ice | manuals

doi: 10.1680/mobe.34525.0531
Bearings
I. Kennedy Reid Atkins Global CONTENTS

Design 531
Design considerations relating to bearings are described with diagrams under the Installation 536
headings of articulation, loading, fixity, restraint, movement and rotation. Types of Inspection and maintenance 540
bearings are also described and comments are made relating to the choice of Replacement 543
bearings. The installation and bedding of bearings is detailed and illustrated for Illustrations of practice 545
different types of deck, while mention is made of inspection and maintenance for
References 551
different bearing types. Bearing replacement is treated in some depth, dealing with
Further reading 551
jacking strong points, replacement sequence, jacking load, articulation, jacking
operation, bearing removal and installation, grouting and dejacking. Ten diagrams and
ten photographs follow, illustrating both problematic and good practice.

Design bearings and the expansion movement to be accommodated

Introduction
Bridge bearings provide a means of transferring loads
between the superstructure and substructure of a bridge
while accommodating and/or controlling the articulation.
Articulation
Bridge decks are subject to translational and rotational
movements and to forces from gravity, trac, wind and
friction. In supporting bridge decks, bearings have to
cater for these forces and movements. Translational move-
ments principally arise from temperature changes, creep,
shrinkage and prestress. Rotational movements arise
principally from dead and superimposed loading and
from trac loading. However, as the deck bends under
loading the bottom chord extends, resulting in additional
translational movements on the bearing. Conversely dier-
ential temperature changes through the depth of the deck
and parasitic eects of prestress cause additional rotational
movements at the bearings.
Loading
Trac, dead and superimposed loading is distributed to the
deck supports, resulting in dierent vertical loads on the
bearings, and braking, traction, skidding and parapet
impact apply principally horizontal forces. Wind can
apply horizontal and vertical forces; sometimes the bridge
may be subject to seismic, snow, ood and impact loading.
The bearings themselves provide resistance to movement,
resulting in frictional forces. Unless the sliding surfaces of
the bearings are set horizontally, the dead weight of sloping
decks can result in horizontal forces or sliding. However, if
there is signicant movement at the abutment, this can
result in a step at the expansion joint.
Fixity
Single-span decks traditionally have xed bearings at one
support and sliding bearings at the other, enabling the
horizontal forces to be transmitted through the xed
at the sliding bearings. Alternatively, the deck may be
allowed to oat, being supported at each end on elasto-
meric bearings which have sucient shear stiness to trans-
mit horizontal forces, and at the same time adequate
exibility to accommodate temperature movements. For
shorter spans the deck can be xed at both ends, expansion
being accommodated by compression of the deck or exure
of the abutment and compression of the ll behind the sup-
port. The advent of integral bridges enables longer decks to
be accommodated in a similar manner. Semi-integral
bridges tend to have sliding bearings at each end support
and a xed bearing at the central pier.
Restraint
Under repetitive transverse movements, decks can creep or
walk sideways and restraints are required. However, if bear-
ings are set some distance apart such that their restraints
oppose each other, changes in temperature can result in
very high forces being generated. In a single-span deck
which is neither oating nor integral, it is common to x
the bearings along one support in the longitudinal direction,
with only the central bearing or bearings xed transversely,
while the bearings on the other support are free to move in
both directions, with only the central bearing or bearings
guided longitudinally (i.e. restrained from transverse move-
ment). This restraint has to be designed to prevent the
deck rotating in plan about a vertical axis under eccentric
braking, skidding or parapet impact forces (see Figure 1).
All these bearings would be provided with rotational capa-
city about an axis parallel to the support, although on skew
bridges rotational capacity about both axes is often required.
On large plate girder bridges where adjacent deep girders
may be subject to very dierent loading and therefore
dierent rotation, the bearing restraint forces preventing
the bottom anges of the adjacent girders moving longi-
tudinally in opposite directions can be sucient to cause
bursting failure of the abutment face (see Figure 2). Similar
eects can occur under uniform loading on skew decks.

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Where a shallow deck has a line of sliding-guided bear- Abutment Sliding-guided bearing
ings along one support, each providing restraint to longitu-
dinal movement, the tolerance gap between the bearings Direction of Direction of Direction of
expansion expansion expansion
and their guides can mean that the longitudinal loads will
not be spread uniformly between the various bearings and
Free bearings
this needs to be taken into account in determining the Free bearings
capacity of these restraints.
Multi-span structures
The bearings are usually xed on a strong support capable
of carrying the longitudinal loads near the middle of the
structure, with the remaining bearings free to move longi-
tudinally to accommodate temperature movements in
either direction away from the xed pier towards the ends
of the viaduct. With river valley crossings this may not be
suitable as the highest piers may be in the middle and due
to their exibility be inappropriate for carrying the longitu- Direction of Direction of
dinal forces, unless they are of heavy design to carry much expansion expansion
longer central spans. If the piers are tall and slender, the
Sliding-guided bearings Fixed bearing Abutment
piers themselves may be capable of exure to cater for
longitudinal deck movements, enabling xed bearings to Figure 1 Plan on deck (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways
and Transportation)
be installed, provided the resulting eccentricity of vertical
loading can be accommodated. Such a design enables the
longitudinal loading to be distributed between a number
of supports. If any deck is inclined longitudinally it is direction of the guides on the sliding-guided bearings, and
usual to install the xed bearing at the lower end. demonstrates the need for free-sliding bearings elsewhere
(see Figure 1). In expanding in this way, curved decks
Temperature movements increase their radius. Short curved decks need to have
A bridge deck expands in all directions from the xed bear- free-sliding bearings or sliding-guided bearings following
ing point. The resulting star of movement indicates the the movement star on succeeding piers (see Figure 3).

Load on girder

Girder rotates, pushing deck

forward against fixed bearing

Abutment seating

Adjacent unloaded girder moves

forward with deck, pulling its bearing
forward out of abutment face
Abutment face

Figure 2 Prying action between deep deck beams (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)

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Direction of If unrestrained, deck radius

expansion would increase under expansion

Increased radius R
under expansion +D
R

R
Sliding-guided bearings
tangential to curve
Bearings sliding- Transverse
guided in direction displacement of
of expansion expansion joint

Fixed bearing

Sliding-guided bearings designed to

carry transverse forces required to
bend expanded viaduct to existing radius

Direction of expansion

Viaduct is constrained by sliding-guided

Fixed bearing Sliding-guided bearing Direction of bearings on existing radius
(a) expansion

Guided in direction of expansion Restrained expansion movement

R
+D Figure 4 Long, narrow, curved deck (reproduced with permission
Bearing sliding-guided R # Atkins Highways and Transportation)
at angle of to R
direction of expansion

Guide normal to expansion
joint so no transverse
offset due to expansion
Rotation
To avoid the deck sliding longitudinally or transversely, the
sliding surfaces should be set horizontal. However, a
rotational axis is required along each support, and with
longitudinal and transverse falls, horizontally set bearings
will provide a stepped axis at each support. For solid slab
decks this can be accommodated by spherical or elasto-
meric rotational elements in each bearing, but could cause
problems with longer rockers.

