Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
I
Bu(eau of Mines Information Circular/1985
II
By Gregory J, Chekan
By Gregory J. Chekan
BUREAU OF MINES
Robert C. Horton. Director
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:
1
Abstract ......................................................................................... ..
Introduction ........................... 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
.. ...................................... .
... 2
3
Bulkhead design methods .....
Types of bulkheads .......................... ,......................... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. 3
Factors to consider in bulkhead design ........... 3
Thin and thick plate designs .................. 4
Thin plate design........................... .. .......................................................................... .. 4
4
...........
Thick plate design ........................................................................................................... ..
Trench depth ...... .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 5
South African plug design ... ....................................... 6
Plug design forlDlllas ................. 6
The relation of water leakage to plug length ........ 10
Single and double bulkhead seals ............. 11
Single bulkhead seals ............... 11
Double bulkhead seals .............. 12
Concrete specifications and placement methods .......... 12
Specifications ............ 12
Placement ............ 14
Pressure grouting .......... "" II II II 15
Grouting materials ... II II II II 16
Portland cement grout ......... II 16
Chemical grouts .... II II II II II 17
Grouting methods. II 17
Barrier pillars ............ "" 18
Pillar considerations .. II 18
Pillar width formulas ............... 18
Monitoring water pressure ............ 20
Obtaining MSHA approval ....... 22
Discussion .............. 22
References ........................................................................... . 23
Bibliography ................ 24
Appendix A.--Hydrostatic testing of a single bulkhead seal 26
Appendix B.--Flexural strength analysis for concrete block bulkhead. 36
ILLUSTRATIONS
ILLUSTRATIONS--Continued
A-6. Drill plan for injecting polyurethane grout in strata surrounding the
bulkhead ....................................................................... . 30
A-7. Packer-mixer assembly installed in borehole ....... 31
A-S. Polyurethane grout emerging from strata ..... 31
A-g. Diagram of standpipe, pressure gauge, and porous tube arrangement 34
A-10. Polyethylene porous tube installed on the inby side of bulkhead 35
B-l. Correction factor for bulkhead width-to-height ratios ... 36
TABLES
gal/h gallon per hour psig pound per square inch, gauge
mm millimeter
DESIGN OF BULKHEADS FOR CONTROLLING WATER IN UNDERGROUND MINES
By Gregory J. Chekon 1
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
Bulkheads are commonly used to seal loading, which could be present for the
abandoned workings and protect adjacent entire life of the bulkhead. In extreme
active mines from explosion; however, cases, this pressure may reach 500 psi
bulkheads can also be used to control (approximately 1,150 ft of waterhead) and
unwanted inflows of water. Ground water last for several days, until pumping or
seepage from poorly sealed shafts, water- draining operations can be initiated.
bearing strata, and abandoned mine areas Permeation of acid water is another major
used for impoundment are the major structural concern, for it deteriorates
sources of water inflow. In some in- the bulkhead and its anchorage, as well
stances, water levels in these abandoned as the ground around the bulkhead.
areas can rise rapidly or go completely When designing and constructing a bulk-
undetected while the areas are accumulat- head for the purpose of impounding water,
ing excessive hydrostatic pressure. This several general criteria should be met:
poses a potential inundation hazard to
the active mine, especially if the bulk- 1. The bulkhead should be designed to
head is not suitably designed to retain withstand the static forces of hydro-
water. static pressure rather than the dynamic
The Federal Coal Mine Safety and Health forces of an explosion.
Act of 1977 requires that bulkheads which
seal abandoned areas be "explosionproof" 2. The bulkhead should be constructed
but makes no requirements on their abil- from a material, such as concrete, which
ity to perform as water seals. 2 The Bu- will resist deterioration by water.
reau has conducted extensive research
into the design and construction of ex- 3. The bulkhead should be constructed
plosionproof bulkheads and the forces ex- sufficiently thick and properly anchored,
erted upon them from coal dust and meth- and the surrounding strata should be
ane ignitions. Although these designs pressure grouted to minimize water
may have application for impounding wa- seepage.
ter, there are differences between ex-
plosion pressures and hydrostatic pres- The ability to safely impound water un-
sures and the forces that they exert on a derground will become increasingly impor-
structure. tant in future years. Inundation bulk-
In the case of an explosionproof bulk- heads will be needed to protect active
head, the structure may never experience workings in areas where mining is in
a significant loading until an explosion close proximity to surface water bodies
occurs. A methane or coal dust explosion or water-bearing strata. Mining compa-
exerts a dynamic loading on the bulkhead nies are also beginning to examine the
that rarely exceeds 50 psig. As a gen- possibility of impounding water under-
eral rule, pressure at 200 ft or more ground as a means of eliminating the
from the origin of an explosion will not costly treatment of acid mine water be-
exceed 20 psig unless coal dust accumula- fore discharge. Presently, there is no
tions are abnormal and the incombustible commonly accepted design method for con-
content of the dust is far less than re- structing bulkheads for this purpose.
quired by law (l).3 In contrast, inunda- Prior to constructing a bulkhead for im-
tion bulkheads are usually subject to a pounding water, a mine operator must
constant hydrostatic pressure, a static first notify the Mine Safety and Health
Administration (MSHA) and then submit de-
2Regulations governing the sealing of tailed design and construction plans for
abandoned areas are covered in the Code
of Federal Regulations, Title 30, Chapter 3Underlined numbers in parentheses re-
1, Part 75, Subchapter D, Subparts 329-1, fer to items in the list of references
329-2, 330 and 330-1. preceding the appendixes.
