Mech 4450 Mechanical Control Systems

Section 5: Controllers and Algorithms

Controllers

A controller calculates the error using the control point and the set point. Analog controllers
perform the subtraction in the summing junction (error generator). Digital controllers
calculate the error with a section of their microprocessor called the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU). A signal representing the magnitude of the error is sent to the output signal
generator. The changes in the output signal are a function of the size, direction and timing
characteristics of the error signal.

Controller Modes

The controller mode describes the characteristics of a controller's output response to a

change in the process error. Controller transfer functions can be divided into seven
categories based upon the controllers response when a change in the set point or control
point occurs. The characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of these different transfer
function modes are detailed in the following sections.

1. two-position mode

2. timed two-position mode

3. floating or three-point mode

4. proportional mode

5. proportional + integral mode

6. proportional + derivative mode

7. proportional + integral + derivative mode

Two position controller mode

Two possible outputs

Minimum and Maximum
Output signal is discontinuous
Energy flow is also 0% or 100%
Simplest response of all modes
Pulses energy into the process
Averaging effect within range of set point

Two position control maintains control point near the set point

Two position control is also used to prevent the control from exceeding a predefined safety limit.

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Two Position Controller Mode Differential

A control differential creates a delay between changes in the output signal to reduce the
possibility of the output signal repeatedly cycling on and off whenever the control point is near
the set point. This prohibits the output from switching until the difference between the set point
and the control point exceeds a predetermined value. This built-in delay is called the control
differential.

Hunting or oscillating causes excessive wear, overheats relays and motors, excessive arcing of
electrical contacts, causing pitting and increasing the resistance of the contact surface.

The control differential is also known as a signal or process deadband. A deadband is an

interval where no change in controller's output signal can occur.

Examples

Temperature processes: 2 to 3 (set point + / - 1 to 1.5 F)

Humidity processes: 3% to 5%

Static pressure processes 0.1 to 0.15 inches of water.

The size of the control differential is selected by the control technician during the calibration
procedure.

The control range is defined as the set point + / - one half of the control differential. Range of
control of a process with a set point of 74 and a control differential of 4 is 74 + / - 2. The
control point must exceed the set point plus one half of the control differential before the
controller changes the state of its output signal i.e. above 76 or below 74

An operating differential is the range of the process control point that results from the combined
effects of the control differential and process time lags.

No response or change occurs instantaneously. All dynamic processes take time to respond to
changes in their load or set point. The total time lag is a combination of the delays that occur
while the sensor measures the change in the controlled variable plus the time it takes to send
the information through the control loop and back to the process. All the while these delays take
place, the control point continues to change.

When the effects of the time delays are added to the pulsations of the control agent, the
resulting response shows the control point exceeding the control differential by a value related

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to the length of the time delays. The range of the control point is called the operating differential
of the process. The operating differential is always greater than the control differential.

Timed Two Position Controller Mode

Timed two position control is a method of reducing the operating differential in electric, two-
position temperature control applications that use a thermostat. An anticipator circuit, mounted
under the sensing element, uses a resistor to add heat to the sensing element to speed up its
response to changes in the room temperature. It causes a heating system to cycle off earlier or
a cooling system to cycle on earlier because the additional heat makes the room appear warmer
than it is.

This can only be available on electrically based controllers. It does improve occupant comfort

Advantages of Two Position Mode

Simplicity of the control loop.

Easy to calibrate and analyze.
When correctly sized, stable (no oscillations) response to changes in the process load.

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Straight two-position mode is used for safety applications and other processes where the
mass or energy can be pulsed into the process without producing excessive oscillations
in the control point.
Timed two-position mode should be used to maintain comfort temperature.

Disadvantages of Two Position Mode

Pulsating characteristic of the response.

Pulses indicate a balance is not being maintained between the energy transfer and the
process load.
Whenever the balance is not maintained, the process efficiency is being reduced.
In many processes, excessive oscillations of the control point are not permitted, further
reducing the applications that can incorporate a two-position controller mode.

Applications

Two-position mode can be used with any control signal type: pneumatic, electric, or electronic.

Timed two-position mode is used exclusively in electrical or electronic systems because electric
current is needed to supply the anticipator circuit heat.

Timed two-position mode is limited to residential and light commercial facilities where zones
have their own individual heating and cooling equipment.

Floating Controller Mode

Floating control generates a three state output signal and it positions a three state actuator. The
final controlled device has to be made specifically for these applications. It cannot be used with
any other control mode.

Floating mode has two circuits that connect the controller's output to the final controlled device.
One circuit modulates the final controlled device open while the other modulates it closed. It is
limited to electronic control. It has a control differential called the neutral zone.

Floating mode is also called three-wire float mode. The three wire terminals are usually labelled
clockwise (CW), counter clockwise (CCW), and common. When a signal is applied to the
common and clockwise terminals, the actuator turns in one direction. The actuator moves in the
opposite direction when the signal is applied to the common and counter-clockwise terminals.

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When no signal (hold) is applied to either the clockwise or counter-clockwise terminals, the flow
control device remains stationary, at its present position.

Floating Controller Operating

Characteristics

The control point can "float" within

the neutral zone.

The controller may not generate a

command for hours.

