamese);
Khongbam takhelei
(Manipuri); Sumbul
(Mizo); Jomalkhuti
(Chakma, Arunachal
Pradesh); Myonpobap
(Nyishi, Arunachal
Pradesh)
Location
Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Manipuri, Mizoram,
Nagaland
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam, Manipur
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Tripura
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam
Assam, Meghalaya
Parts used Mode of preparation
Fruits and rhizome Crushed fruits are applied.
Rhizome extract taken
orally.
Rhizome Crushed rhizome
Rhizome and Shoot The rhizome is used to
create a tincture that is
applied topically to treat
fungal skin infections.
Rhizome powder mixed
with young leaf paste of
Euphorbia neriifolia and
applied locally.
Plant extract
Rhizome Rhizomes boiled with
water.
Tender shoot and rhizome Shoot extract
Rhizome extract is taken
23 times daily.
Seeds Seed paste
Rhizome leaves, seeds Rhizomes are crushed and
fried lightly with mustard
oil and applied to joints.
Leave juice.
Rhizome extract applied
locally.
Seeds powder mixed with
equal amount of honey.
Rhizome. Epidermis is removed from
rhizome under water.
Pods By boiling 23 pods for
30 min in water. Strain and
drink the extract twice
daily for week.
Rhizome Drinking of water extract of
dried rhizome for a month.
Usefulness
To treat ring worm.
Antipyretic
Tooth decay, abnormal
menstruation
Stimulant and carminative
in atulence, laxative
dyspepsia, vomiting and
sickness at stomach.
Inammation and skin
allergy caused by insect
bites or microbes.
For abortion
Abdominal pain
Bone weakness, irregular
menstruation.
Jaundice, gastric ulcers
Antidote to scorpion and
snakebite.
Joints pain
Antiseptic
Abscesses
Muscular rheumatism
Diabetes, High blood
pressure
Eye inammation, kidney Antimicrobial (Islam et al.,
and urinary disorder,
infection of teeth, prevents
and treats throat trouble,
congestion of lung and
pulmonary tuberculosis,
asthma, heart disease,
digestive disorder, cold,
bladder disease, snake bite,
scorpion bite, masticatory.
Filaria
288
Experimental data
available
Antioxidant (Vankar et al.,
2006)
Antinociceptive
(Arambewela et al., 2004),
antioxidant (Thabrew et al.,
2001)
Antifungal (Janssen and
Scheffer, 1985),
Antiallergic (Matsuda et al.,
2003a), Gastroprotective
(Matsuda et al., 2003b),
Antimycobacterial
(Phongpaichit et al., 2006)
Tushar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296
Antioxidant (Habsah et al.,
2000)
Flukicidal (Roy and Tandon,
1999), antimycobacterial
(Phongpaichit et al., 2006)
Antimycobacterial
(Phongpaichit et al., 2006)
None
None
1990), anti-inammatory,
analgesic and
antispasmodic (Al-Zuhair
et al., 1996)
Antibacterial and
Antifungal (Islam et al.,
1990)
Table 1 (Continued)

Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental data
available

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Whole plant including Rhizome extract
Manipur, Meghalaya, rhizome Raw plant is taken orally.
Nagaland, Tripura Fresh rhizome extract
orally taken twice daily for
3 days.
Raw seeds are chewed
several times.
Rhizome essential oil.
Stem extract mixed with
sugarcane juice is taken
orally.
Rhizome and stem are
eaten raw.
Warm stem juice is
applied.
Burning sensation, Sexual hormones and
atulence, constipation, contraceptives (Warrier et
helminthiasis, leprosy, skin al., 1993)
diseases, fever, hiccough,
asthma, bronchitis,
bleeding from nose and
mouth inammation and
anaemia
Tonsillitis
Dog bite
Contraceptive
Jaundice
Urinary problems and
blood in urine
Snake or insect bite