3
approval. This usually requires the as- marginal, and more research needs to be
sistance of a professional engineering conducted to add co our present knowledge
consultant who has had prior experience of plug and bulkhead design. This report
in this subject. seeks to increase the mine operators' un-
It is strongly emphasized that this re- derstanding of inundation bulkhead design
port is not intended to serve as a com- and other problems associated with under-
plete guide to the design of bulkheads ground water impoundments. Such informa-
for impounding water underground. Pub- tion is essential to safe mining in areas
lished literature on this subject is where inundation is possible.
TYPES OF BULKHEADS (~) the entire entry and simply limit the
height of water to the height of the dam;
Bulkheads constructed for impounding but large volumes of water can be im-
water can be classified into five types. pounded in this way.
sides and along the midspan. Using this to recess the bulkhead into the roof,
assumption, the design formula is pre- ribs, and floor contributes to this in-
dicted to be creased strength. The trenches assure
that the applied load develops through
T = j3a Ip/fc (2) the bulkhead and is then transferred to
the load-bearing capacity of the coal
where T = bulkhead thickness, ft; roof, ribs, and floor.
The thick plate design approach has two
a = maximum entry dimension, ft; principal drawbacks. First, the arching
behavior described earlier does not occur
p hydrostatic pressure, psi; until there is considerable cracking or
fracturing of the bulkhead. The failure
fc = allowablecompressive of a bulkhead under these circumstances
strength of construction can be catastrophic, especially if the
material, psi; hydrostatic pressure exceeds the design
pressure. Second, the strength of the
Sc 11 + 4y2 ] bulkhead depends directly on the bearing
- [ E 11 + 4y2 - 1 ' strength of the coal, roof, ribs, and
floor strata. The Bureau has conducted
where E Modulus of elasticity of research along these lines to determine
construction material, psi; the compressibility and bearing strength
of in-place coal (~, Z). Future design
Sc ultimate compressive criteria should include the bearing
strength of construction strengths of the coal, the roof, and the
material, psi; floor to assure adequate design.
proceed until a competent stratum is SOUTH AFRICAN PLUG DESIGN (~, ~-~)
reached. After excavation, holes should
be drilled along the centerline of the South African plug research was con-
trench to accommodate steel reinforcing ducted during the late 1950's and early
rods of at least 7i8-in diam and 38 in 1960's to resolve inundation problems
long. The steel rods should be firmly encountered in the mines of the Witwa-
grouted no less than 18 in deep, and tersrand and Orange Free State gold
spaced at no more than 18-in intervals. fields. W. S. Garrett and L. T. Campbell
If feasible, trenching of the roof is Pitt (8-9) designed, constructed, and
recommended. Owing to roof sag, the roof tested-an experimental concrete plug that
is usually where most water seepage will withstood a hydrostatic pressure in ex-
occur. Trenching the roof may be a dif- cess of 6,000 psi. Their research led to
ficult task because of the unpredictable a better understanding of the criteria
nature of most roof rock. The immediate that influence plug design. Although
area should be stabilized with supplemen- their tests were conducted under condi-
tal supports, and care should be exer- tions unique to deep gold mines of South
cised during the trenching operation. Africa, the assumptions and theory which
Trenches should be cut at least 8 in formed the basis for their design formula
deep. Once the trenches are complete, can also be applied to water impoundments
additional anchorage should be provided in underground coal mines.
with steel reinforcing rods of at least
7i8-in diam and 30 in long. The steel Plug Design Formulas
rods should be firmly grouted into the
roof along the centerline of the bulkhead Garrett and Campbell Pitt considered
at a depth of no less than 18 in, with no three possible methods for designing
more than 18-in spacing between rods. plugs to retain high water pressures
When excavating the trenches the fol- (fig. 1):
lowing should be observed:
1. The plug would be constructed as a
1.Select a site where the ribs, roof, slab with all four sides recessed into
and floor are competent and not affected the rock, with or without steel rod rein-
by long-term weathering or excessive forcement (plate design).
ground movement and stress. As a routine
measure, supplemental supports should be 2. The walls of the drive would be
installed at the selected site. tapered so the load could be transmitted
from the plug to the rock wall by
2. Trim all loose coal from the ribs, compression.
making them as straight as possible. The
same applies for loose rock on the floor 3. The plug would be parallel to the
and roof. walls of the drive, and there would be no
need for recessing or tapering. Anchor-
3. Cut the trenches with hydraulic or age would be provided by the concrete
pneumatic tools, taking care to avoid un- bearing, against the irregularities in
necessarily fracturing the strata. Ex- the rock surface, after all loose materi-
plosives should not be used to excavate al had been scaled away.
the trenches unless very hard, competent
strata are encountered. In many instances, these plugs had to
be constructed under emergency condi-
4. Keep the width of the trenches tions. Time was the most important fac-
the same as that of the bulkhead. All tor, and site preparation had to be mini-
trenches should be cut as square as pos- mal. For this reason, they choose the
sible, especially at the inner and outer third method (parallel plug design),
corners where the floor and rib trench rather than the first two methods, both
meet.
