Mclterials and Structures Mat&'iaux et Constructions, 1991.

24, 15-23

Effect of stresses on the ultrasonic pulse velocity in

concrete*
S A N D O R P O P O V I C S , J O H N S. P O P O V I C S
Department of Civil Engineermg, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA

Since the stress-strain curve of a concrete is not linear, at least under the first loading, one would
expect that the presence of stresses would reduce the velocity of ultrasonic pulses in the concrete.
The experimental in vestigation of this expectation is the topic of this paper. Mature concrete
cylinders of different compositions were subjected to various types of compression loading
(gradually increasing load, repeated loading, etc.), and pulse velocities were measured in
various manners (with different frequencies and various paths) both in the loaded and
unloaded states. The experimental results clearly indicate that the pulse velocity in concrete is
independent of the stress level to a surprisingly large extent, that is, up to about 70% of the
compressive strength. This means, in practical terms, that stresses prevailing in the concrete of a
structure do not have to be taken into account when pulse velocity data are used for the
evaluation of the quality of concrete.

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
Since the stress-strain curve of a concrete is not linear,
the numerical value of its apparent modulus of elasticity
depends on the stress level at which it is measured,
especially during the initial loading of the concrete [1].
T o put it another way, the higher the magnitude of stress
in a concrete, the lower its apparent modulus of
elasticity. One would expect, therefore, that the pre-
sence of stresses in the concrete would also reduce the
ultrasonic pulse velocity in it, at least under initial
loading. Indeed, pulse velocity measurements in non-
linearly elastic materials fulfill this expectation even
when the non-linearity is as small as in mild steels [2].
Since we could not find detailed, quantitative informa-
tion in the literature concerning this phenomenon in
concrete, we undertook a limited laboratory experiment
to see the extent of the effect of various types of applied
stresses on the pulse velocity. An additional factor in this
decision was the well established fact that microcracks
start propagating in the concrete at stresses as low as
about 25% of the ultimate load [3-5], and this may also
reduce the pulse velocity.
1.1 Significance of the research
Since concrete in a structure is usually under stresses, it
seems important to establish whether these stresses
influence the measured pulse velocity. If they do, and
this influence is significant, then it should be taken into
account when interpreting ultrasonic pulse velocity data
in concrete for compressive strength estimation or other
purposes [6].
*A portion of this paper was presented in the Research in Progress
session at the Annual Convention of ACI, Atlanta, Georgia, February
1989.
2. TEST SET-UP
The through-transmission pulse velocities in concrete
were measured with a commercially available meter and
sets of associated transducer pairs. The tested concrete
specimens were 4 in. x 8 in (100 m m x 200 mm) cylin-
ders prepared in the standard manner. The cylinders
were kept in the mould for the first 24 h, then in the fog
room at 73~ for 13 more days after which they were
kept in air until testing. All specimens were older than 28
days when tested. The compositions of the specimens
were varied to include pastes, mortars and concretes
(Table 1). The stresses were induced by a uniaxial
compressive machine in the standard manner. Several
different loading and measuring methods were applied,
as described below.
3. RESULTS
3.1 Effect of gradually increasing load
In this test series, the pulse velocity was measured in the
lateral, that is in the 4in. (10ram) direction in an
unloaded and previously untested specimen. A small
load was then applied in the longitudinal direction of the
specimen, the loading was stopped, and the pulse
velocity was measured again. The load was then in-
creased, the loading stopped, and another pulse velocity
m e a s u r e m e n t was taken. This process was continued
until specimen failure. The expectation was that a
gradual decrease in pulse velocity would be observed
with increasing load because of the inherent non-
linearity in the stress-strain diagram of concrete and the
dependence of the pulse velocity on the modulus of
elasticity,
Fig. 1 shows a typical result of such testing of concrete,