Tushar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296

Dried powdered leaf and Burning wounds
young stems mixed with For curing piles
lukewarm water.
Costus variagata L. Kewpachla (Assamese) Assam Leaf and stem Leaf and stem extract in For curing piles None
water.
Curcuma amada Roxb. Amada (Assamese); Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome Rhizome extract and paste. Carminative, bronchiolytic Anti-inammatory
Aiengpui (Mizo) Manipur, Mizoram and vulnerary (Mujumdar et al., 2000),
cholesterol lowering
activity (Srinivasan et al.,
2008) antioxidant and
antibacterial (Policegoudra
et al., 2007)
Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. Yaipan (Manipuri); Gorusat Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome Pudding using rhizome Demulcent, antipyretic, Antifungal (Banerjee and
haladhi (Assamese) Nagaland powder with milk and effective against gravel Nigam, 1977)
sugar is used as general Stomatitis
tonic for children. Aid in blood coagulation
The powder of rhizomes
with honey is applied on
the mucous membrane of
the oral cavity.
Rhizome paste is applied to
cattle injured by leech.
Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Bon haladhi (Assamese); Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome Paste of rhizome with milk Carminative, antidote to Inhibits proliferation of
Lam-yaingang (Manipuri) Manipur, Meghalaya is used for blood dysentery snake bite, astringent and hepatoma (Wu et al.,
and stomach-ache. used for bruises, corns and 2000), anticancer activity
Paste of rhizome taken sprains performed on
with water. Kills intestinal worms eight-week-old
SpragueDawley rats (Li et
al., 2009).
Larvicidal (Madhu et al.,
2010)
Curcuma caesia Roxb. Kalahalud (Assamese); Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome and seeds The dried rhizome powder Against inammation Antimicrobial (Garg and
Amuba yaingang Mizoram is mixed with powdered caused by insect and snake Jain, 1998), antifungal
(Manipuri); Aihang (Mizo); seeds of Andrographis bite (anti-inammatory) (Banerjee and Nigam,
Chongkah (Khampti, paniculata and applied and anti-asthmatic 1976)
Arunachal Pradesh); during insect, scorpion and Dysentery
Homen (Lohit, Arunachal snake bite. For healing of wound
Pradesh) Fresh rhizome juice along
with mustard oil is given
daily.
Rhizome paste

289
 290
Table 1 (Continued)

Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental data
available

Curcuma domestica (Medik) Haldi (Assamese); Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome The dried powder of Against burn by re Anticancer activity
Valh. Yaingang (Manipuri) Manipur, Nagaland rhizome. (anti-inammatory), performed on national
atulence, jaundice, human prostate epithelial
Scabies cell line PrEC and normal
human bronchial epithelial
cell line Beas2B (Shankar
and Srivastava, 2007),
antioxidant (Ramsewak et
al., 2000),
anti-inammatory
(Ramsewak et al., 2000;
Chainani-Wu, 2003),
antifungal (Apisariyakul et
al., 1995), antibacterial