7
Therefore: I = pab
2(a+b)f s
Slab keyed into walls where 1 length of the plug, ft,
25' 5'
Water
chamber
Drive
Drive 4'
approx
TABLE 2. - Parallel plugs of the Witwatersrand and Orange Free State gold
fields for which there are records of loads applied of over 1,000 psi
design formulas. Note the high values of located near Allentown, PA. This precau-
fs and fc for the West Driefontein exper- tionary plug separates the main shaft
imental plug, the plug that formed the from the stopes. In the event of an in-
basis for their design assumptions. undation, the watertight doors are closed
A plug similar to those constructed in to prevent the main shaft from flooding. 7
South Africa is shown in figure 3. This
particular plug is situated on the 1,200-
ft level of the Friendensville Zinc Mine 7 For more information on the Friendens-
(owned by Gulf and Western Industries), ville Mine, see Cox (10).
10
FIGURE 3. - Plug constructed on the 1,200-ft level of the Friendensville Zinc Mine.
0~~2~~4~~6~:I8==JILO==IL2~~14==JI6
ing into account the important factor of
the ground surrounding the plug. Garrett
and Campbell Pitt believed that values
for minimum and maximum pressure gradi- WATERHEAD (H), 103 ft
ents could be established experimentally
FIGURE 4. - Length of plugs based on ultimate pres-
for various rocks. Also, they reco~
mended that plugs designed accordingly sure gradient values. A, Minimum length of plug that
would be required if the contact between plug and rock
should have a leakage factor of safety
is ungrouted. No factor of safety; BI minimum length
of at least 4 and as much as 10 in some
when the contact is grouted but before the rock is grouted.
cases, depending on conditions such as
No factor of sofetYi C, mini mum length when norma f grout-
fractures in the rock after mining and
the subsequent redistribution of stress, ing of rock was at 6,000 psi. No factor of safety. (4C,
e.g., means 4 x C.L D, similarto C1 butwiththeaddition
porosity of the rock, and its acceptance
of chemicalsto seal rock fissures. C isthenapplicable
of grout.
to a normally grouted plug but with no factor of safety.
Figure 4 shows the minimum length of
plugs based on ultimate pressure gradient Adapted from W. S. Garrett and L. T. Campbell Pitt (~).
values obtained from the tests on the ex-
perimental plug. Also given are curves
for plugs with safety factors of 4, 6, 8, was performed in the East, as part of
and 10 with the provision that the sur- Federal and State acid mine drainage re-
rounding rock is grouted to at least the search and abatement programs (Q, 11).
same pressure which the plug is designed
to resist. Single Bulkhead Seals
SINGLE AND DOUBLE BULKHEAD SEALS (~-11) Single bulkhead seals are usually con-
structed from concrete, grouted aggre-
Single and double bulkheads seals, also gate, or concrete block. They are com-
known as hydraulic seals, are commonly monly used to seal off abandoned mines
used to permanently seal abandoned drift from active workings, and such seals have
and slope mines and protect the environ- been documented to withstand water pres-
ment from the undesirable effects of acid sure as high as 70 psi (161.5 ft of
mine drainage. Historically, thickness waterhead) (11). In many instances,
and anchorage requirements for these plate theory is used in their design,S
seals have been derived from experience or minimum thicknesses and anchorage
and are based on the immediate ground
conditions and the amount of water to be 8 Thick plate design, discussed earlier
impounded. Various types of hydraulic in this report, is applicable for deter-
seals have been demonstrated in the mlnlng thickness and anchorage require-
United States. Most of this sealing work ments for single bulkhead seals.
12
Plywood.
~?:~'
-----
- ,,~.
Concrete mi
and pump
Not to scale
Steel reinforcing rods
FIGURE 6. w Concrete being mixed underground and placed in forms by concrete pump.
FIGURE 7. - Pumping concrete from the surface FIGURE 8. - Pumping concrete from the surface
through a single vertical borehole to a central un- through a vertical borehole directly to bulkhead
derground site. site.
aqueous solutions. There are many fac- III is used when early strength gains are
tors to consider in planning a grouting required within 10 days or less. It also
program, such as the drilling, spacing, has a finer grind, which improves its in-
and depth of holes; the proper selection jectability. Type IV generates less heat
of grouting materials and equipment; the than type II and develops strength at a
control of grout volumes and injection very slow rate. It is rarely used in
pressures; and a knowledge of the strata grouting. Type V has a high resistance
to be grouted. Pressure grouting is a to sulfates and is used when groundwater
highly specialized technique requlrlng with extremely high sulfate content is
experience and sound engineering judg- encountered.
ment, so that procuring the services of Mineral admixtures are finely divided
qualified personnel is essential. materials that are added to neat cement
In some respect, pressure grouting is grout to improve or achieve a specific
an art, for which the establishment of characteristic. Calcium chloride, sodium
rigid rules and procedures is not fea- silicate, and gypsum, when used in small
sible. However, a knowledge of basic amounts (2 to 4 wt pct), act as accelera-
grouting materials and methods is tors and decrease the setting time of the
recommended. grout. Accelerators are used when there
is little heat to aid in setting. They
GROUTING MATERIALS may also be used to reduce grout migra-
tion, reduce erosion of new grout by
An important factor in the successful groundwater, and increase the rate of
grouting of permeable coals and other early strength gains. When high tempera-
stratified rock is the selection of a tures are encountered, retarders such as
suitable grouting material. There are sodium chloride and calcium lignosulfo-
four basic types of grout: Portland ce- nate are used to increase setting time.
ment, asphalt, clay, and chemical grouts. These admixtures allow the grout to mi-
Technical literature and field experience grate properly into fine pore spaces be-
show that Portland cement and chemical fore setting.