Guided in direction of expansion joint
(b)
Figure 3 Short, wide, curved deck (reproduced with permission # Atkins
Highways and Transportation)
Long, narrow, curved decks however can be trained to
follow their initial radius in their expanded form by using
tangentially guided bearings on each pier (see Figure 4).
In this case the guides have to be designed to cater for the
transverse forces required to bend the deck in a horizontal
plane to maintain the same radius during temperature
changes.
Types of bearing
Bearings can be elastomeric, pot, spherical, cylindrical, roller,
rocker, knuckle, leaf, guided or restrained. Many can be used
in conjunction with a sliding element (see Figure 5).
Elastomeric bearings
Elastomeric bearings can be vulcanised rubber or neoprene.
The material is essentially incompressible volumetrically,
but an elastomeric pad bulges sideways under vertical
pressure and so provides elastic support or rotational capa-
city. In addition, elastomeric pads have shearing movement
capacity and so can accommodate horizontal movement.
By inserting horizontal steel plates spaced within the
height of the pad a laminated bearing is formed. This
restricts the bulging on the sides and provides a stier
bearing under vertical load while accommodating similar
shearing movement capacity. The rotational capacity of

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 ice | manuals Bearings

Piston Elastomer

Outer bearing plates

Elastomer

Pot Seal
Steel reinforcing plates

(a) Elastomeric laminated bearing (b) Pot bearing

Outer bearing plates

Flat-sided roller
Outer bearing plates

Circular roller

(c) Spherical bearing (d) Single-roller bearing

Outer bearing plates Outer bearing plates

Cylindrical rocker

Spherical rocker
(e) Linear rocker bearing (f) Point rocker bearing

Outer bearing plates

Outer bearing plates
Pin
Pin

Leaves

(g) Knuckle pin bearing (h) Leaf bearing

Sliding surface
Outer bearing plates
(i) Plane sliding bearing

Figure 5 Types of bearing (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)

an elastomeric bearing is limited to the compression applied
by the minimum vertical load to avoid uplift at the edge and
is also limited by the maximum compression. The shearing
resistance needs to be taken into account in the design of the
supports.
Pot bearings
A pot bearing consists of a metal cylinder containing an
elastomeric pad compressed by a piston engaging with the
cylinder. The engagement of the piston can transmit trans-
verse loading. Alternatively, the pot bearing can be used in
conjunction with a sliding element. The conned elastomer
acts as an incompressible uid and permits signicant rota-
tion for a given minimum vertical load, combined with a
signicant capacity for vertical loading. To enable the
piston to rotate in the cylinder, the elastomer is retained
in the cylinder by seals. These determine the rotational
fatigue life of the bearing. Particularly where pot bearings