Tushar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296

(Kim et al., 2005), antiviral
(Sindelarova et al., 1996)
Curcuma longa L. Haladhi (Assamese); Aieng Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome Crushed rhizomes are Dyspepsia Anti-inammatory,
(Mizoram); Khumein Nak Manipur, Meghalaya, taken orally before food. Vasodilator Antispasmodic activity
(Khampti, Arunachal, Mizoram, Nagaland, Rhizomes are chewed for (Ammon and Wahl, 1991),
Pradesh) Tripura relief from asthma. anti-HIV, antioxidant,
anti-tumour, antivenom
(Arajo and Leon, 2001)
Curcuma zedoaria (Christ.) Keturi (Assamese); Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome Rhizome extract Blood purier, cough Anticancerous activity on
Roscoe. Aidizung (Mizo). Mizoram antiseptic, indigestion, Human ovarian cancer
wound healing, toothache, OVCAR-3 cells (Syu et al.,
leucoderma, tuberculosis, 1998)
enlargement of spleen and
for promoting
menstruation.
Elettaria cardamomum Elassi (Assamese) Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Seeds and pods Infusion, powder, milk Eye inammation, kidney Antimicrobial (Islam et al.,
Maton decoction and urinary disorder, to 1990), anti-inammatory,
treat infection of teeth, analgesic and
prevent and treat throat antispasmodic (Al-Zuhair
trouble, congestion of lung et al., 1996)
and pulmonary
tuberculosis, asthma, heart
disease, digestive disorder,
cold, snake bite, scorpion
bite, masticatory.
Globba clarkei Baker. Silaadha (Chakma, Arunachal Pradesh Rhizome Rhizome extract mixed To cure cough None
Arunachal Pradesh) with leaf extract of
Adhatoda vasica is taken
orally.
Globba multiora Baker. Belah (Nyishi Arunachal Arunachal Pradesh Rhizome Crushed rhizome applied Analgesic and Antipyretics None
Pradesh) locally on wound.
Hedychium coccineum Aichhia (Mizoram); Arunachal Pradesh, Rhizome Rhizome paste applied Against swelling caused by None
Buch.-Ham. ex Sm Mansila (Lohit Arunacahal Mizoram over swollen part. bruises and wounds
Pradesh) (Anti-inammatory)
Hedychium coronarium Pakhila phul (Assamese); Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Flowers, rhizome and stem Flower paste Foetid nostrils Antibacterial (Aziz et al.,
Koenig. Tora (Chakma Arunachal Rhizome extract prepared Febrifuge, tonic and 2009)
Pradesh) by boiling the rhizome in antirheumatic swellings
water. Antihelmintic, tonic and
Essential oil from rhizome. mild tranquiliser
Table 1 (Continued)

Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental data
available

Hedychium spicatum SM. Takhellei-hanggam-mapan Arunachal Pradesh, Rhizome Root decoction Nausea, Bronchial Asthma, Antibacterial against
(Manipuri); Aithur (Mizo) Manipur, Meghalaya, Powder of root Halitosis, Vomiting and methicillin and
Karpurakachari (Bengali) Mizoram indigestion, expectorant; vancomycin resistant
stimulant; stomachic Staphylococcus aureus and
Treatment of liver fungal cultures (Bisht et al.,
complaint, treating fevers, 2006)
vomiting, diarrhoea,
inammation, pains and
snake bite, heating potency
to the female, stimulant,
expectorant, tonic,
carmative
Kaempferia galanga L. Chandramula (Assamese); Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Leaves and rhizomes The rhizome is externally Treating indigestion, cold, Larvicidal activity (Othman
Sying khmoh, Sying shmoh used. pectoral and abdominal et al., 2006), inhibits

Tushar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296

(Khasi) Rhizome is taken orally.
Used together with the
rhizomes of Z. montanum,
and Z. ofcinale. insecticidal.
Kaempferia pulchra Ridl. Khanjanburah (Assamese) Assam, Mizoram Rhizome leaves and stem Rhizome paste is used in
the treatment of
pneumonia and bronchial
complaints.
Steamed rhizomes, stems
and leaves for curing
wound.
Kaempferia rotunda L. Bhuyichampa (Assamese); Assam, Manipur, Mizoram Rhizome and leaves The rhizomes are used in
Yai-thamna-manbi local medicine by grinding
(Manipuri); Tuktinpar, (fresh or dried) and making
Tuktinpar (Mizo) a paste with water. This
paste is mixed with other
herbs and applied to
sprains and covered with a
bandage.
The leave paste is used as
body lotion.
Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. Bura-ud (Assamese); Assam, Manipur, Rhizome Rhizome paste with salt is
Naga-shing (Manipuri); Mizoram,Meghalay, given orally once for two
Manthing (Mizoram); Arunachal Pradesh days.
Banada (Bengali)
Zingiber chrysanthum Rosc. Sobleksin (Assamese) Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Fruit Rhizome powder is mixed
in a glass of water and
drank in instances of
nausea.
Zingiber montanum (Koen.) Banada (Assamese) Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Rhizome Used together with the
Link ex A. Dietr. rhizomes of Z. ofcinale, Antidote to snake venom
and Kaempferia galanga.
As a rhizome paste.
pains, headache,
carminative and toothache,
menstrual pain,
mosquito (Ahn et al., 2008)
Effective for dandruff or
scabs on the head.
Against poisoning when
there is blood vomiting.
Antidiarrheal
Pneumonia, bronchial
complaints
Wound healing
Sprain ache, stomachic
Indigestion/gas formation
Nausea
Antidiarrheal
(Khayungamnawee et al.,
activity of EpsteinBarr
virus (Kanjanapothi et al.,
2004), kills larvae of the
Topical anti-inammatory
activity (Pongprayoon et
al., 1996)
Insecticidal against
neonate larvae of the
Spodoptera littoralis
(Nugroho et al., 1996)
Anti-inammatory,
antiallergic, antioxidant
activity and are used
against asthma and muscle
and joint pain
(Jeenapongsa et al., 2003)
Antioxidant (Adlercreutz,
1984)
Anti-inammatory activity
2009)