0025-5432/91 9 RILEM
 16 Popovics and Popovics

Table 1 Specimen descriptions*

Specimen Type w/c ratio Mix proportions, Density Compressive Pulse velocity
No. (wt/wt) c:FA:CA* (kg m-3) * strength (MPa) ~ (m see-l) '~

1 Cement paste 0.3 1:0:0 2092 54.6 4016

2 Cement paste 0.3 1:0:0 2092 65.9 4216
3 Cement paste 0.4 1:0:0 1954 48.0 3708
4 Cement paste 0.4 1:0:0 1927 36.5 3658
5 Mortar 0.4 1:1:0 2203 61.8 4166
6 Mortar 0.4 1:1:0 2203 65.9 3970
7 Coarse concrete 0.4 1:0:1 2313 47.7 4747
8 Coarse concrete 0.4 1:0:1 2230 50.0 4270
9 Concrete 0.5 1:0.5:0.5 2424 46.6 4597
10 Concrete 0.5 1:0.5:0.5 2395 48.9 4455
11 Concrete 0.6 1:0.5:0.5 2424 41.2 4648
12 Concrete 0.6 1:0.5:0.5 2395 48.0 4399
13 Concrete 0.65 1:0.5:0.5 2368 40.2 4288
14 Concrete 0.65 1:0.5:0.5 2395 38.4 4394

*(i) All specimens were standard 4 in. 8 in. (100 mm x 200 mm) cylinders.
*Type I cement (c) was used for all specimens. A typical concrete sand was used as fine aggregate (FA). Crushed stone with 1 in.
(25 mm) maximum particle size was used as coarse aggregate (CA).
'1 lb/cu, ft = 16.02kgm -3.
'~i psi = 0.0069 MPa.
~Pulse velocity was measured in the lateral direction (4 in./100 mm) with a frequency of 120 kHz. 1 in/p.sec = 25 400 m s -1.

0.20

0.19

0.18
g

0.17

0.16

0.15

0.14 I

2000 4000 6000 8000

Stress (psi}

Fig. 1 Typical compressive stress against lateral pulse velocity relationship for a concrete. The frequency is 54 kHz. The broken
line represents the conceived relationship, the continuous line is a computer approximation. 1 psi = 6.90 kPa; 1 in/
~sec = 25 400 m s-1.

It can be seen that the expectation was not fulfilled. A t
small stresses, up to about 25% of the compressive
strength, there is a slight increase in the lateral pulse
velocity. As the stress increases, the pulse velocity
remains practically constant until about 70% of the
ultimate stress, where there is a sudden decrease in
velocity. In other words, the pulse velocity is, to a large
extent, non-responsive to existing initial load stresses.
This trend is shown in Fig. 1 by b r o k e n straight lines.
T h e fitted p a r a b o l a r e p r e s e n t e d by the continuous line in
the same figure is nothing m o r e than the c o m p u t e r ' s way
to indicate this trend. The s a m e trend is d e m o n s t r a t e d
for a variety of specimens in Fig. 2. Note that this trend
in the m o r t a r and paste specimens is less conspicuous
than in the concrete specimens.
A different representation of the same data is shown
 Materials and Structures 17

0.20

0.19

0.18

oa

0.17

X
> X X
0.16

o_

0.15

0.14
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 I0000
Stress (psi)

Fig. 2 Compressive stress against lateral pulse velocity relationships for different specimens (see Table 1). The frequency is 54
kHz. Paste specimens: (El) No. 2, ( 0 ) No. 3. Mortar: ( No. 5. Concrete: ( ~ ) No. 7, (m) No. 9, (El) No. l 1, (A) No, 14.1
psi = 6.90 kPa; I in//~sec = 25 400 m s- 1.

