Circulatory System:

Circulatory system is the organ system responsible for the bodys internal transport.
The circulatory system is an organ system responsible for transporting blood, nutrients,
gases and other molecules throughout the body.
There are two forms of circulatory system in animals:
1. Open circulatory system
Open circulatory system is a type of circulatory system where its circulating fluid
(hemolymph) bathes the cells directly. E.g., Arthropods and most mollusks
2. Closed circulatory system
Closed circulatory system is a type of circulatory system where blood circulates
within closed blood vessels throughout the body.
- Examples of animals with a closed circulatory system are annelids, vertebrates
and some mollusks (e.g. octopus and squid).
There are two types of closed circulatory system:
a. Single Circulatory System
In single circulatory system, blood passes through the
heart only once on each circuit around the whole of the
blood circulation of the animal. For instance, fishes have
single circulatory systems.
b. Closed Circulatory System

In double circulatory system, blood passes through the

heart twice during one complete circuit around the
blood system through the body of the animal.

- In a double circulatory system, there are two circuits for blood passing through the
heart:

a. Pulmonary Circulation:

In pulmonary circulation, blood with carbon dioxide

(deoxygenated blood) is pumped from the heart to
the lungs while blood with oxygen (oxygenated
blood) returns to the heart from the lungs.

b. Systemic Circulation:

In systemic circulation, blood with oxygen

(oxygenated blood) is pumped from the left side of the heart to all body parts
while blood with carbon dioxide returns back to the right side of the heart.

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Functions of the Blood:
- The main functions of the blood are including:
1. Transport of nutrients from the small intestine
- Blood capillaries in the villi of the small intestine transport
nutrients such as; glucose, amino acids, micro-nutrients
(vitamins and minerals) to body cells, EXCEPT fatty acids.
- Fatty acids are transported by the lymph vessels (lacteals).
2. Transport of oxygen from the alveolus of the lungs and carbon
dioxide back to the lungs.
3. Transport of hormones
4. Maintenance of body temperature
5. Control of Blood pH number
- The normal pH of blood must remain in the range of 7.35 to 7.45; otherwise it
begins to damage cells.
- Blood helps regulate pH through the use of buffers (chemicals that convert
strong acids or bases into weak ones).
6. Defense against microorganisms that causes disease through the process of
antibody production and phagocytosis.
7. Transport of nitrogenous waste product Urea:

Physical Characteristics of Blood:

a. Blood is denser and more viscous (thicker) than water and feels slightly
sticky.
b. The temperature of the blood is 380C (100.40F)
c. Blood has a slightly alkaline pH ranging from 7.35 to 7.45
d. The color of blood varies with its oxygen content. When saturated with
oxygen, it is bright red. When unsaturated with oxygen, it is dark red.

Blood Composition:
- Blood is a fluid connective tissue that consists of cells surrounded by liquid
extracellular matrix called plasma.
- The blood volume is 5 to 6 liters (1.5 gal) in an average-sized adult male and 4 to
5 liters (1.2 gal) in an average-sized adult female.
- Blood makes up about 8% of the human body weight.
- Blood contains two main components:
a. Plasma and
b. Blood cells.

Plasma forms 55% of the blood while blood cells make up 45% of the blood.

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Blood Plasma:
- Plasma is a straw-colored fluid in the blood.
- It is the liquid portion of the blood, mainly water.
- Blood plasma is known as extracellular fluid in which various cells and cell
fragments are suspended in it.

- Plasma contains:
a. About 90% of water with a large substance dissolved in it.
b. About 10% dissolved substances:
i. Electrolytes, e.g. Sodium ions, Potassium ions, Calcium ions,
Chloride.
ii. Organic nutrients used for ATP production, growth and maintenance
of cells; including, lipids (fatty acids and glycerides), carbohydrates
(mainly glucose) and amino acids.
iii. Excretory products, urea
iv. Gasses, e.g. oxygen and carbon dioxide.
v. Plasma Proteins; Albumins, Globulins and Fibrinogen
vi. Regulatory Proteins such as, enzymes and hormones.

Blood Cells:

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 - Blood cells are suspended in the liquid portion of the blood, known as blood
plasma.
- The process by which the blood cells of the blood develop is called
Hemopoiesis. During this process, Myeloid stem cells form RBCs, platelets,
granulocytes, and monocytes; while Lymphoid stem cells give rise to
lymphocytes.