291
 292
Table 1 (Continued)

Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental data
available

Zingiber ofcinale Rosc. Ada (Assamese); Shing Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome The juice extracted from Promotes digestive power, Rheumatism and
(Manipuri) Manipur, Meghalaya, the rhizome is mixed with cleanses the throat and inammation of liver
Mizoram, Nagaland, molasses and taken orally. tongue, dispels cardiac (Aiyer and Kolammal,
Tripura Rhizomes along Nigella disorders and cures 1966; Kurup et al., 1979).

Tushar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296

sativa and spider are made vomiting, ascites, cough, Ingredient of Indukantam
into paste and applied dyspnoea, anorexia, fever, kashaya, Suranadi lehya,
locally. anaemia, atulence, colic, Talisapatravataka,
Used together with the constipation, swelling, Visvamrta etc. (Sivarajan
rhizomes of Z. montanum, elephantiasis and dysuria. and Balachandran, 1994)
and Kaempferia galanga. Inammation from
irritation caused by
caterpillar.
Antidiarrheal
Zingiber purpureum Rosc. Bon ada (Assamese) Pale; Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome Juice extracted from Paralysis Antifungal (Ficker et al.,
ramthing (Mizoram); Mizoram rhizome. 2003)
Borahu (Assamese)
Zingiber zerumbet Rosc. EX Gathian (Assamese); Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Rhizome Mixture of Rhizome Treats severe pain Anti-inammatory (Elliott
SM. Yaiimu (Manipuri) Manipur powder and ripe Noni fruit Tooth ache and cavity and Brimacombe, 1987)
(Morinda citrifolia) is cough, asthma, worms, and anticancer activity on
applied on sprains. leprosy and other skin HL60 (human
Cooked and softened diseases promyelocytes); LS174T,
rhizome was pressed into Stomach ache LS180, COLO205,
the hollow and left for as COLO320DM (each human
long as was needed. colon adenocarci-noma
Ground and strained cells); CCD-18 Co (human
rhizome material is mixed colon normal broblast);
with water and drunk. AS52 cells (Chinese
hamster ovary cells);
RAW264.7 cells (mouse
macrophages); 2F0-C25
cells (human normal
broblasts) (Murakami et
al., 2002)
 Tushar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296
Fig. 1. Frequency of plant parts used according to the mode of preparation of herbal
medicine. Decoction: aqueous extract of plant material; tinctures: alcoholic extract
of plant material; maceration: grinded and taken orally; poultices: grinded and
applied locally; essential oil: concentrated, hydrophobic liquid containing volatile
aroma compounds from plants; raw plant: specied part of the plant either taken
orally or applied locally.
higher than the male informer. This can be attributed to matrilineal
nature of Garo community. Among the states of NE region, AP was
found to be oral rich as far as members of the family Zingiberaceae
is concerned (88%). Plants like Zingiber ofcinale Rosc. and Curcuma
longa L. were found to occur in all the 7 sister states and has a wide
geographical distribution. All the documented plants were found
to be prevalent in use by local practioners for their therapeutic use
against human disease and as herbal care as enlisted in Table 1. In
general the medicinal plants were collected by the males and pre-
pared by the females. Various parts of the plants are being used as
herbal medicine, although, rhizome was the most frequently used
plant part. This is well supported by the scientic literature as vari-
ous molecules and extract from the rhizome have shown bioactivity
(Ficker et al., 2003; Lantz et al., 2005; Chien et al., 2008; Kumar and
Singh, 2008; Lee et al., 2009). Some medicinal preparations were
essential oils extracted from various plants parts such as Curcuma
angustifolia Roxb., Curcuma caesia Roxb. showing antifungal activity
(Banerjee and Nigam, 1976; 1977), Alpinia malaccensis Rosc., Costus
spiralis Rosc. and Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. showing antimicrobial
and antioxidant activities (Habsah et al., 2000). The essential oils are
a good source of fragrance apart from having the desired therapeu-
tic use. Another thing that emerged out from the survey was that the
practitioner used the plants singly or in association with different
plant species for treating human ailments. The use of single plant