grouts are the most applicable and effec- Fly ash and natural pozzolans such as
tive for grouting coal mine strata. diatomite and pumicite are admixtures
that when used in small amounts improve
Portland Cement Grout the pumpability of the mix. They may al-
so be used as a filler and can compose up
Portland cement is the most widely used to 30 wt pct of the mix. In this case,
grouting material because of cost, avail- they react chemically with the cement to
ability, and everyday knowledge of the produce cementitious properties and im-
material. -Neat cement grout consists of proved bonding. Other admixtures include
Portland cement and water, but mineral bentonite, which is used to increase
admixtures are often used with this base water requirements and reduce the unit
to attain grouts with specific character- weight of the mix; latex additi.ves, which
istics. There are five types of Portland improve bonding and increase grout re-
cement (excluding air-entrailed cements) sistance to acids and other corrosive
that conform to ASTM Designation C1S0 and solutions; and aluminum powder, which in-
can be used for cement grouts. Each type creases viscosity and causes the grout to
possesses specific properties that may be expand slightly.
needed to meet job requirements. Water-to-cement ratios for Portland
Type I is a general~purpose cement cement grouts are indicated by either
suitable for most grouting jobs. It is weight or volume. The volume method is
used when the special properties of the more convenient and most frequently used
other four types are not needed. Type II in the field. A sack of cement is con-
has moderate resistance to the sulfates sidered to equal 1 ft 3 The mixing
in groundwater. With type II the heat ratios of water to cement used most
of hydration is less and develops at a frequently range from 1:1 to 4:1. The
slower rate than that of type I. Type choice of a starting mix depends on such
17
factors as the size and amount of pore investigation is done, the size and con-
spaces in the strata, the amount of wa- tinuity of pore space in the strata will
ter the strata bears and experience with remain relatively unknown. The art of
grouting similar strata. In general, successful grouting requires the ability
grouting is started with a thin mix. to treat these unknowns through experi-
Thicker mixes are used based on the abil- ence obtained from similar grouting work.
ity of the strata to accept the grout. Three basic grouting methods are used in-
If the strata accepts the starting mix mine to seal and consolidate permeable
readily without pressure buildup, thicker strata surrounding a bulkhead: curtain
mixes are considered in accordance with grouting, blanket grouting, and contact
the objectives of the grouting program. grouting.
Cu~tain g~outing involves the construc-
Chemical Grouts tion of a curtain or barrier of grout by
drilling and grouting a linear sequence
In recent years, the use of chemical of holes. Its primary purpose is to re-
grouts to consolidate permeable rock and duce strata permeability. A grout cur-
soil has gained increased popularity. tain can consist of a single row of holes
The primary advantages of chemical grouts or two or more parallel rows. "Primary"
over Portland cement grouts are their im- holes are initially drilled into the
proved bonding characteristics, low vis- roof, ribs, or floor on rather widely
cosity, better flowability, and good con- spaced centers ranging from 20 to 40 ft.
trol of setting time. Some chemical After the two primary holes have been
grouts are water reactive and expand grouted, a first intermediate hole is
slightly by contact with water, a feature drilled midway between them. After this
that is advantageous in sealing fine pore hole is grouted, two secondary interme-
spaces in the rock. Some disadvantages diate holes are drilled midway between
include possible toxicity, so that they the primary and first intermediate hole.
may not meet MSHA permissibility stan- This pattern of drilling and grouting
dards for use underground. Also, they continues until grout consumption indi-
are relatively higher in cost than Port- cates the strata to be sufficiently
land cement grouts. tight. Grout consumption should decrease
Research and development is continuing as the spacing of intermediate holes be-
at a rapid pace, and currently a number come smaller.
of commercial manufacturers produce chem- The hole depth for curtain grouting de-
ical grouts and injection equipment. pends on the flowability of the grout,
Most grouts consist of two or more compo- the ability of the strata to accept
nents that must be mixed before injec- grout, and the distance the grout must
tion. Because.of the critical nature of migrate to create a satisfactory seal.
proportioning, this mixing should only be Generally, the primary holes are the
done under the supervision of company deepest, with intermediate holes being
personnel. It is beyond the scope of drilled less deep with each successive
this report to review all commercial grouting.
grouts currently available. If one is Blanket g~outing involves the injec-
considering the use of a chemical grout, tion of grout, under low pressures, into
the best approach is to consult directly shallow holes drilled on a grid pattern.
with a company that has a proven grouting Its primary purpose is to increase the
technique. bearing strength of the strata. Blanket
grouting may be used to form a grout cap
GROUTING METHODS prior to curtain grouting and serve as a
barrier to improve the migration of high-
Procedures for grouting permeable er pressure grout into deeper horizons,
strata vary, as dictated by the charac- but it is more commonly used to consol-
teristics of the strata and the program idate fractured or severely weathered
objectives. Regardless of how much ex- strata in a mine entry prior to bulk-
ploratory drilling and other pregrouting head construction. This grouting method
18
strengthens the strata and provides water seepage along this concrete-strata
bearing support when constructing a large interface. Over the long term, it mini-
plug or excavating trenches to recess a mizes the premature failure of bulkhead
bulkhead. Holes are drilled on 5- to 7- anchorage.
ft centers and are shallow, 3 to 5 ft Holes for contact grouting are usually
deep. Severely fractured strata may re- provided for by placing steel pipe or
quire the holes to be drilled on tighter packers at predetermined locations along
spacings of 1 to 3 ft. the concrete-strata interface before the
Contact grouting involves the grouting concrete is poured. The pipes, which
of the voids between the roof, ribs, and protrude from the forms, act as a travel-
floor of the entry and the bulkhead or way for the grout after the concrete
plug. These voids result primarily from cures. At times, during the pouring of
improper concrete placement and concrete the plug, the pipe may fill with concrete
shrinkage while curing. This is consid- which must then be drilled out so that
ered a most important grouting procedure, grout can migrate properly along the
because it improves bonding and prevents interface.