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 Bearings
are being used as replacements on an existing structure, it is
important to consider that they do compress to some extent
under initial vertical load.
Spherical bearings
Spherical bearings consist of metal convex and concave
surfaces sliding on each other, one face usually being
covered with polytetrauoroethylene (PTFE) and the
other being hard chromium plating, austenitic stainless
steel or aluminium alloy. The PTFE is usually dimpled to
assist the retention of silicon grease used as lubricant.
Spherical bearings provide for rotation about any
horizontal axis without signicant compressibility. Some
restraint to transverse force is provided by the inclination
of the spherical surfaces, but positive or signicant
horizontal restraint has to be provided by guides or
restraints. Spherical bearings can be used in conjunction
with a plane sliding element to permit translation.
Cylindrical bearings
These are similar to spherical bearings with rotation about
a single axis.
Roller bearings
These consist of steel or historically cast iron cylinders roll-
ing on at plates to provide rotational and/or translational
movement. If hardened stainless steel rollers and plates
machined to tight tolerances are used, friction values of
1% can be designed for, lower than that achieved by
PTFE sliding elements. However, high hardness may com-
promise corrosion or fatigue resistance. Composite steel
rollers with a hardened outer casing or special steel rollers
in an oil bath have also been used. It is advisable that the
rollers are restrained by toothed wheels or by anges to
prevent misalignment developing, and, in the absence of
toothed wheels, that the top and bottom plates are main-
tained within limits of parallel to prevent the rollers being
squeezed out between them.
Rocker bearings
These consist of a curved metal unit rocking on a metal
plate, providing only rotational movement. They can pro-
vide for rotation about either or both horizontal axes,
and are frequently used in conjunction with a sliding ele-
ment. The rocker interface is dowelled to prevent slippage
and to transmit horizontal forces.
Knuckle bearings
These are hinged bearings which rock on a pin joint but are
no longer commonly used.
Leaf bearings
These are interleaved pin bearings which can take tension as
well as compression. Rotation is only permitted about a
single horizontal axis.
ICE Manual of Bridge Engineering # 2008 Institution of Civil Engineers
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Guided bearings
These are bearings tted with sliding guides which direct
movement in a particular direction. If they do not transmit
vertical load they are referred to as guide bearings (as
distinct from guided). They can if required accommodate
rotations and the guides are capable of transmitting hori-
zontal loads. The sliding material in accordance with EN
1337 (BSI, various dates) may be CM1 which is a composite
material consisting of three layers a bronze backing strip
and a sintered interlocking porous matrix, impregnated and
overlaid with a PTFElead mixture or CM2 which con-
sists of a exible metal mesh which is sintered into a
PTFE compound with the bearing or sliding surface
having the thicker PTFE coat. They generally slide against
an austenitic stainless steel sheet and give better wear resis-
tance but have a higher friction than the PTFE used for
plane sliding surfaces.
Restrained bearings
These provide xity against horizontal movements and can
accommodate rotations. If they do not transmit vertical
load they are referred to as restrain bearings. Fixings for
guide or restrain bearings are required to resist axial tension
and shear and may need to be signicantly larger than those
for bearings with vertical loading.
Sliding elements
These are plane sliding surfaces similar to those used for
spherical and cylindrical bearings but with lubricated,
dimpled PTFE sliding on austenitic steel sheet.
Choice of bearings
As a general guide for shorter-span bridges, and particu-
larly those with concrete decks, where rotations are small,
elastomeric bearings are economical. For medium spans
and more particularly for steelconcrete composite bridges,
pot bearings are appropriate and economical. For longer
spans, for greater vertical stiness or to accommodate
greater rotations in relation to the vertical load, spherical
bearings are used. For longer spans where very low friction
is required, roller bearings might be used, but see the cau-
tion under the section entitled Roller bearings above.
For rotation about a single axis where high vertical loads
have to be accommodated, rockers might be used. Where
restraints in the form of downstands would not provide
adequate capacity, separate guide or restrain bearings
may be used. Leaf bearings may be used to transmit uplift
forces.
Eccentricity
The line of action of vertical load moves as the bearing
slides or rotates, and this results in an eccentric reaction
on either the deck or the support, or, in the case of rollers,
both (see Figures 6 and 7). In the case of a steel beam a
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Bearing stiffener
Steel beam
Taper plate
Top bearing plate
Bottom bearing plate
Spreader plate
Bedding mortar
Movement of beam
Eccentricity (with reference to)
bearing stiffener
Eccentricity (with reference to) support
Figure 6 Elevation on roller bearing showing eccentricity on both beam
and support as roller moves (reproduced with permission # Atkins
Highways and Transportation)
reaction eccentric to the bearing stieners can cause prob-
lems and for this reason pot or rocker bearings may be
installed inverted with the pot or rocker xed to the beam
and sliding on a plate attached to the support. The support
must then be designed to accommodate the eccentric
reaction at the limits of travel, and a skirt is required to
keep the sliding surface free of detritus (see Figure 8). How-
ever, as skirts can easily become damaged or not be
replaced after inspection, it is preferable to design the bear-
ing stieners for the eccentricity and not invert the bearing.
With roller bearings an eccentricity of half the movement is
applied to both the deck and the support.
Replacement
Bearings should be installed such that they can be replaced
with another suitable bearing if and when required. The
method of so doing needs to be carefully planned during
the original design of the structure. A decision needs to
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Bearings
be taken as to what live loading the structure will be carry-
ing during jacking and bearing replacement. Provision for
jacking to enable replacement requires: adequate clearance
between the support and the deck for jacks of adequate
capacity with locking ring facility to be inserted; sucient
space on the support adjacent to the bearing for jack place-
ment; the support and deck to be strong enough to carry the
jacking loads; the bearing installed by means enabling it to
be slipped out with minimal lifting of the deck; and anchor
points provided to which temporary restraints can be
attached to replace xity lost during bearing replacement.
It may also be necessary to provide temporary bearings in
conjunction with the jacks to permit translational and/or
rotational movement during replacement.
Bearing schedule
The bearing schedule completed by the designer enables a
suitable choice of bearing to be made. The schedule must
provide the maximum and minimum, ultimate and service,
vertical and horizontal loads and the maximum longitudi-
nal, transverse and rotational movements, to which the
bearing is subjected. Coexistent, and permanent and vari-
able, loads and movements must also be dened. For
example, the design of an elastomeric bearing needs a mini-
mum vertical load at maximum rotation to avoid lifting o
along one edge, and the information provided in the bear-
ing schedule must ensure that a bearing will be adopted
such that this will not happen. Bearing schedule pro-
formas are provided in the standards.
Electrolytic action
Dierent metals must be insulated from each other to pre-
vent bi-metallic corrosion. Consideration should also be
given to detailing of the component parts to prevent
moisture creating an anodic connection between dissimilar
metals.
Installation
Introduction
The methods of installation suggested below are for general
guidance only. The engineer needs to be satised that the
details are appropriate for the particular situation.
Transport
Care needs to be taken in the handling and transport of
bearings so that they are not damaged. Transit brackets
(which should be painted in contrasting colour) prevent
the bearings separating, sliding or rotating and retain com-
pression in pre-loaded PTFE.
Storage
Bearings need to be carefully stored in a clean dry environ-
ment at an equitable temperature and inspected for damage
ICE Manual of Bridge Engineering # 2008 Institution of Civil Engineers
 Bearings
Spreader plate if provided
Bedding mortar
Support
Line of bearing reaction
Line of reaction on
support does not change
Figure 7 Elevation on sliding bearing showing eccentricity on beam as beam moves (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and
Transportation)
prior to installation. Under no circumstances should bear-
ings be dismantled otherwise sliding and other surfaces
can be permanently damaged by dirt.
Steel beam deck
It is common to attach the bearing to the steel beam before
lifting in the beam (see Figure 9). Elastomeric bearings can
be attached with adhesive, and other forms of bearings by
bolts. To accommodate longitudinal fall, taper plates may
be welded or bolted to the deck beam and the bearing
bolted to the taper plate. Spreader or spacer plates may
be included in stack of bolted plates, but all plates need
to be machined and installed to tight tolerances to ensure
that the load application to the bearing is even and that
the sliding surfaces can be set horizontal. The taper plates
should also accommodate the beam pre-camber and the
beam, slab and superimposed dead weight rotations allow-
ing for creep (by long-term E Youngs modulus) and
shrinkage of the slab, so that in the long term the bearing
ICE Manual of Bridge Engineering # 2008 Institution of Civil Engineers
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Bearing stiffener
(if steel beam)
Steel (or concrete) beam
Taper plate
Top sliding plate
Austentic stainless steel sheet
PTFE
Intermediate bearing plate
Elastomeric, pot or spherical bearing
Bottom plate of bearing
Beam movement
Eccentricity of reaction relative
to bearing stiffeners
sliding surfaces are set horizontal. The designer needs to
determine the extent to which these calculations are
required depending on the span and scale of the bridge.
Precast concrete beam deck
It is common to install the bearing on the support on shims
and grout underneath the bearing. Once the grout has
reached sucient strength, the beam is then lifted on to
the bearing either on a wedge of wet mortar or on a thin
layer of epoxy on a resin-impregnated fabric wedge itself
epoxied to the bearing top plate (see Figure 10). Where
mortar is used, the beam needs to be supported until the
mortar hardens to prevent extrusion of the mortar, attrac-
tion of the load to the touching end of the bearing, and
consequently eccentric load on the bearing. As with the
steel beam, the resin-impregnated wedge should accommo-
date longitudinal fall (and, where applicable, crossfall),
beam pre-camber, and beam, slab and superimposed dead
weight rotations allowing for the creep and shrinkage of
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Bearing stiffener

Steel beam

Taper plate
Bottom plate of bearing
Skirt Inverted pot or spherical bearing
Spreader plate if provided Top plate of bearing
Bedding mortar PTFE
Austentic stainless steel sheet
Support
Sliding plate