0.19 0 9 9
" h.~Q 9
[]

~-~ 0.17 9

-~ o.16 .y x x n ~

0.15

0.14 I I I I I

0 20 40 60 80 i00
Re[. stress (~ of ultimate strength)

Fig. 3 Relative compressive stress against lateral pulse relationships for different specimens (see Table 1). The compressive
strength is taken as 100%. The frequency is 54 kHz. Paste specimens: (in) No. 2, ( 0 ) No. 3, Mortar: ( No. 5. Concrete: ( ~ ) No.
7, ( I ) No. 9, (UI) No. 11, (A) No. 14. i in//~sec = 25 400 m s- i.
 18
in Fig. 3. Here, the pulse velocity is plotted against the
stress in percentage relative to the compressive strength.
The generally non-responsive behaviour of pulse
velocity to applied initial stresses is evident in all
specimens, contrary to the expectation. In order to
investigate this phenomenon more fully, further tests
were performed.
3.2 Effect of repetitive loading
The pulse velocity was measured in the lateral direction
in the specimen before loading as before. The specimen
was then loaded to 33% of its estimated ultimate
compressive strength. The loading was stopped, kept at
that level, and the lateral pulse velocity was measured
again. The load was then released, and the velocity was
measured. The specimen was then loaded again to 33%
of ultimate strength, the loading stopped, and the
velocity was measured. The process continued in this
cyclic fashion was termed 'repetitive loading'. The
expectation was that the pulse velocity would initially
decrease with the onset of the first load but then level out
and decrease only slightly, if at all, upon the repeated
removal and reapplication of equal loads. The slight
decrease would be expected because of additional
microcrack propagation caused by load repetition.
Typical results for a concrete specimen, shown in Fig.
4, reveal a behaviour comparable to that of the con-
tinuously loaded specimens; that is, a slight increase in
pulse velocity is noted after the initial load but then
remains constant at this increased velocity value.
Moreover, this behaviour is observed in both the loaded
and unloaded state upon the further action of the
repetitive loads. Further tests on a variety of concretes
showed the same behaviour.
0.19
0.18
~a
:i 0.17
"7 0 16
O
>
m 0.15
0.14 9 , 9 , , 9 , 9
0 33 0 33 0 33 0 33 0 33
[~el. stress (% of ultimate strength)
Fig. 4 Typical effect of the repetition of low level compressive loading on lateral pulse velocity in concrete. The frequency is
54 kHz. I in//xsec = 25 400 m s- ~.
Popovics and P o p o v i c s
This test was also performed on paste specimens. A
typical response is shown in Fig. 5. Note that the
response to repeated loading is more uniform in pastes,
but again there does not seem to be any obvious trend
other than minor random changes.
In other words, the observed behaviour of pulse
velocity in concrete under a repeated small load is not
exactly as was expected. In fact, the behaviour under
small repetitive loads was similar to that of continuous
loading. To see the effect of higher stresses, further
experiments were performed.
3.3 Effect of incremental loading
The pulse velocity was measured prior to loading in the
lateral direction in a previously untested specimen, as
before. It was then loaded to a certain level. The loading
was stopped, kept at that level, and the pulse velocity
was measured again. Then load was then released and
the velocity was measured. The specimen was then
loaded again to a higher level, the loading stopped, and
the velocity was measured. The load then was released
and the pulse velocity was measured. The process was
continued in this cyclic fashion, that is with increasing
repetitive loading, until the failure of the specimen. The
expectation was that the pulse velocity would gradually
decrease with increasing loads, due to increased micro-
crack propagation, as described before. In addition, we
expected that the pulse velocity in the just-unloaded
state would be noticeably higher than that of the
previously loaded state because of the closing of some of
the microcracks with unloading.
Results for a concrete specimen are presented in Fig.
6. These again show an increase in pulse velocity after
the first loading. After that, the velocities remain
0
Materials and Structures 19

0.19

0.18

=t

._.q 0 . 1 7

5
o
0.16

2 0.15

0.14
0 33 0 33 0 33 0 33 0 33 0
Rel. stress (% of ultimote strength}

Fig. 5 Typical effect of the repetition of low-level compressive loading on lateral pulse velocity in hardened cement paste. The
frequency is 54 kHz. 1 in//xsec = 25 400 m s -t.