- Before birth, Hemopoiesis

first occurs in the yolk sac of an
embryo and later in the liver, spleen of a fetus.
- Red bone marrow becomes the primary site of Hemopoiesis in the last 3
months before birth, and continues as the source of blood cells after birth and
throughout life.
There are three main types of blood cells:
1. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
2. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) and
3. Platelets (Thrombocytes)

Blood cells make up 45% of the blood volume.

Red blood cells account for 41% of the blood volume while white blood cells and
platelets make up the remaining 4% of the blood volume.

Red Blood Cells:

Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes.
Red blood cells are made in the red bone marrow. The process of red
blood cell formation in the red bone marrow is called Erythropoiesis.
A healthy adult male has about 5.4 million red blood cells per microliter
of blood, and a healthy adult female has about 4.8 million.
Red blood cells are also biconcave disk; this shape increases their surface area
for the diffusion of oxygen across their surfaces.

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 Mature red blood cells lack:
a Nucleus and
b Other cellular organelles.
Red blood cells take up oxygen in the lungs and
release it into the tissues.
The cytoplasm of erythrocytes is rich in an
oxygen-carrying protein called Hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin is an iron containing globular protein,
which is the pigment that gives whole blood its red
color.
Hemoglobin helps erythrocytes to carry oxygen.
Each RBC contains about 280 million hemoglobin molecules
Blood rich with oxygen is called oxygenated blood, while blood with poor
oxygen is known as deoxygenated blood.
Red blood cells live only about 120 days because of the wear and tear of their
plasma membranes as they squeeze through blood capillaries and through the
narrow channels in the spleen.
Erythropoietin Production:
The human kidneys monitor the level of oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.
o Hypoxia is a cellular oxygen deficiency, which occurs when the level of
oxygen carrying capacity of the blood become inadequate.
o A decrease of red blood cells in the blood or quantity of hemoglobin
results in anemia.
o Anemia is the condition characterized by the inadequate oxygen carrying
capacity of the blood which is caused by the reduction of red blood cells or
decrease in hemoglobin quantity in the red blood cells.
o For the correction of cellular oxygen deficiency, hypoxia stimulates the
cells of the kidneys as they release a hormone called erythropoietin into the
blood stream to the red bone marrow where it stimulates the process of
erythropoiesis in the red bone marrow.

Erythropoietin has two major effects:

1 It stimulates increased cell division rates in the stem cells that produce
erythrocytes, and
2 It speeds up the maturation of RBCs, mainly by accelerating the rate of
hemoglobin synthesis.

Characteristics of Red Blood Cells (Adaptations of RBCs to carry oxygen):

1 Red blood cells are small flexible and biconcave disk
2 Red blood cells have no nucleus

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 3 Red blood cells have no internal organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi bodies
and endoplasmic reticulum
4 Red blood cells have thin and elastic plasma membrane
5 Red blood cells contain a globular protein called hemoglobin

White Blood Cells (WBCs):

White blood cells (WBCs), also called Leukocytes, are the cells of the immune
system that are involved in defending the body against microorganisms that
cause disease.
White blood cells are made in the red bone marrow and in some lymphoid
organs.
White blood cells leave the red bone marrow, where they reside and mature in
some lymphoid organs.
o White blood cells have nucleus.
o White blood cells are mostly larger than red blood cells.
o White blood cells are spherical and irregular in shape.
There are five main types of white blood cells:
1. Neutrophils (50%-60% of all WBCs)
2. Basophils (0.5%-2% of all WBCs)
3. Eosinophils (1%-4% of all WBCs)
4. Monocytes (2%-9% of all WBCs) and
5. Lymphocytes (20%-40% of all WBCs)
There are two basic types of white blood cells:
1. The granulocytes (they have granular
cytoplasm and lobed nuclei); Neutrophils,
Eosinophils, Basophils. And
2. Agranulocytes (the cytoplasm appears
smooth and the nucleus is either rounded or bean shaped); Lymphocytes and
Monocytes.

Functionally, WBCs are also divided into two main types:

1. Phagocytes and
2. Lymphocytes

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 Phagocytes (e.g., Macrophages and Neutrophils);
- They engulf and digest engulf and digest foreign materials in the body through
the process of phagocytosis, as they are able to migrate between cells of the
capillary walls by engulfing and destroying invading microorganisms.
- They also remove worn out and damaged body cells.