Beam movement

Line of action on beam

does not change

Skirt

Eccentricity of line of
reaction on support

Figure 8 Elevation on inverted sliding bearing showing eccentricity on support as beam moves (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and
Transportation)

the beam and slab so that in the long term the sliding sur-
faces are horizontal. Again, the designer needs to determine
the extent to which these calculations are required. A
mortar wedge will only accommodate longitudinal fall,
beam pre-camber and beam self-weight rotation. For
elastomeric bearings see Figure 11.
In situ concrete deck
The slab is cast over the bearing complete with cast-in
sockets bolted against the top plate, and carefully sealed
around the edges to prevent grout leakage reaching the
bearing below. The bearing is grouted on to the support
before casting the slab and the sliding surfaces are set
inclined so that after striking the deck falsework and once
creep and shrinkage have taken place, the sliding surfaces
are horizontal. Downstands are required beneath the
concrete deck to eliminate longitudinal and crossfalls so
that the bearings can be replaced (see Figure 12). For
elastomeric bearings see Figure 13.
Transit straps
These are for transport and storage. They are not designed
to restrain the bearing under the dead weight of deck
beams or deck slab, and should be removed before the
bearing has to undergo rotation or translation. Other
means of support such as wedges are required to restrain
the bearing during deck placement. There are unfortunately
cases of bearings in service with the transit straps still
fastened.
Bedding
Pockets are normally cast in concrete supports which
provide positional tolerance for cast-in sockets usually
bolted through rubber washers to the underside of the
bottom plate to avoid bearing on the sockets. Bolts
should be greased before insertion into sockets to aid pos-
sible later removal. The bolts and sockets need to be able
to carry the horizontal loading applied to the bearing

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 Bearings
Cast-in sockets usually
bolted through rubber
washers to spreader plate
Concrete pier, abutment
or bankseat
Section through steel beam and bearing being lowered into position
(a)
Pockets grouted along with bedding.
Bedding poured from one side to
eliminate voiding under spreader plate
Section through bearing supporting steel beam showing grouting
(b)
Figure 9 Section through bearing supporting steel beam (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)
with appropriate factors of safety, although some allow-
ance can be made for friction on the base using minimum
vertical load. Except for elastomeric bearings, a positive
(bolted) connection should always be provided. With the
introduction of increased cover to reinforcement, the sock-
ets now need to be longer to engage fully with the reinforce-
ment mat in the bearing plinth, abutment, bankseat or pier
top. The design of the sockets and xing bolts must allow
the removal of the bearing for replacement without
damage to the supporting structure.
With mechanical bearings the bottom plate is supported
on steel shims to carry the weight of the deck beam. Once
the deck beam has been landed the bearings together with
the pockets are grouted up. After the grout has hardened,
the shims are removed to avoid hardspots under vertical
loading, the holes made good and the holding-down bolts
tightened, and locked as required. The composite deck
slab or slab deck can then be cast. Elastomeric bearings
attached to deck beams can be lowered on to a bed of
mortar. Alternatively the elastomeric bearing can be
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Steel beam lowered
on to support
Taper plate welded
to bottom flange
Bearing clamped and bolted into
tapped holes in taper plate
Bearing bolted into tapped holes
in spreader plate if provided
Pockets boxed out of support
to receive cast-in sockets
Bearing transit bolts removed after bearings
supported on shims and after transverse
bracing installed but before deck is cast
Bearing supported on shims. All shims
to be removed after grouting
Sockets to be sufficient length to anchor
bearing below support structure reinforcement
installed on the support and the beam lowered on to wet
mortar on top of the bearing. In either case the beam
must be supported until the mortar hardens. With slab
decks elastomeric bearings are rst bedded on mortar and
this is allowed to harden before casting the deck.
Specication, workmanship and installation of the grout
or mortar are extremely important to control shrinkage/
expansion and compressibility, to ensure that voids do
not remain between the bearing and the structure, and to
ensure sucient strength. The grout needs to be poured
from one side, retaining a head, to eliminate air. It is
preferable to test rst against a glass plate mock-up to
ensure this. The grout plinth needs to initially extend at
least 50 mm beyond the bearing plate for stability and
should be deep enough to enable the grout to ow freely.
The grout should be trimmed back vertically to the face
of the base plate to prevent spalling. The Highways
Agencys Notes for Guidance on the Specication for
Highway Works 2600 Series limit the height of the grout
for stability under load and to limit settlement.
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Concrete beam lowered

onto bearing

Resin-impregnated fabric wedge epoxied

to beam soffit and to bearing top plate

Cast-in sockets usually bolted through Bearing top plate

rubber washers to spreader plate Bearing transit bolts retained
Bearing bolted into tapped holes
Pockets grouted along with bedding. in spreader plate if provided
Bedding poured from one side to eliminate
voiding under spreader plate. Grout allowed to Bearing supported on shims. All shims
reach sufficient strength before lowering beam to be removed after grouting

Sockets to be of sufficient length to anchor

bearing below support structure reinforcement
Note: If mortar is used rather than resin-impregnated Pockets boxed out of support
fabric wedge, the beam must be otherwise supported
until the mortar sets

Section through concrete beam being lowered on to bearing

(a)

Bearing transit bolts removed once

beams are stabilised transversely
but before deck is cast

Shims removed after grouting

Section through mechanical bearing supporting concrete beam

(b)

Figure 10 Section through mechanical bearing supporting concrete beam (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)

Protection highlight areas of concern and gauge rate of deterioration.

A nal coating is normally required following installation
in accordance with manufacturers instructions. This
should include all exposed surfaces of the stack of bearing
plates. Before applying site coats of paint sliding surfaces
must be masked/protected.
Inspection and maintenance
Inspection
Inspection of a bearing can not only indicate whether it is in
good condition but can also reveal whether it is accommo-
dating the rotational and translational movements of the
structure, and sometimes whether settlement or distress,
such as impact damage, has occurred to the structure.
Reference should be made to previous inspections to
The type of bearing should be identied together with any
design limitations/assumptions to assist in taking specialist
tools and in identifying problems in situ.
General items
General items of inspection are:
n the presence of dirt or debris and water ponding on or around
the bearing
n any cracking or distress to the adjacent parts of the structure
n whether the holding-down bolts are loose or corroded
n whether the transit bolts have been removed
n whether the protective treatment is cracked or peeling or lead-
ing to corrosion

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Precast concrete beam

lowered on to bearing

Resin-impregnated fabric wedge

epoxied to soffit of beam

Mortar allowed to reach sufficient Wedge of wet mortar on bearing

strength before landing beam
Laminated elastomeric bearing
bedded on support with thin mortar
RC bearing plinth

Alternatively the beam without a fabric wedge may be landed on the wet mortar Wet mortar to set and reach sufficient
on top of the bearing. In such a case the beam may be required to sit on strength before casting deck
temporary supports until the mortar reaches sufficient strength

Figure 11 Precast beam on elastomeric bearing (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)

Additional reinforcement Cast-in sockets bolted to spreader plate.