as a therapy for an ailment was observed to be 84% while 16% of
herbal preparation involved combination of plants. The remedies,
which involved merely the use of single plant, could be of great
interest for the development of novel drugs as the exploration of
therapeutic activity bearing ingredients from a single plant, may be
easier (Saikia et al., 2006).
The majority of herbal medicines were prepared in aqueous
medium and the healers administer the remedies in various forms
like poultices (32.3%), maceration (28.41%), decoction (27.4%), raw
plant parts (6.5%), essential oil (3.2%) and tincture (1.6%) (The per-
centage shown is over total number of preparations). The individual
percentage breakdown of plant parts used in different type of
preparation further shows that tincture and essential oils are pre-
pared only from rhizome (Fig. 1). The remedies were administered
orally or locally applied to the affected portion of the body accord-
ing to the treated disease and preparation method. In addition to
pure herbal preparations, in some cases the drug was administered
along with milk, ghee, honey, curd, etc. to enhance the effect of the
herbal preparations or to make the preparations palatable.
In current survey, the use of only underground plant parts for
medicinal purposes was found to be higher (56%) than the case
293
where both above and underground parts were used together
(29%). The usages of aboveground plant parts were comparatively
less (only 15%). Rhizomes were used in most of the preparations
(60%) followed by fruits (14%), leaves (12%), shoot (12%) and ower
(2%). (The percentage shown is over total number of preparation).
In two cases viz. Hedychium coronarium Koenig and Costus specious
Sm. all plant parts were found to have a medicinal value.
Thirty-four medicinal plants were used in curing about 25 dif-
ferent types of ailments, of which the highest number of plant
species (58%) were used for the treatment of gastrointestinal dis-
orders and 41% of them for curing chest and lungs related diseases
(Fig. 2) (percentage calculated over total number of applications).
The plants also showed effective activity as antipyretic, analgesic
and anti-inammatory. We observed that some plants were used
for ailment like cardiac disorder, kidney and urinary disorder, skin
related diseases, irregular menstrual cycle, diabetes and as abor-
tifacient. The survey of scientic literature has yielded maximum
report of bioactivities against gastrointestinal ailments (Yamahara
et al., 1990; Matsuda et al., 2003b; Gilani et al., 2005) and as an
antioxidant (Adlercreutz, 1984; Habsah et al., 2000; Ramsewak et
al., 2000; Vankar et al., 2006). A large amount of literature is also
available for anticancerous activity but this is not a generalized
feature of this family rather attributed to promising affect of Cur-
cuma genus. A close analysis revealed that about 67.6% plants are
known for their use to cure multiple disorders. Among these, Costus
specious and Elettaria cardamomum Maton were primarily effective
against wide range of diseases. The rhizome powder from some
plants such as Amomum subulatum Roxb., Curcuma aromatica Sal-
isb., Elettaria cardamomum and Hedychium spicatum Sm. are used
as antivenom for snake and insect bite. Mostly the rhizome as a
whole or as paste is used for medication. In certain cases, prepara-
tion of medicine involved use of a mixture of herbs and sometime
molasses. The use of mixture of other herbs with Zingiberaceae
members were also documented such as Alpinia galanga L. along
with Euphorbia neriifolia L. for treating skin allergy, Curcuma caesia
along with Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wallich ex Nees. as
anti-asthmatic agent and anti-inammatory in case of insect and
snake bite, Globba clarkei Baker along with Adhatoda vasica Nees.
for treating cough, Zingiber ofcinale along with Nigella sativa L. as
anti-inammatory and Zingiber montanum (Koen.) Link ex A. Dietr.
along with Kaempferia galanga L. and Zingiber ofcinale for treating
diarrhoea.
It was interesting to note that most of the plants that were found
in all the 7 states of NE region had more or less same utility and bear
a similar resemblance from the other parts of India. There were also