BARRIER PILLARS
The hydrostatic pressure in the inun- transmitting recorders. The floats come
dated area should be monitored. There in various sizes, with a 3-in-diam float
are two basic methods to accomplish this: presently being the smallest. Because
(1) from vertical boreholes drilled from the float must be counterweighted and the
the surface to the inundated area, and excess line must hang in the hole, the
(2) in-mine, through piping cast into the smallest practical hole size is 4 in ID,
bulkheads themselves. The first method although larger sizes are recommended to
involves the drilling of a vertical bore- allow the float and counterweight to pass
hole from the surface to the inundated each other without interference. The
area and measuring the height or pressure float-beaded line systems have been used
of a column of water with a water-level in holes as deep as 650 ft, with float
indicator or pressure transmitter. These depths up to 350 ft, with no difficulty.
instruments are commercially available Still another method of monitoring
from manufacturers of geophysical and hy- pressure from vertical holes is to in-
drological instrumentation. stall strain-gauge type pressure trans-
One type consists of a detection meter mitters. Pressure transmitters capable
and a water-sensitive electrode attached of operation in water at depths as great
to 300 to 500 ft of electrical cable num- as 5,000 ft are readily available. Al-
bered in 1- to 5-ft intervals. The level though the difficulties of finding drift-
of the water below the surface is mea- free transducers for long-term installa-
sured by lowering the electrode down the tion and connecting them to a cable are
borehole until a sharp needle deflection not trivial, a few manufacturers have
on the meter indicates that water is con- partial systems available. Pressure
tacted. The approximate waterhead is de- transmitter systems are also available
termined by subtracting this distance from companies serving oilfield needs.
from the total depth to the coalbed where Most of these are strain-gauge type sys-
the bulkhead(s) is(are) located. To con- tems, although one company makes a system
vert waterhead expressed in feet to hy- which uses a small-diameter tube and a
drostatic pressure in pounds per square gas-filled chamber at the bottom of the
inch, multiply by 0.434. hole with the pressure transducer at the
Another system uses a float to measure surface. Both the strain-gauge systems
the water column in the monitor wells. and the gas chamber system are capable of
The float is connected to a steel wire operating under high pressures. However,
upon which are crimped brass beads at these systems are very expensive and many
6-in intervals, to prevent line slippage. are available for rental only, and on a
The line wraps around a measuring wheel short-term basis.
and an idler pulley, and the wheel move- A second and more direct method of mon-
ment drives a depth recorder. On the itoring hydrostatic pressure involves
older mechanical recorders, the wheel casting a pipe into the bulkhead and in-
drove a pen directly, and a spring or stalling a pressure gauge or pressure
electric motor ran a time drive. The transducer. Pipes can be either plastic
spring drives can operate for up to 6 or metal, though metal pipes must be cor-
months without winding, and the chart pa- rosion resistant. Care must also be tak-
per comes in rolls good for up to 2 yr, en if plastic pipe is used to insure that
both depending upon drive speed. Newer the pipe will be able to withstand the
recorders have been especially designed maximum anticipated hydrostatic pressures
for telephone transfer of the data, and (this of course applies to all valves and
an add-on device is available to con- fittings). Pipes should be installed 6
vert the older mechanical recorders to to 12 in from the floor and 12 to 18 in
21
from the rib having the lowest elevation. types) and titanium. They can be made
The pipe should have a 1- to 2-in ID and with a number of thread types so that the
extend 2 to 3 ft from either side of the gauges can be screwed directly into a
bulkhead. Both ends of the pipe must be pipe cast into the bulkhead.
threaded to permit the installation of a The pressure gauges and pressure trans-
piezometer installed on the inby side of ducers must be chosen such that their
the bulkhead (water side) and a pressure range is greater than the maximum hydro-
gauge or pressure transducer and valve on static pressure that can develop behind
the outby side. The piezometer allows the bulkhead; they should be calibrated
water to pass into the pipe, but traps before installation. A valve should also
sediments that can clog the pressure be included in the line between the bulk-
gauge and affect readings. Piezometers head and any pressure transducer or gauge
can be handmade from a porous, fine- to allow their removal for replacement or
grained material such as sandstone, but a calibration. Usually the valve is kept
more preferable type is constructed from shut for direct reading gauges, except
porous polyethylene. This type is avail- when the gauges are being read. When
able commercially; it is lightweight and readings are made the valve should be
relatively inexpensive. 13 opened slowly to prevent shock damage to
It may often be desired to allow remote the gauge.
reading of pressures from behind the Finally, it may be necessary in some
bulkheads. Strain-gauge pressure trans- cases to have a warning system, should an
ducers for this use are readily avail- inundation occur by bulkhead or barrier
able. Unlike the case of the vertical pillar failure. One method of accom-
boreholes where the transducer (or trans- plishing this is to install remote read-
mitter) case and cable connector must ing water-level warning devices in the
withstand hydrostatic pressure and be areas of interest. A number of on-off
leakproof, the in-mine transducers need type sensors are available for this use.