Lymphocytes (Immunocytes):
- Lymphocytes are smaller than phagocytes.
- They have large rounded nucleus.
- Lymphocytes are responsible for immunity. They produce antibodies
to fight bacteria and foreign materials.
- The process of antibody formation is called the immune response
and the protection offered by antibodies is called immunity.

Platelets:
Platelets are also called Thrombocytes.
Platelets are irregularly shaped fragments of cells that circulate in the blood until
they are either activated to form a blood clot or removed from the circulation to

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 the spleen for destruction after completion of their life span, (Platelets have a life
span of about 7 to 9 days).
As with all the cells in the blood, platelets originate from stem cells in the bone
marrow.
Platelets are non nucleated and colorless cells.
Each cubic millimeter of blood contains 300,000 to 40,000 platelets.

Functions of the Platelets:

1. Platelets prevent blood loss by forming a temporary plug to the walls of damaged
vessels.
2. Platelets release chemicals which initiate the process of blood clotting so as to
form a plug in the wall of the damaged vessels
3. Platelets prevent the entry of pathogens into the wound.

Mechanisms of Blood Clot Formation:

Step 1: The Release of Thromboplastin and Serotonin:

During injured blood vessels, platelets release two chemical substances;
thromboplastin and serotonin.
(Serotonin is a substance released by platelets which causes the smooth muscles of the
arteries to contract so as to reduce the blood flow to the wound)
Step 2: Activation of Prothrombin to Thrombin:
Prothrombin is a protein that is synthesized by the liver in the presence of vitamin K.
Thromboplastin causes the activation of clotting factors in the presence of calcium ions
and vitamin K, and converts the Prothrombin into an enzyme called thrombin.
Step 3: Conversion of Fibrinogen to Fibrin:
Fibrinogen is a soluble protein found in the plasma.
Thrombin converts the inactive clotting factor fibrinogen into its active form of
insoluble fibrin fibers.
Fibrin fibers form a network across the wound, which traps blood cells forming a blood
clot.
A Clot is a network of threadlike protein fibers called fibrin that traps blood cells
through a complex series of enzymes controlled reactions.
Clotting prevents further loss of blood and entry of pathogens.
Hemophilia is an inherited disease of the blood clotting system, in which blood takes an
abnormally long time to clot. It leads to uncontrolled bleeding even from slight injuries.
Note:
- Blood removed from an individual can be prevented from clotting by the
addition of substances which binds calcium ions, e.g. potassium citrate or by
centrifuging to remove fibrinogen forming serum.

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 - In blood, the serum is the component that is neither a blood cell (serum does
not contain white or red blood cells) nor a clotting factor; it is the blood
plasma not including the fibrinogens.

Heart
The weight of the average human heart is 300g for an adult male and 200g-250g for an
adult female.
The heart is relatively small, roughly the same size (but not the same shape) as a
closed fist.

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The heart is found in the thoracic cavity, between the lungs and below the left lung. The
heart rests on the diaphragm.
The heart is a muscular organ surrounded by a double membrane called pericardium.
Pericardium of the heart:
a. Maintains the shape of the heart.
b. Pericardial cells in the membranes of the pericardium secrete a fluid
known as pericardial fluid, which reduces friction between the layers of
the pericardium during pumping or moving of the heart.
c. Protects the heart.

The heart is made up of cardiac muscle tissues.

The heart is myogenic.
Coronary artery which branches from aorta delivers oxygen and nutrients to the heart
itself, while coronary vein collects carbon dioxide and wastes from the heart into its
right side.
Veins carry blood into the heart while arteries
carry blood away from the heart.

The heart has four chambers:

1. Upper Chamber, which contains:
a. Right atrium and
b. Left atrium
2. Lower Chamber, which contains:
a. Right ventricle and
b. Left ventricle

The heart is separated by a muscular wall

called inter-ventricular septum (or
septum) into right and left side.
The atria have thin muscular walls as they pump blood to their close ventricles.
Atria which are thin-walled chambers found on the top pour blood into the
ventricles.
The ventricles have thick muscular walls as they pump blood out of the heart to
either the lungs or other body parts. (Ventricles are thick-walled chambers
compared to the atria).
The left ventricle has thicker muscular walls than the right ventricle as the left
ventricle pumps blood to a long distance with high pressure.

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 - Atrio-ventricular valves are the valves between the atria and ventricles which
prevent backflow of the blood into the atria once the ventricles contract.
- The valve between the right atrium and right ventricle is called tricuspid valve,
as it has three flaps, while the valve between the left atrium and left ventricle is
called bicuspid (or mitral) valve, as it has two flaps.
- Atrio-ventricular valves are held in place by valve tendons which contract at
the same time as the ventricles; causing the valves that they hold closed.