in downstand as required Sockets to be of sufficient length to anchor
Deck slab cast after bedding mortar bearing above downstand or deck reinforcement
has reached sufficient strength

Deck formwork

Reinforced downstand in deck to Seal to prevent grout leakage on to bearing

provide clearance of spreader plate
to deck soffit falls
Pockets grouted along with bedding.
Bedding poured from one side to
eliminate voiding under spreader plate
Bearing
Bearing transit bolts removed once deck
concrete has set and before falsework
is struck
Bearing supported on shims. All shims
to be removed after grouting
Sockets to be sufficient length to anchor
bearing below support structure reinforcement
Cast-in sockets usually bolted through rubber
washers to spreader plate if provided

Figure 12 Section through mechanical bearing showing grouting preceding casting of concrete deck slab (reproduced with permission # Atkins
Highways and Transportation)

Deck slab cast over elastomeric

bearing once bedding mortar has
reached sufficient strength

Additional reinforcement Seal to prevent grout

Deck formwork in downstand as required leakage on to bearing

Elastomeric bearing bedded

on support with thin mortar

RC bearing plinth

Figure 13 Section through elastomeric bearing below concrete deck slab (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)

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 ice | manuals
n whether the bedding is sound or cracked or decaying
n whether there is any indication of plate bending, indicative of
voiding in the bedding or of uneven pressure distribution on
the deck beams
n condition of skirt
n whether there is provision for future replacement such as space
for jacking, strong points for jacking, or a special design of
bearing which may be dicult to remove.
Checks should be made that bearings are not supported on
hard points such as shims not removed after installation of
bedding. An endoscope with light attached can be used to
inspect inaccessible areas. During detailed inspection, the
bearing movements and rotations should be recorded
together with clearance gaps.
Elastomeric bearings
These should be inspected for excessive shearing or bulging
(limited bulging under vertical load is normal), or cracking
or splitting particularly at the intermediate plates.
Sliding bearings
These should be inspected for the condition of the sliding
surface dirt, debris, corrosion, lack of lubrication,
bowing of the austenitic stainless steel plate and whether
there is any indication of seizure or insucient sliding or of
sliding to the limit of travel. The swept area of the sliding
surface will be cleaner and more shiny than the unswept
area. The condition of any skirt or protective cladding
should be recorded, and the protrusion of the PTFE
measured with feeler gauge around the perimeter at corners
and sides. Where necessary, skirts will need to be removed
during inspection but must be replaced.
Guides
Guides need to be inspected for wear, excessive clearance
and satisfactory sliding operation.
Restraints
Restraints need to be checked for xity and lack of move-
ment.
Spherical bearings
On spherical bearings the protrusion of the PTFE should
also be noted, and any indication of seizure or of the rota-
tion capacity of the bearing being taken to its limit,
recorded.
Roller bearings
These should be inspected for dirt, debris, corrosion, crack-
ing, misalignment, lack of uniform bearing, seizure or
excessive travel, or excessive rotation of the top plate
relative to the bottom plate.
542 www.icemanuals.com
Bearings
Rocker bearings
Rocker bearings and their plates should be inspected for
dirt or debris under the rocker, corrosion, cracking or
slippage. The end of the rocker can indicate the amount
of rocking taking place.
Pot bearings
The seals of pot bearings should be inspected for extrusion
of the elastomer and for proper engagement and rotation of
the piston in the pot.
Bearing maintenance
Maintenance can involve keeping the bearing free of dirt
and debris; keeping sliding surfaces clean, polished and
lubricated; rubbing down protection, removing corrosion
and repainting; repairing or replacing skirts and cladding;
ensuring holding-down bolts are kept corrosion free,
locked tight, and greased; touching up bedding mortar
and, where necessary, rebedding. (For details see under
section replacement below.) Only localised touching up of
mortar under the edge of a bearing plate is recommended,
otherwise the lack of even support is unacceptable. Care
must be taken to ensure grit during repainting or other
debris does not penetrate beneath or through bearing
covers as this could damage the sliding surfaces or restrict
intended movement.
Need for replacement
Where cracks in elastomeric bearings have penetrated to the
plates, corrosion could begin to damage the integrity of the
bearings, requiring replacement. Spherical or sliding bear-
ings need to be replaced or refurbished if the protrusion
of the PTFE becomes minimal, and pot bearings need to
be replaced or refurbished if the seal is broken. The reasons
for the PTFE wear or broken seal need to be determined
and corrected otherwise the process may be repeated with
the replacement bearing. Bearings with cracked metal
parts need to be replaced.
Stickslip
If the sliding surfaces have become worn, bearings can
exhibit a stickslip mechanism, whereby excessive force is
required to make the bearing slide, and it moves some
distance relieving much of that force before stopping and
sticking again. The forces generated can signicantly
exceed those for which the structure has been designed
with potentially serious consequences for the structure.
Hysteresis loop
Even without the extreme of a stickslip condition, normal
limiting static and kinetic friction means that forces have to
build up under temperature changes before the bearing
slides, and subsequently reverse forces are generated
before it slides back again when the temperature reverts.
ICE Manual of Bridge Engineering # 2008 Institution of Civil Engineers
 Bearings
Positive force
Kinetic friction
Reverse
Movement
movement
Limiting
static friction
Negative force
Figure 14 Hysteresis loop (reproduced with permission # Atkins
Highways and Transportation)
In terms of a graph of force against movement, a hysteresis
loop is thus formed and this is key to the understanding of
the satisfactory performance, or otherwise, of existing
bearings in service (see Figure 14).
Replacement
Jacking strong points
The key to the replacement of bearings is a successful
jacking operation. If strong points are already provided,
they need to be checked for capacity. If not, the structure
capacity needs to be reviewed and provision made for the
jacking. The supports need to be checked for bursting
forces under the proposed jacking positions and, if inade-
quate, spreader plates provided, clamps or straps fastened,
or anti-bursting reinforcement cast in. If jacking against a
slab deck, the deck should similarly be checked. If jacking
against a concrete box girder, the diaphragms may require
strengthening if only because the jacks are supporting it in a
dierent location to the bearings. Similarly a steel box
girder diaphragm may have to be strengthened or braced.
Steel beams may be lifted using an A-frame supporting
bracket engaging either side of the top angeweb welds,
although these welds may need to be enlarged and the
beam web above the bottom ange will need to be tempora-
rily propped for transverse stability. Brackets may need to
be bolted or welded to larger girders, in which latter case
ultrasonic testing may be required to check for laminations
to avoid lamellar tearing, precautions taken to mitigate
weld distortion, and load restrictions applied during weld-
ing to avoid overstressing the heat-aected zone. Concrete
beams and slabs may have to be lifted on frames in front of