instances where a particular plant species was used by a particular
ethnic community from one region for treating a particular disease
and the same plant species with a different name was used by dif-
ferent community from other location for treating an altogether
different ailment. For example, Alpinia galanga is used as an anti-
inammatory agent by Khampit community in state of AP while
the same species is also used as an abortifacient by ethnic commu-
nity of Barak valley in Assam. Similarly, Amomum dealbatum Roxb.
is used as an analgesic by indigenous communities in Assam such
as Lushai and Jaintia while it is used as an antiseptic in west Mizo-
ram. Since the indigenous communities, which are residing in close
proximity uses a plant in a similar way against same ailment, the
proximity of distance from one to another community might be
an important factor in widening or narrowing the scale of herbal
practices.
The use of Amomum dealbatum species as an analgesic and as an
antiseptic has been reported earlier but its use against rheumatic
joints is a new report. The communities of Borok apply the crushed,
fried rhizomes to relieve the joints pains. The use of Amomum lin-
guiforme Benth. and Hook.f. against diabetes has been reported
earlier but its use against high blood pressure by the Nyishi com-
294 Tushar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296
Fig. 2. Percentage use of Zingiberaceous plants for treating various human ailments. Highest percentage of plants used is observed for treatment of gastrointestinal ailments
that is also supported by large number of pharmacological reports. Percentage was calculated over number of plants documented in the current study.
munity of AP is a new report. Use of Globba multiora Wall. and
Hedychium coccineum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. species as an antipyretics
and anti-inammatory (in case of bruise and wounds) respectively,
has never been reported till date. Similarly the property of Cos-
tus variagata L. is known for generations altogether but its use for
curing piles is a new report.
From this study certain plants have emerged as critical species,
which deserves extra attention by researchers, and are possi-
ble source of potent drug molecule. For example use of Alpinia
bracteata Rosc. crushed rhizome as a cure for abnormal menstrua-
tion. Another plant belonging to the same genus as previous, Alpinia
galanga L. is used as an abortifacient. These two examples are
inkling towards presence of a potent molecule, which can moder-
ate hormone levels. Further in vitro studies can help in elucidation
of the mechanism involved. Costus specious seed was found to be
used as contraceptive and its importance is augmented by the fact
that it is not used in combination with any other herbs. Zingiber pur-
pureum Rosc. use against paralysis, points its activity as neural or
muscular stimulant. A detailed study of the bioactive of the above
species may yield novel drug molecule.
Apart from this study, there have been some reports of eth-
nomedical survey, in which Zingiberaceous species from NE region
have been documented. In particular, some species that has been
cited in other studies, but not reported in this study include Alpinia
ofcinarum Hance. (Sharma et al., 2001) and Hedychium dekianum
A.S. Rao & Verma (Kala, 2005). As 34 plant species have been
reported in this particular study and including the two other mem-
bers that has been cited in other studies, the count reaches to 36. A
total of 88 Zingiberaceae members have been reported from the
NE region alone out of which 41% have been found to possess
medicinal property. Thus it can be said now that the discovery of
different plant species belonging to the family Zingiberaceae used
by different ethnic communities of NE India lays the grounds for
establishing Zingiberaceae as a medicinal family.
4. Conclusion
Northeast India is an important reservoir of rich ora with
diverse ethnic population and their traditionally conserved knowl-
edge. In this study the information regarding the medicinal uses
of Zingiberaceae family by aboriginal people of NE India was sys-
tematically collected and critically analysed. A total of 34 plant