0.19

0.18

-a

>, 0 . 1 7
"G
o

>

0.16

i
0.15
0 21.3 0 28.4 0 42.6 0 62.9 o
i~el. stress l%ofultimete strength}

Fig. 6 Typical effect of incremental compressive loading on lateral pulse velocity in concrete. The frequency is 54 kHz.
1 in//zsec = 25 400 m s -~.

practically constant at this increased level, especially in
the unloaded state. Other tests on different concretes
showed the same behaviour.
The ultrasonic pulse velocity response to incremental
loading in a paste specimen is shown in Fig. 7. Again, the
response of the paste specimen is less conspicuous.
However, the non-responsiveness of the specimen is still
evident until very high loads are achieved, as observed
before.
Although these results show a partial agreement with
the expectations, further experiments were performed
in an attempt to clarify the nature of pulse propagation
in concrete.
3.4 Frequency response to loading
The pulse velocity was measured in the lateral direction
in the specimen before loading, as before, with
two different frequencies, namely 54 and 120kHz.
The specimen was then gradually loaded, and the
loading stopped at various load levels while pulse
velocities were measured. The results for concrete can
be seen in Fig. 8. The velocity of the 54 kHz pulses is
regularly higher. This confirms an earlier finding that the
pulse velocity in concrete is a function of the frequency
used; that is, concrete is a dispersive material [7].
Nevertheless, the same non-responsiveness, i.e. little
change in pulse velocity under applied stress, is evident
for each frequency.
The test was also performed on paste specimens.
Typical results are also shown in Fig. 8. Note again the
non-responsiveness of pulse velocity under load for both
frequencies, although the differences of readings be-
tween the frequencies are much less for these specimens.
Next the frequency response to repetitive loading was
checked. The repetitive loading procedure was dupli-
 20 Popovics and Popovics

0.19

0.18
"g
v~
=i

>~ 0 . 1 7
"u
o

~= 0 . 1 6

0.15
0 28.6 0 37.7 0 56.5 0 75.4 0
Rel. stress {% 0f ultimate strength)

Fig. 7 Typical effect of incremental compressive loading on lateral pulse velocity in hardened cement paste. The frequency is
54 kHz. lin//zsec = 25 400 m s -1.

0.20

0.19
@ @

0.18

@
-50.17
o

~_ 0.16

0.15 v

0.14 I | l I I

0 2000 4000 6000 8000

Stress {psi )

Fig. 8 Compressive stress against lateral pulse velocity relationships at two frequencies: ( 0 , @) 54 kHz; (D, D) 120 kHz.
1 in//xsec = 25 400 m s-l; 1 psi = 6.90 kPa.

cated with the difference that pulse velocity readings
with two frequencies, namely 54 and 120 kHz, were
performed. The results for a typical concrete specimen
are shown in Fig. 9. Again, the velocity of 54 kHz
pulses is regularly higher. Also, constant pulse-velocity
behaviour is seen under repetitive stress for either
frequency. The same procedure was repeated for paste
specimens. Again, only constant pulse-velocity be-
haviour was evident.
3.5 Rotational measurements
Since the non-responsiveness of ultrasonic pulse velocity
to stresses in concrete seems genuine, the question came
up, in an attempt to find an explanation for this
unexpected behaviour, whether the internal crack
propagation caused by stresses in the concrete has
something to do with it. A f t e r all, cracks propagate
under stresses in a random m a n n e r , with new cracks
M a t e r i a l s and Structures 21

0.19

-6
0.18
--I

'CJ 0 . 1 7
o

>

-5
0.16

0.15
0 33 0 33 0 33 0 33 0 33 0
Rel. stress (% of ultimate strength)

Fig. 9 Effect of the repetition of low-level compressive loading on lateral pulse velocity in concrete (specimen No. 11) at two
frequencies: solid bars 54 kHz, shaded bars 120 kHz. 1 in//xsec = 25 400 m s- L.