Structures found in the heart:

Structures found in the Right Side of Structures found in the Left Side of
the Heart the Heart
1. Vena Cava a. Pulmonary vein
2. Right atrium b. Left atrium
3. Tricuspid valve c. Bicuspid valve
4. Right ventricle d. Left ventricle
5. Semi-lunar valve (Pulmonary e. Semi-lunar valve (aortic valve)
valve)
6. Pulmonary artery f. Aorta

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Heart structures Functions
1. Vena cava (superior and Brings deoxygenated blood from
inferior vena cava) upper and lower parts of the body
into the right atrium
2. Pulmonary vein Brings oxygenated blood into the
left atrium from the lungs
3. Atria - Right atrium receives
deoxygenated blood from vena
cava and pours into the right
ventricle
- Left atrium receives
oxygenated blood from
pulmonary vein and pours into
the left ventricle
4. Tricuspid and Bicuspid - Ensure that blood flows in only
valves one direction.
- Prevent backflow of the blood
during ventricular
contractions.
5. Valve tendon To maintain the position of the
tricuspid and bicuspid valves.
6. Ventricles - Right ventricle receives
deoxygenated blood from the
right atrium and pumps blood
to the lungs with low pressure.
- Left ventricle receives
oxygenated blood from the left
atrium and pumps blood to all
body parts with high pressure.
7. Semi-lunar valves To prevent backflow of blood from
the aorta and pulmonary artery
into the left ventricle and right
ventricle respectively.
8. Pulmonary artery Carries deoxygenated blood from
the right side of the heart to the
lungs
9. Aorta Carries oxygenated blood away
from the heart to all body parts by
branching into smaller arteries.

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Heartbeat:
The heartbeat is felt as a pulse, which passes along arteries due to the pressure of
blood pumped out of the left ventricle.

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Pulse is a pressure wave that travel rapidly along the arteries
when blood is ejected from the left ventricle through the aorta.
The heart beats around 70- 72 times per minute.
The cycle of contraction of the heart muscle is called a heartbeat.
The instrument for the heartbeat is called stethoscope.
Most arteries are found deep within the body, but the pulse rate
may be detected at a few places; such as the wrist, back of the
knee, ankle and the neck. These are places where arteries are
found close to the body surfaces.
The heart beat consists of two main phases:
1. Systole Phase:

- When the heart contracts and forces the blood out of the ventricles it is
known as systole.

-
2. Diastole Phase:

- When the heart is relaxed and filling with blood it is known as diastole.

Cardiac Cycle:
The cardiac cycle is the sequences of events which make up one heart beat.
The cardiac cycle is described in terms of; heart contraction (systole) and relaxation
(diastole).
There are three main stages to the cardiac cycle:
1. Atrial Systole:
- In atrial systole, both left and right atrium contract and blood flows from the atria
into the ventricles.
- Backflow of blood into the veins is prevented by the closure of valves in the
veins.
2. Ventricular systole:
- In ventricular systole, both ventricles contract.
- The atrio-ventricular valves close and the semi-lunar valves in both aorta and
pulmonary artery open.
- Blood flows from the ventricles into the arteries.
3. Ventricular diastole:
- In ventricular diastole, both atria and ventricles relax.
- Blood flows from the veins through the atria and into the ventricles.
Control of the Heartbeat:

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 As you know, the heart is myogenic; that is, it can contract and relax without
having to receive impulses from the nervous system.
The cardiac cycle is initiated by a specialized patch of muscle tissues in the wall
of the right atrium called sinoatrial node (SAN) or Pacemaker.
The SAN sends out electrical impulses to the rest of the atria.
Both right and left atria contract at the same time.
The electrical impulses dont pass down to the ventricles. After a delay of about
0.1 seconds, the impulse is passed down through a patch of conducting fibers,
situated in the septum which is known as atrio-ventricular node, or AVN. The
delay ensures that the ventricles dont start to contract before they fill with blood.
Atrio-ventricular node picks up the impulse to a group of bundles called Bundle
of His which runs down the septum between the ventricles and passes the
impulse to the fibres known as Purkinje fibres that are attached on the right and
left ventricular walls. The impulses are carried rapidly to the apex of the
ventricles, which causes the cardiac
muscle in each ventricle to contract
simultaneously; from bottom up.

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