the pier or abutment supported on the spread footings or
pilecaps.
ICE Manual of Bridge Engineering # 2008 Institution of Civil Engineers
ice | manuals
Replacement sequence
Manufacture of the bearings may take months, so program-
ming is essential. Depending on structure type and details,
replacement of bearings can take several days or even
weeks. Once access has been provided together with any
temporary works or permanent modication, the process
consists of:
n jacking to release load on permanent bearing
n removal of original bearing and bedding (may require addi-
tional jacking)
n removal of existing sockets (sometimes)
n preparing surfaces for new bearings
n setting deck to level
n installing new bearing
n grouting re-bed bearing
n transferring load to new bearing
n checking installed bearing for compliance/tolerance.
Jacking load
Since the thickness of a concrete slab can vary from the
design dimensions, it is not easy to ascertain how much
jacking load is required to lift the deck or deck beam o
the bearing. Regardless of whether a single beam or the
full width of the deck is being lifted, the transverse stiness
of the deck slab, bracing or end diaphragm may result in
load sharing between the bearing locations under jacking,
masking variations between the dead load carried at each
location. When the bearing lifts o, the slope of the graph
of jacking load against vertical deection changes. Unfortu-
nately this change plots as a curve rather than as a kink in
the graph. The gradients on the graph below and above the
curve can however be back-plotted to provide the kink loca-
tion and thus determine the dead load at lift-o. With sig-
nicant transverse stiness however, diculties can still
arise, and these are exacerbated by the exibility of the
structure between the jacking and bearing locations and
between the position at which the vertical deection is
measured and the bearing itself.
The vertical deections can be recorded by electronic
gauges, e.g. LVDTs (linear variable dierential transfor-
mers), and displayed on a central console and the jacks
can be controlled and their pressures measured and
recorded centrally, so that the whole operation can be
fully coordinated. In any event the jacking should be
carried out in stages, recording the loads and deections
and inspecting the jacks, equipment, bearings and structure
at each stage. Up to lift-o the jacking should be controlled
by jack load and after lift-o the jacking should be con-
trolled by deection. Loads recorded during jacking
should be compared with design loads to assess the validity
www.icemanuals.com 543
 ice | manuals
of design assumptions. In this way overstressing of the
deck, overloading of the jacks and excessive deection of
the structural elements can be avoided. Extensive and
detailed calculations may be required in advance of the
jacking to determine tolerable variations in deections
and loads to avoid structural overstress. Decisions have
to be made on the amount, if any, of the live load permitted
either during jacking (not recommended!) or once the
structure is supported on the jacks. Only small vertical
deections may be tolerated by the expansion joint.
Articulation
Careful consideration is required of the articulation of the
structure while on jacks. The dierent location of the
jacks compared with the bearings needs to be taken into
account, particularly if the jacks are not on the same rota-
tional axis as the bearings. The jacks may have a greater
vertical stiness than the existing bearings. Jacks with
swivel heads will be required to accommodate rotation,
and lubricated PTFE/austenitic stainless steel sliding
plates provided to permit longitudinal and transverse
movement. Consequently, temporary restraints may be
required to be designed and installed prior to jacking to
prevent the deck walking out of position and to carry
braking, traction, skidding and parapet impact loading.
These are needed not only during replacement of xed
and sliding guided bearings but also to compensate for
the possibility of the lifted deck partially or fully disenga-
ging the guides or restraints of the bearings. Consideration
may need to be given to supporting the deck on temporary
bearings as the swivel heads of jacks are designed for seat-
ing rather than for live load rotations.
Jacking operation
Reference should be made to EN 1494 (British Standards
Institution, 2001) which provides information on jacks.
Jacks, pumps, pressure relief valves, pressure gauges and
deection gauges need to be tested and calibrated before
use. The jacks, pumps, gauges and hoses must be capable
of lifting:
n the dead and superimposed load of the deck or deck beam,
plus
n allowance for variation in the slab and surfacing thickness,
plus
n allowance for unexpected transverse distribution of load on
jacking, plus
n a factor of safety, plus
n an allowance to free the locking ring on jacking down.
For complex operations a jacking trial can be useful to
ensure that the operation will go more smoothly when the
bearings are actually removed and replaced. Only jacks
544 www.icemanuals.com
Bearings
with locking rings should be used and these should be
loosely screwed up to follow the lifting of the jack, and
then tightened at the end of the operation. Assuming trac
is to run once the jacking lift is complete, the capacity of the
jack on the locking ring must be adequate to carry the live
load with a suitable factor of safety. On jacking down, a
signicant load may be required to free the locking ring.
The jacks need to have sucient travel to accommodate:
n installation clearances on the jacks
n bearing elastic deformation on unloading
n local deformations of loaded areas above and below existing
bearing and the jacks
n bearing removal clearance
n displacement due to relative positioning of jack to bearing.
Bearing removal
Once the deck load is supported on jacks with sucient
clearance for bearing removal, the bedding mortar is nor-
mally removed by water jetting. Strict safety procedures
are required due to the lethal danger of a high-pressure
water jet and ying debris. Precautions are also required
to ensure the surrounding structure and jacking equipment
is protected from damage from the water jet. If the holding-
down bolts are fastened in cast-in sockets it should be
possible to slide out the bearing once it has been unbolted.
If the holding-down bolts are rag bolts cast directly in the
concrete, either the deck has to be lifted suciently to
disengage these from the bearing plate, or else they have
to be sawn or ame cut.
Bearing installation
If the cast-in sockets are intact and uncorroded, they may
be able to be reused. If time permits, the existing bearing
plates can then be used as templates for drilling holes in
the new plates; alternatively, the existing plates, if in good
condition, can be reused. Otherwise rag bolts may have to
be dug out of the concrete support and the holes enlarged
for grouting in sockets usually fastened through rubber
washers to the spreader plate. The sockets must go below
the reinforcement mat. If time permits, the top plate of
the existing bearing can be used as a template for drilling
holes in the new top plate, so that it can be oered up
and bolted to the existing taper plate. With precast beams
the new bearing can be mortared and clamped to the
beam, and with concrete slab decks the cast-in sockets
can be reused.
Once the new bearing is lifted in and fastened to the deck,
it can be supported on shims for stability. If the deck is
carrying live load while supported on the jacks, the newly
installed bearing will have to rotate and the transit bolts
need to be removed. Alternatively the bearing may need
to slide with temperature changes prior to dejacking, also
ICE Manual of Bridge Engineering # 2008 Institution of Civil Engineers
 Bearings ice | manuals