0.21

0.20

0.19

1.94 % 1.90 % 13I % 2.07 % 1.41% ~ C.V values

=L 0 . 1 8
c (_I_] ave.

0.17
o~
>

0.16 #9 mid 60 ~
# 9 m i d 120 ~
0.15 # 9 mid 180 ~

0.14
0 33 0 50 0
Rel. stress (%0fultimote strength)

Fig. 10 Effect of the direction of velocity measurement on lateral pulse velocity in concrete (specimen No. 9) under incremental
compressive load. The frequency is 54 kHz. 1 in/p.sec = 25 400 m s -1.

opening up while others close. Thus, it is conceivable
that they also influence the pulse velocity randomly
along a given path in concrete, overwhelming the effect
of the decreasing modulus of elasticity.
The approach to find an answer to this question was
experimental, as follows: instead of measuring the pulse
velocity after each loading or unloading in the same pair
of spots on the specimen, i.e. along the same path,
measurements were made along several different paths,
and the obtained velocities were averaged. Thus, the
effect of stresses on the pulse velocity should emerge
more clearly from these results since the averaging
eliminates the random effect of the crack propagation.
M o r e specifically, the initial lateral pulse velocity of
an unloaded specimen was measured at a specific pair of
points. The transducer pair was then rotated 60 ~ and
m e a s u r e m e n t was taken. The transducers were rotated
another 60 ~ and measurement was taken again. Finally,
the transducers were rotated another 60 ~ which gave the
original sound-path, and the pulse velocity was mea-
sured. These readings are referred to as rotational
measurements. The four velocities obtained were aver-
aged to represent the pulse velocity related to the initial
condition.
Subsequently, the specimen was loaded to about 33%
of the estimated compressive strength, the loading was
22
stopped, and the rotational measurements repeated.
The load was then released and the rotational measure-
ments were again conducted. The specimen was then
reloaded to about 50% of the compressive strength and
the rotational measurement of the pulse velocity was
repeated as earlier. Since the rotational readings were
supposed to negate the effect of the random openings
and closings of microcracks, a gradual decrease in the
average pulse velocity with increasing loading was
expected as well as higher pulse velocities upon un-
loading.
The results for a typical concrete specimen are shown
in Fig. 10. In order to help evaluate the results, the
coefficient of variation and average for the rotational
readings of each loading state are included in the figure.
Since these coefficients of variation of rotational
measurements are greater than the random error of
measurements of our pulse meter, one can say that the
pulse velocity is direction-sensitive in concrete.
It can be seen that the average velocities for each
loading state show no decreasing pattern, only fairly
constant velocities. In addition, there is practically no
difference between loaded and unloaded states despite
the rotation. Other concrete specimens showed the
same pattern. The response of the paste specimen was
more uniform and less direction-sensitive than that of
the concrete specimens. However, no specimen display-
ed a regular pattern of behaviour concerning the effect
of the applied stress on the averaged pulse velocity.
Therefore, all the evidence presented suggests that
the randomness of crack propagation in concrete under
load is not a factor in the non-responsiveness of pulse
velocity to stresses in concrete.
4. A HYPOTHESIS FOR NON-RESPONSIVENESS
A hypothetical explanation for this non-responsiveness
is described below.
The pulse velocity of the concrete increases during the
early phase of loading, say up to 30% of the compressive
strength, because the energy resulting from the applied
compressive stress consolidates the specimen and in-
creases its density. Past this level of loading, the
concrete specimen does not consolidate further because
the energy is used for the creation and propagation of
microcracks. These microcracks reduce the apparent