species belonging to the family were identied to possess medicinal
importance and primary activity seems to be against gastroin-
testinal ailments. This is also reected by the scientic literature
(Yamazaki et al., 2000; Gilani et al., 2005). In at least two ethnic
communities, the highest number of species used for the gastroin-
testinal ailments have been found and it needs to be exploited.
The unhygienic livelihood compounded by the excessive alcohol
consumption of the surveyed ethnic communities was found to be
major concern of the severe gastrointestinal problems. This is fol-
lowed by the chest related problems, which was due to excessive
smoking and chewing of tobacco among the males. The use of sin-
gle plant as a therapy for an ailment was observed to be 84% which
is a good indication for future research leading to drug discovery.
Poultices (32.3%) and maceration (28.41%) were the most frequent
way of preparation and hence no complex procedure involved in
application of these species. Alpinia bracteata, Alpinia galenga L.,
Costus specious and Zingiber purpureum are some of the important
species for future work. The future research focused on coupled
phytochemicals-pharmacological studies can help in elucidation of
novel phytotherapeutic molecules. Most of the persons from whom
we had gathered the information are illiterate and at times there
is no script for the language they speak, hence the herbal practices
are running in mouth to mouth without any written documents.
Therefore there is an utmost need to document the traditional and
cultural practices including from remotely located region where
the different communities has been living in harmony for centurys
altogether.
The work has brought to light some hidden but popular prescrip-
tions of ethnic group of the NE region. These new prescription will
help mankind in short term, by providing improved phytothera-
peutic preparations while an extensive pharmacological study will
elucidate new drug molecule. Though some scientic literature is
available for most of the species, the specic properties of all the
species has not been studied yet. A further pharmacological study
of these particular and scientically unexplored properties of Zin-
giberaceae appears promising. Further, a concrete list of plants
 Tushar et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286296
and their utilization will not only provide basic data for all stud-
ies aimed at conservation, cultivation, healthcare and economic
welfare of rural and indigenous people, but all future pharmaco-
logical and clinical studies. Since NE region is rich in species of
Zingiberaceae with majority of them possessing medicinal values
(41%), the extensive ethnobotancial study should be carried out.
An urgent need to take step for conservation and inventory of Zin-
giberaceae species from NE region including varieties from all the
possible location is also felt, as the medicinal value of plants are
known to vary with the geographic location (Datte et al., 1998). The
pharmacological study to identify the usefulness of plant against
a particular ailments and phytochemical study for identifying the
exact molecule(s) from such inventory is recommended. This report
is the good example, which compiles the ethanobotanical informa-
tion that may lead to the discovery of novel pharmaceuticals.
Acknowledgements
The authors duly acknowledge the local herbalist in particular
village and other representative people for their immense help and
guidance rendered during ethnobotanical eld work. The authors
are also indebted to the Conservator of Forests and Field Director
of respective states of NE for granting permission to carry out the
study. Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Uni-
versity. Sincere thanks to Botany Department, Gauhati University,
for identication and maintenance of plant material. Tushar thanks
Department of Information Technology (DIT) and SB thanks Min-
istry of Human Resources Development (MHRD), Government of
India for fellowship. LR acknowledges funding by the Department of
Information Technology, Ministry of Information Technology, Gov-
ernment of India (DIT Grant No. DIT No: 0526/T/IITG/014/0809/38).
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