only be intrinsically safe and be air- Most of these are float-level switches
tight to prevent dust entry. Many pres- and indicators. These devices come in a
sure transducers are especially made for wide variety of configurations and power
use in hazardous environments. ranges. Many of them are also designed
Two types of transducers are available. to actuate equipment, such as alarms,
Both may be obtained in the same sizes, pumps, or motors. The problem with these
and both require input voltages in the devices is that most have moving parts
range of 6 to 60 V dc. The first type that may be frozen by dust or corrosion.
has a constant current output, usually in Another device, which has no moving
the range of 16 to 20 rnA, and a fluctuat- parts, is the capacitive proximity sen-
ing voltage in the range of 0.5 to 5.0 V sor. These sensors are only suitable for
dc. The second type maintains a constant sensing, in a yes-no fashion, the pres-
voltage, and the output signal is a ence or absence of water, but they re-
changing current, usually varying between quire little power and have no moving
4 and 20 rnA. The first type allows data parts. Typical capacitive proximity sen-
transmission over a greater distance but sors operate on 10 to 12 V dc at currents
requires higher power, and the second of 5 to 20 rnA. They are not actuated by
type is more likely to be available in a moisture film on the sensor head and
intrinsically safe models. are not affected by moderate quantities
The cases of the pressure transducers of dust.
come in a variety of materials, the most To insure the safety of the mine and
common being stainless steel (several the workers, hydrostatic pressure must
not exceed the capacity of the bulk-
13 For more information regarding poly- head(s) or coal barrier(s). If dangerous
ethylene piezometers, see IIInstallation pressures are suspected, ways of reducing
of Piping" in appendix A. excessive pressure should be implemented.
22
This can be accomplished by pumping the the area behind the bulkhead into sumps
water out from the surface or draining in the active working areas.
DISCUSSION
The practice of constructing bulkheads conservative strength values for rock and
in underground coal mines for the purpose concrete in the design equations. It is
of impounding water will become increas- not an uncommon practice to increase re-
ingly important in future years. While quired bulkhead thickness by a factor of
most of the practical experience of de- 1.5 to 2, because a large safety factor
signing and constructing bulkheads has far outweighs most criteria in the theory
been in hard-rock mining, it can be con- of design.
cluded that no stringent guidelines or The success of any underground impound-
theoretical design criteria have been ment depends on the ability of the entire
widely accepted. Bulkhead design can dam structure, consisting of the bulk-
differ depending on the condition of the heads and barrier pillars, to withstand
surrounding rock and the anticipated hy- the anticipated hydrostatic pressure. In
drostatic pressure. Over-design is a some instances, the barrier pillars may
common practice. Bulkheads are usually form the weakest link in the impoundment
constructed sufficiently thick to resist and therefore, dictate the feasibility
the force of hydrostatic pressure and the and practical limits of potential inunda-
surrounding strata pressure grouted to tion. This is an important consideration
minimize water seepage. because with time the barrier pillar can
Little reference has been made in this be just as prone to failure as the bulk-
report to the safety factors associated head. The deterioration of coal barriers
with the designs discussed. Such safety and surrounding roof and floor strata by
factors are difficult to assess because water seepage can be minimized through
of the many variables that can affect pressure grouting.
bulkhead design. These include the maxi- Creating an underground water impound-
mum waterhead the bulkhead is designed ment also creates the potential for an
to withstand; the type of anchorage; the inundation hazard. Mine personnel must
strength and condition of the anchoring exercise sound engineering judgment in
strata; the existence of geologic anoma- design. To insure the safety of the
lies in the immediate area; the favorable workers and the mine, water levels should
aspects of pressure grouting; and the be monitored and controlled, ground move-
maximum pressure that the barrier pillars ments near the impoundment area stabi-
can safely withstand. However, accept- lized with supplemental supports, and the
able margins of safety can be made in- bulkheads and barrier pillars inspected
herent to these designs if one selects regularly.
23
REFERENCES
Inundation and the Effectiveness of Fed- 22. Kendorski, F. S., I. Khosla, and
eral Regulations. Pres. at Soc. Min. M. M. Singh. Criteria for Determining
Eng. AIME Annu. Meeting, Las Vegas, NV, When a Body of Surface Hater Constitutes
Feb. 1980. Soc. Min. Eng. AIME pre print a Hazard to Mining (contract J0285011,
80-88, 11 pp. Engineers International, Inc.). BuMines
OFR 45-81, 1979, 364 pp.; NTIS PB 81-
19. Ashley, G. H. Barrier Pillar Leg- 194938.
islation in Pennsylvania. Trans. AIME,
Feb. 1930, pp. 76-97. 23. Roark, R. J., H. C. Young. Formu-
las for Stress and Strain. McGraw-Hill,
20. Holland, C. T. Factors in the De- 5th ed., 1975, 624 pp.
sign of Barrier Pillars in Coal Mines.
Proc. WV Coal Min. Inst., 1964, pp. 109- 24. American Concrete Institute.
126. Building Code Requirements for Concrete
Masonry Structures (ACI 531-79) and Com-
21. Cummings, A. B., and I. A. Given. mentary - ACI 531R-79. Ch. 10. Allow-
SME Mining Engineering Handbook, ed. by able Stresses. 1978, pp. 55-58.