modulus of elasticity of the concrete, and thus they
ought to reduce the pulse velocity as well. Nevertheless,
they do not do so because the widths of these micro-
cracks are so small relative to the wavelength of the
ultrasound used that the pulses cannot 'see' them, so the
pulse velocity is not influenced directly by them. Conse-
quently the velocity remains constant across a wide
Popovics and P o p o v i c s
range of stress, up to about 70% of the ultimate load.
Beyond this point of loading, the pulse velocity reduces
drastically because the cracking becomes much more
severe.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The pulse velocity seems to increase slightly in gradually
loaded concrete specimens at low stresses, and then with
further stress increases it remains constant up to about
70% of the compressive strength. After this it decreases
rapidly. That is, the pulse velocity is independent of the
stress level in the concrete to a surprisingly large extent,
despite the well-established reduction of the apparent
modulus of elasticity with increasing stress, especially
during first loading. This means, in practical terms, that
stresses prevailing in the concrete of a structure do not
have to be taken into account when pulse velocity data
are used for the evaluation of the quality of concrete.
A hypothetical explanation for this unexpected non-
responsiveness of pulse velocity in concrete is the
following: the microcracks developing in the concrete
during the loading do reduce the apparent modulus of
elasticity of the concrete, but cannot influence the pulse
velocity directly because they are too narrow for the
pulses used to produce any effect.
The conspicuous differences betwen the behaviour of
ultrasonic pulses in concrete and that in hardened paste
confirm again the major role of the aggregate in
controlling pulse behaviour.
REFERENCES
I. Popovics, S., 'A numerical approach to the complete
stress-strain curve of concrete', Cement Concr. Res. 3
(5) (1973) 583-599.
2. Szilard, J. and Haynes, R., 'Ultrasonic detection of hyd-
rogen embrittlement in free-cutting mild steel', Br. J.
N D T 2 2 (3) (1980) 128-136.
3. Brandtzaeg, A., 'Failure of a material composed of non-
isotropic elements', Det Kgl. Norske Videnskabers
Selskabs Skrifter (Trondjem) Nr. 3 (1927).
4. Hsu, T. T. C., Slate, F. O., Sturman, G. M. and Winter, G.
'Microcracking of plain concrete and the shape of the
stress-strain curve', A C I J . Proc. 60 (2) (1963) 209-224.
5. Popovics, S., 'The fracture mechanism of concrete: how
much do we know', J. Engng Mech. Div., Proc. A S C E
EM3 (1969) 531-544.
6. Idem, 'Present state of the determination of concrete
strength by pulse velocity in America, ll Cemento,
Anno 83~ (July-September 1986) 117-128.
7. Popovics, S. and Popovics, J., 'The behavior of ultrasonic
pulses in concrete', Cement Concr. Res. 2 (2) (1990)
259-270.
Materials and Structures 23

RESUMI~ ment rdp~t( etc.) et on a mesurd les vitesses d'impulsion de

diff&entes manibres (frgquences diff&entes et trac&
Influence des contraintes sur la vitesse de transmission varids) d la lois en ~tat de chargement et de d~charge-
des ultrasons dans le b~ton ment. Les r&ultats exp&imentaux montrent clairement
que la vitesse d'impulsion dans le b~ton est ind~pendante
Etant donn6 que la courbe contrainte/ddformation d'un
du niveau de contrainte d u n degrd (tonnamment impor-
b6ton n'est pas lin6aire, tout au moins lors du premier
tant, soit jusqu'a environ 70% de la r~sistance fi la
chargement, on pourrait s'attendre dce que la prdsence de
compression, ce qui signifie dans la pratique qu'il n'y a
contraintes r6duise la vitesse des ultrasons clans le b6ton.
pas lieu de tenir compte des contraintes exerc&s dans une
Cet article ddcrit une dtude exp6rimentale de cette
structure en b6ton quand on se sert de l'auscultation
supposition. On a soumis des cylindres de b6ton durci de
dynamique pour ~valuer la qualitd du b(ton.
compositions diverses ~ diff&ents types de chargement en
compression (charge en augmentation croissante, charge-