requiring removal of the transit bolts. For bearings Illustrations of practice

permitting translation it is unlikely that the new bearing
This section illustrates examples of good and bad practice.
will be installed at the same temperature as the original.
Figures 1525 all indicate problem areas.
Hence, it may be necessary to oset the upper and lower
parts, and this will require release of the transit brackets. Problem areas
This operation must be carried out with great care under
Figures 1518 are all examples of situations in which bridge
close supervision by the bearing manufacturer to avoid
piers have been built without either vertical or plan space
damage or contamination to the PTFE and stainless steel
for the insertion of jacks for bearing replacement.
sliding surfaces.
Figures 16, 17 and 18 show three real life examples of this
Grouting practice.
Figure 19 is a diagram showing how steel box strengthen-
Since the bearing has to carry live load as soon as the deck is
ing can be used in instances where a bridge deck has not
dejacked, it is essential that no voids remain under the
been provided with jacking strong points.
spreader plate upon grouting. Care must be taken with
Figure 20 demonstrates the problems that can arise with
the grouting specication and trials carried out under a
elastomeric bearings when the deck is anchored to the abut-
glass plate to demonstrate that the grouting process will
ment by a bonded dowel bar passing through the bearing.
go smoothly. Normally grouting is carried out from one
side of the bearing. The cast-in sockets will be grouted in
as part of the process. Once the grout has set, the shims Reinforced concrete
bridge deck
must be removed to avoid hard spots and the holes lled
with high-strength shrinkage-compensated grout.
Dejacking
Bearing
Dejacking can only commence once the bedding mortar has
Insufficient plan
reached adequate strength and must be carried out as care- area for jack
fully as jacking. Detailed calculations are again required to Insufficient headroom
for jack
ensure that the intended dead and superimposed dead load
are carried by the replacement bearing(s). Transverse distri-
bution of load, compressibility of the new bearing of the
stack of plates, and the reduced elastic modulus of the
young bedding mortar are all factors to be considered.
Although additional jacking load will be required to Reinforced
enable the locking rings to be slackened, only the minimum concrete column
load required to enable this should be applied. Wherever
possible, this operation should be completed when the live Figure 15 Pier with insufficient room for jacking (reproduced with
permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)
load on the structure is at its lowest level. Again, coordina-
tion between jacks is required.
The operation should be carried out in stages, unscrewing
the locking rings at each stage, just enough to enable the
lowering in the next stage to take place, and taking vertical
deection readings in conjunction with jack pressures and
loads. Lowering should be controlled by deection until
touchdown, following which control should be by jacking
load until the jack loads have been released. Settlement of
the bearing base plate must be carefully measured with
deection gauges to ensure compression of the bedding
mortar is restricted to approximately 0.3 mm or a calculated
acceptable amount. This provides conrmation that the
bedding is substantially void free and that the mortar has
properly hardened. For sliding bearings, checks should be
made that sucient PTFE protrusion exists and that sliding
plates are at. The bearings should be inspected for satis-
factory operation under live loading before the jacking Figure 16 Lack of provision for jacking (reproduced with permission
# the Highways Agency)
equipment is removed.

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 ice | manuals Bearings

Figure 17 Lack of provision for jacking (reproduced with permission Figure 18 Lack of provision for jacking (detail) (reproduced with
# the Highways Agency) permission # the Highways Agency)

New 15 mm fillet

New 15 mm fillet Existing 15 mm thick

plate fitted diaphragm

New 35 mm thk
Existing welds doubler plate
Existing 350 22

991 approx.
fitted plate
35 thk plate New 15 mm fillet
Cut from
610 229 110 kg UB Florescent
lamp unit
Cope hole to clear
existing 8 mm weld

333
Sectional elevation on intermediate diaphragm
at pier showing strengthening for jacking
Cope hole to existing
full butt weld

New 15 mm
fillet weld

Existing
welds
Cope hole to existing
full butt weld

35 thk plate

New 15 mm
Cope hole to clear
fillet weld
existing 8 mm weld

Detail showing plate strengthening diaphragm

Figure 19 Steel box strengthening for jacking strong points (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)

546 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Bridge Engineering # 2008 Institution of Civil Engineers
 Bearings ice | manuals

Reinforced concrete Profile of deck beam Profile of deck beam

bridge deck under traffic load under dead load

Laminated elastomeric
bearing Fixed Sliding
bearing bearing

Elevation on deck beam

Dowel bar passing through bearing Reinforced concrete

to provide horizontal fixity, anchored
in both abutment and deck
Bottom chord extends under traffic causing bearing
abutment
to slide. Due to fixed bearing at other end, chord
extension over full span occurs at sliding bearing

Deck cannot be lifted without removing part of bearing and sawing through Upper layer of DU material
dowel bar. Bearing cannot be removed without sawing through dowel bar on Material below exposed worn away by live load fretting
other face of bearing. Fixity cannot readily be replaced when replacing bearing to sliding with significantly
higher friction coefficient
Note: In some cases dowel in deck may be debonded (provided with a dowel cap) Sliding bearing
which would allow deck to be initially jacked before cutting dowel
Figure 22 Live load fretting (reproduced with permission # Atkins
Figure 20 Dowelled elastomeric bearing (reproduced with permission Highways and Transportation)
# Atkins Highways and Transportation)

bearings. Bearings may also run out of travel due to exces-

Bearings that have reached the end of their
translation travel
Figure 21 is a plan of a viaduct. If the viaduct is constructed
from end A to end B, temporary longitudinal xity is
required at end A until the xed bearing at C is installed,
and the bearing at A can be released. As the viaduct con-
struction continues through D and E to B longitudinal
movements due to temperature and shrinkage occur, and,
if prestressed, due to prestress, which in turn is modied
by prestress losses and creep. Depending on how far these
have occurred, and on the eective bridge temperature at
the time, bearings D, E and B must be set in turn to suit,
so that future changes in these eects can be accommodated
within the limits of travel of the bearings. If bearings are not
chosen with sucient sliding capacity, or if the setting cal-
culations are incorrect, the bearings may run out of travel at
some future date, resulting in a serious condition for the
integrity of the viaduct, either by failure or seizure of the
sive movements of the substructure.
Bearings subjected to live load fretting
Figure 22 illustrates an example of live load fretting. Wear
of sliding bearings was originally thought to result from
temperature changes and reversals. However, trac load-
ing on the deck, in bending it and extending the bottom
chord, results in a very large number of small reciprocal
sliding movements which do cause signicant wear. This
is termed live load fretting, and has been known to result
in the shortening of bearing life. For example the DU
surface of sliding bearings has been known to have worn
through, exposing the bearing to material below of signi-
cantly higher friction coecient.
Pot bearing in lively deck subjected to seal
break down
Pot bearing seals, as illustrated in Figure 23, are subjected
to vertical and rotational movements of the piston in

Fixed bearings carrying Longitudinally sliding bearings accommodating

longitudinal loading temperature movement, etc.