I. A. Given. AIME, v. 1, 1973, pp. 13-
105 to l3-107.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Frailey, D. Why, When and How to Seal Pugh, W. L. Water Problems at West
Abandoned Workings Rather Than Ventilate. Cannock No. 5 Colliery. Min. Eng. (Lon-
Trans. Nat. Safety Congr., v. 7, 1968, don), Feb. 1980, pp. 669-679.
pp. 21-22.
Skelly and Loy. Guidelines for Mining
Garcia, J. A. , and S. M. Cassidy. Near Water Bodies (contract H0252083).
Bulkheads for Coal Mines. AIME Tech. BuMines OFR 29-77, 1976, 107 pp.; NTIS PB
Pub. 789, 1937, 17 pp. 264-728/ AS.
BULKHEAD CONSTRUCTION
The general diagram of the bulkhead is trench and a level concrete footer ap-
shown in figure A-I. It was constructed proximately 4 in thick was poured. After
from 6- by 8- by 16-in solid concrete allowing the footer to set, construction
block and was located in a 6- by 18- by of the bulkhead began, as shown in figure
20-ft dead-end room of the Bureau's Safe- A-3.
ty Research Coal Mine, as shown in figure To facilitate the installation of an
A-2. The first task was to trench the air release, water inlet, and pressure
ribs and floor to provide anchorage for gauge, piping had to be built into
the bulkhead. The roof was not trenched the bulkhead. Special blocks were made
because this was considered too hazard- by drilling 1-1/4-in holes lengthwise
ous. Using an air-driven jack hammer and through the block and grouting a I-in
chisel, trenches were dug 16 in into each steel pipe into place, as shown in figure
rib and 22 in into the floor. Care was A-4. The blocks were then laid in their
taken during this operation so that the respective courses as the bulkhead was
strata were not unnecessarily cracked or constructed, as shown in figure A-3.
fractured. When the trenching was com- As the bulkhead approached roof level,
pleted, debris was removed from the floor gunite was sprayed in the cavity behind
Pilaster center
Transverse pattern
of laying block
(Not to scale)
F - Butt
c:=J
E-Butt
c:=J
o
0- Butt
C- Butt
DO
CJD
o 50 100
I
Scale, ft
FIGURE A2 . Location of bulkheod in Safety Research Coal Mine.
the bulkhead, approximately 1/2 in to 1 pilaster on both the inby and outby
in thick, to seal cracks in the roof, sides. Eighteen-inch mechanical roof
ribs, and floor and provide a watertight bolts were used in securing the angle
chamber. The bulkhead was then completed irons to the roof. The bulkhead cured
to roof level and sealed tight against for a week before gunite was sprayed, 1/2
the roof using 2- by 8- by 16-in solid in to 1 in thick, on the outby side. Af-
block and mortar. Roof anchorage was ter spraying, the bulkhead was allowed
provided by securing 4- by 4-in angle to cure for another week before testing
irons on either side of the bulkhead's began.
TEST AFPARATUS
Figure A-5 shows a diagram of the test 3. Standpipe - a clear plexiglass tube
area with the following apparatus: that indicates water level behind the
bulkhead.
1. Water pipe - inlet for water.
4. Pressure gauge - measures hydro-
2. Air release - allows air to escape static pressure behind bulkhead.
as the chamber is filled with water.
28
The test procedure consisted of incre- increment was maintained for approximate-
mentally building and then relieving hy- ly 10 min. Pressure was then dropped
drostatic pressure behind the bulkhead. back to zero and a new series of tests
This procedure simulated the actual in- started, as shown in table A-I.
mine practice of allowing hydrostatic The bulkhead was inspected after each
pressure to build to a maximum level, and series of tests. The decision to proceed
then relieving it by pumping or draining to the next test depended on several fac-
excess water behind the bulkhead. Ini- tors: (1) success of the previous test;
tial pressure was started at zero and (2) excessive water leakage or damage to
increased at 5-psi intervals. Each roof, ribs, or floor strata; (3) visible
29
Concrete block
IiIIIt -q F~::======~~:=~
!-in
steel pipe
Grout 024
I I
Scale, in
FIGURE A4 Cross section of lin pipe grouted into concrete block.
PRESSURE GROUTING
Pressure grouting was considered the the mixer-packer assembly. The grout was
most practical method of sealing the pumped continuously, under pressure, as
strata in the test area. The strategy it migrated into the strata. Injection
was to stop water permeation by forming pressures ranged from 500 to 700 psi.
a grout curtain around the water chamber When the grout emerged from the strata,
behind the bulkhead. In addition to as shown in figure A-8, the injection was
minimizing seepage, the grout would stopped, the hole abandoned, and a new
strengthen the ground by consolidating hole was drilled and injected. The in-
the fractured strata. The Bureau sought jection started with hole HI and pro-
a company with expertise in a proven ceeded in numerical order to hole H14
pressure grouting technique to do the Some roof sag was experienced when the
work. Representatives of Mobay Chemical grout was injected into the roof. To
Corp. were contacted; after consulta- provide additional support, four timbers
tion, the decision to inject their Roklok on 4-ft centers were installed across
B-4 waters top system into the fractured the entry, approximately 5 ft from the
strata was made. bulkhead. Extensometers, which detect
The B-4 system is a two-component poly- roof sag, were installed and monitored
urethane grout consisting of a polymetric
isocyanate (component A) and a polyol TOP VIEW
resin (component B), which are mixed and
injected into the strata. The mixture
has a low viscosity, which enables it to
flow freely into fine cracks and fis-
sures. As it migrates into the strata,
it encounters water and expands driving
H(\ /H 2
any remaining water out. The component
mixture solidifies in approximately 5
min.
The major concern was grout migration FRONT VIEW
to the blind face located behind the
bulkhead, because it was suspected that
most of the water was seeping through
this area. A drilling plan for injecting
the chemicals was developed. To reach Rib Rib
the blind face behind the bulkhead, two
holes over 50 ft long had to be drilled
from entries to the right and left of the
bulkhead. Other holes would be drilled
around the bulkhead to seal the ribs, H'2 Hole Depth, ft
roof, and floor, as shown in figure A-6. SECTION 4-4' H, 4
A total of 14 holes, varying in length H2 4
from 4 ft to 50 ft, were drilled and H3 15
H4 15
inj ected. H5 6
Injecting the grout was relatively sim- H6 10
ple. A hole was first drilled into the H7 6
He 10
strata and the packer-mixer assembly, H9 6
with an expansion shell, was inserted H,O 6
into the borehole and anchored tightly, HI! 6
as shown in figure A-7. This assem- H'2 6
H" 52
bly was then connected to the pumping 52
H'4
unit by high-pressure hoses. The two
components were pumped separately, then FIGURE A-6. - Drill plan for iniecting polyure-
mixed and injected into the strata via thane grout in strata surrounding the bulkhead.
31
I
'!
'I
I
1I
l
!
J
32
With the pressure grouting completed, initially showed signs of failure (40
testing resumed and followed the origi- psi) was considered the maximum pressure
nal plan of incrementally pressurizing the bulkhead could withstand.
the bulkhead (see table A-1). Tests 1 It should be noted that the hydrostatic
through 7 proceeded well; 35 psi (80 ft pressures were applied over a much short-
of waterhead) was reached with no signs er time than under actual mine condi-
of failure in the bulkhead or its anchor- tions. Infusing the strata with water
age. Water seepage from the surround- was considered dangerous to ground sta-
ing strata was minimal, showing that the bility, limiting the time duration of
grout adequately sealed the water chamber tests. The maximum pressure the bulkhead
behind the bulkhead. When 40 psi (92 ft withstood, 40 psi (92 ft of waterhead),
of waterhead) was reached during test 8, includes no factor of safety, and actual
the bulkhead began to show signs of fail- pressures should be kept well below this
ure. Water was leaking, although not limit because of this time factor. A
excessively, at roof level and also flexural strength analysis of this bulk-
through mortar joints located near the head, given in appendix B; includes the
base of the bulkhead. Testing proceeded maximum allowable stress a bulkhead of
to tests 9 and 10. With each pressure this type could safely withstand.
increase, water leakage through the roof Tests show that certain construction
and mortar joints became more severe. At and maintenance procedures should be fol-
50 psi (115 ft of waterhead) the bulkhead lowed when building this particular bulk-
and roof strata were leaking excessively. head, especially if it is to act as both
It Was at this point the bulkhead was an explosionproof and water seal. These
considered to have failed and testing was procedures are detailed in the next
stopped. Though testing continued to 50 section.
psi, the point at which the bulkhead
INSTALLATION OF PIPING
Pipes for monitoring water levels be- facilitate the installation of the
hind the bulkhead are recommended. The following: (1) A pressure gauge and
pipes can be either plastic or metal. If stand pipe, installed on the outby side
metal, they should be corrosion resist- of the bulkhead; (2) a porous tube which
ant. Installation of pipes, by grout- traps sediment, but allows water to pass
ing them into the concrete block, is dis- through, installed on the inby side.
cussed earlier in this report. Figure A-9 shows this arrangement in
Pipes should be installed 6 to 12 detail.
in from the floor and 12 to 18 in from The pressure gauge measures hydrostatic
the rib that has the lower elevation. pressure on the bulkhead and should be
The pipe should be at least 7 to 10 ft able to register at least 50 psi. The
in length with a 1- to 2-in ID. Both standing pipe indicates the exact water-
ends of the pipe must be threaded to head behind the bulkhead in a direct
height-to-height relationship. It can be
constructed from any clear plastic tube,
such as plexiglass. It should be in-
stalled vertically to roof level with a
valve, capable of withstanding a static
pressure greater than 50 psi, separating
the pressure gauge from the standing
Porous
polyethylene pipe.
The porous tube used in tests was made
of polyethylene and acquired from Piezom-
eter Research and Development Corp. Fig-
ure A-I0 shows this tube installed on the
inby side of the bulkhead. The tube al-
lows water to pass without affecting
pressure readings, and traps sediments
Valves that may clog the standing pipe and pres-
Standpipe sure gauge.
The valve that separates the standing
pipe from the pressure gauge should re-
main closed until use. To determine the
waterhead behind the bulkhead, open the
Not to scale
valve and measure the height of the water
in the standing pipe. If the water over-
flows from the standing pipe, the water
behind the bulkhead has reached at least
roof level. If this is the case, close
I}-----P,ressure gauge the valve so that the waterhead can be
determined from the pressure gauge. Read
the gauge, then divide the reading by
FIGURE A-9. - Diagram of standpipe, pressure 0.434 to determine the water head behind
gauge, and porous tube arrangement. the bulkhead.
35
c:
o
-c
"
o
iii
c:
Vl
"
o
o
0-
(l)
c:
(l)
>-
~
'"
>-
o
0...
36
F t = @pb
T2
2
"'-.6
~;f:~
I.: ~Fixed KEY
H= Water head
where ~ = 0.80; .4