A B

C D E

Pier locations

Figure 21 Plan on viaduct (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)

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 ice | manuals Bearings

Piston

Seal Cylinder

Elastomer

Figure 23 Pot bearing (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways

and Transportation)

the cylinder and are required to resist the pressure in the

elastomer which is by nature hydraulic. They are tested
under these conditions to ensure an adequate fatigue life.
However, if the deck is particularly lively the seal may fail,
the elastomer extrude and the bearing become no longer
serviceable. This has been known to occur at the pier of a
cable-stayed bridge where the bearing was subjected to
unusually lively movements.

Roller bearing cracking due to excessive metal

hardness
To provide very low friction, stainless steel rollers of very
high hardness have been used, but high hardness may
compromise corrosion or fatigue resistance. Hardness
limits have been introduced to avoid the problem.

Mechanical bearing top plate deflection due to Figure 25 Poor design, workmanship and maintenance (reproduced
high-build paint thickness with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)

Prevention of corrosion of bearing plates has been sought

by requiring the paint coating to be returned a minimum
of 50 mm beyond the edge of the meeting surfaces of bear- that a nal paint coating be applied to the plate edges
ing plates. However, with the advent of high-build paint and to any exposed plate returns, after installation of the
coatings this may result in non-uniform bedding of the bearing. The cumulative eect of the individual plate toler-
plates on each other, to the extent that the plates may ances in a stack of plates may also result in non-uniform
bend with injurious eects on the bearing, as illustrated in bedding of the bearing.
Figure 24. To avoid this, it is now recommended that the
paint not be returned beyond the edge of the plate, but Poor design and workmanship
Figure 25 demonstrates an example of poor bridge design,
workmanship and maintenance.
Deck beam
Weld
Good practice
Figures 2634 all illustrate examples of good practice.
Additional Taper plate Figure 26 is a diagram illustrating an instance where a
paint borders Bearing top plate bridge pier has been constructed with adequate provision
Reduced paint thickness
Bearing for jacking.
results in bending of Bearing bottom plate Figures 2732 all show actual examples of bridge piers
top plate of bearing Spreader plate
with adequate space and strong points for jacking.
Bedding mortar
Figure 33 exemplies an elastomeric bearing that has been
Support
appropriately restrained.
Figure 24 Section through deck beam at bearing (reproduced with Figure 34 shows a bearing with taper, spacer and spreader
permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)
plates all appropriately protected.

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 Bearings ice | manuals

Diaphragm strengthened by
stiffeners to cater for jacking loads
and for force actions resulting Box girder deck
from different support location

Bearings

RC pier

Jacking positions. Headroom and plan

area provided for jacks of adequate size Pier strengthened to cater for jacking load.
Anti-bursting reinforcement provided as required

Figure 26 Bridge pier with provision for jacking (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)

Figure 29 Jacking steel diaphragm beam showing transverse restraints

(reproduced with permission # the Highways Agency)
Figure 27 Temporary supports either side of bearing for landing deck
beam (reproduced with permission # the Highways Agency)

Figure 28 Jacking down off jacking trestle (reproduced with permission Figure 30 Jacking concrete deck (reproduced with permission # the
# the Highways Agency) Highways Agency)

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 ice | manuals Bearings

Figure 31 Use of low height jacks and spacer plates (reproduced with Figure 32 Use of larger jacks and jacking stools (reproduced with
permission # the Highways Agency) permission # the Highways Agency)

Downstand to keep bearing clear of soffit slopes

RC slab

Elastomeric
(laminated)
bearings

Bedding mortar

RC plinth

RC abutment
Adequate headroom for Adequate space
jack of sufficient capacity for jacking Single fixed restraint bearing to avoid
dowelling through elastomeric bearings

Figure 33 Elastomeric bearing with facility for replacement (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)

Deck beam

Paint coating applied

after installation of
bearing. Coating Bolted taper plate
compatible with both Bearing top plate
bearing and structure
protective systems
Bearing bottom plate
Spreader plate
Bedding mortar

Support

Figure 34 Section through deck beam with bearing plates appropriately protected (reproduced with permission # Atkins Highways and Transportation)

550 www.icemanuals.com ICE Manual of Bridge Engineering # 2008 Institution of Civil Engineers
 Bearings ice | manuals

References Highways Agency. (1992) Manual of Contract Documents for

British Standards Institution. (1983) BS 5400. Steel, concrete and
composite bridges. Part 9: Bridge bearings Section 9.1 Code
of practice for design of bridge bearings Section 9.2 Speci-
cation for materials, manufacture and installation of bridge
bearings. BSI, London.
British Standards Institution. (Various years) EN 1337. Structural
bearings.
Part 1 General design rules
Part 2 Sliding elements
Part 3 Elastomeric bearings
Part 4 Roller bearings
Part 5 Pot bearings
Part 6 Rocker bearings
Part 7 Spherical and cylindrical PTFE bearings
Part 8 Guide bearings and restrain bearings
Part 9 Protection
Part 10 Inspection and maintenance
Part 11 Transport, storage and installation
BSI, London.
British Standards Institution. (2001) EN 1494. Mobile or movable
jacks and associated lifting equipment. BSI, London.
British Standards Institution. (2006) EN 1993-2. Steel bridges.
Annex A [normative] Technical requirements for bearings.
BSI, London.
Highway Works. Volume 1 Specication for Highway Works.
Series 2100 Bridge Bearings. Volume 2 Notes for Guidance
on the Specication for Highway Works Series NG 2600
Miscellaneous. The Stationery Oce, London (plus later
amendments).
Further reading
Chubb M. S. and Kennedy Reid I. L. (1994) Crossbeam replace-
ment. Proceedings of Bridge Modication Conference, ICE,
London, 2324 March. Edited by B. Pritchard.
Highways Agency. (1983) BD20/92. Bridge Bearings. Use of
BS 5400: Part 9. The Stationery Oce, London.
Higways Agency. Bridge Inspection Manual. Highways Agency,
London, Draft.
Kennedy Reid I. L., Milne D. M. and Craig R. E. (2001) Steel
Bridge Strengthening. On behalf of Highways Agency and WS
Atkins. Thomas Telford, London.
Lee D. J. (1994) Bridge Bearings and Expansion Joints, 2nd edn. E
& FN Spon, London.
Ramberger G. (2002) Structural Bearings and Expansion Joints for
Bridges. Structural Engineering Documents 6. International
Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE-
AIPC-IVBH ETH Honggerberg).

ICE Manual of Bridge Engineering # 2008 Institution of Civil Engineers www.icemanuals.com 551