Floating Control Advantages and Disadvantages

Modulating action

No pulsed flow

Full control range need not be used

Neutral zone creates a delay and allows control point to move away from the set point
(bad for comfort and efficiency).

If the signal fails, FCD remains in that position

Still better than two-position

Dynamic Characteristics of the Error and Time based Gains

Error is Set Point minus Control Point (i.e., difference between what we want and what we have
got).

Controllers can be configured to respond to the rate of change and/or the length of time an error
exists. Using the dynamic characteristics of the process improves the response and efficiency of
the control loop and its process.

Gain Parameters and Transfer Functions

1. The proportional gain parameter responds to changes in the size and direction of the
process error.
2. Proportional gain + integral gain respond to the size, direction, and length of time an
error exists.

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3. Derivative gain can be included to create a proportional + integral + derivative response

that reacts to changes in the size, direction, length of existence, and rate of change of
the process error.

A controller that is only configured with proportional gain is called a proportional only controller.

A controller using proportional gain + integral gain in its transfer function is called a PI controller.

A controller that is configured with all three gains is called a PID controller.

These are the three most popular types of modulating controllers

Proportional gain can also be used with derivative gain to create a PD controller that responds
to changes in the size, direction and rate of change of the error. Neither integral gain nor
derivative gain can be incorporated into a transfer function unless proportional gain is also used.

Proportional Control Mode

Proportional controllers generate changes in their output signals that are proportional to the
changes that occur in their control points. The output signal follows a pattern similar to the
changes that occurred in the control point. During unexpected load changes, the control point
can move beyond the limits of the throttling range. i.e. the controller's output signal is at one of
the limits of its range (0 or 100%). The system remains out of control until the load changes
sufficiently.

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Offset

Proportional mode is only designed to balance the energy transfer with the load. It will not
maintain the control point at the set point. So, the control point seldom equals the set point. With
proper calibration, the control point will always be very close to the set point

Offset that remains after the controller output signal stabilizes is called the steady state error

Proportional Control mode Advantages and Disadvantages

Absence of control differential and neutral zone give comfort and efficiency.

Control point remains closer to the set point over all load changes.

Steady-state error indicates inefficiencies.

When properly calibrated the steady-state error is minimized

tighter control response than either two position or floating modes

Proportional and Integral Mode

An integral component is added to the proportional part of the transfer function to modify the
controller output signal. Integral portion continues to change the output signal until the loop error
equals zero. When no error exists, the output stays at its present signal level until another load
change occurs.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

Cancels offset.

With proper calibration, will improve operating efficiency over Proportional control.

Two gains to calibrate more complex.

Stability possibility of wind-up (after some abnormal process condition) or loop

oscillations.

Proportional, Integral and Differential Control Mode (PID)

PID control will give quick response to all load changes with no steady-state error remaining
after the loop has stabilized. Derivative mode provides an anticipatory response to the
controller by altering its output in proportion to the rate of change of the process error.

The derivative element arises from the derivative of the error signal, which calculates how
fast the error is changing, multiplied by the derivative gain. Therefore, derivative mode only
plays an important part in the loop response when the load is changing quickly. This
restraining action keeps the control point closer to the set point during fast load changes.
When the load changes slowly, the contribution of derivative element is minimal.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Most advanced modulating control response available.

Responds to the change in the size, direction, speed at which the control point is
changing along with the magnitude of an offset and the length of time it exists.

Complex calibration of 3 variables required to avoid instability and oscillations.

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Analysis the response of a controller

Proportional
Mode
Step
change in
the load.

Integral only
Direction and
slope of line

P & I Mode

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The controller's output signal continues to increase as long as an error is present. Ultimately,
the increases in the output signal forces the offset back to zero.

When the error is finally driven to zero, the contribution produced by the proportional mode is
also driven to zero because the error (0) times the proportional gain equals a change of zero
units.

Integral mode is also known as Reset. Reset time is inversely related to the value of the integral
gain. As integral gain is increased, the reset time decreases.

To generate the same change in less time, the slope of the ramp must increase and is
represented by a steeper line.

Derivative mode response

PID Response

This is not a step change but an infinite rate of change. As the rate of change increases, as
represented by a steeper sloped line, the derivative element's contribution to the output signal
increases.

When the error is not changing, the derivative element's contribution is zero because derivative
gain times a derivative of zero equals zero.\

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PID

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Control System Response

Room Heating Example

H
C

A
B

AB
Classroom
HW Supply

HW Return

Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-

Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C

Sensor

Assume that, for this system:

The sensor outputs 10 mV/C.

The setpoint is given in C by the dial on the thermostat.
This is converted by the thermostat (voltage converter) with a transfer function of 10 mV/C.
The controller has a transfer function of 10 V/V. Most of the goal of control systems is
determining this value but, for now, well assume weve logically chosen 10 V/V.
The three way valve allows hot water to flow at a rate of 3 L/s/V.
The heating coil transfers 5 kW of energy per 1 L/s of hot water flow.
The room responds to heat at a rate of 0.005C per kJ of energy added or lost.
Since this is a room heating system we need to be realistic and assume that there is a load on the room.
Lets add 7.5 kW of cooling load on the room due to the windows, etc.

By working backwards, we can determine the valve setting during steady state conditions. Lets assume
that the room is currently at 15C at steady state. We can work backwards to find the error signal and
figure out what the setpoint is.

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Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-

Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C

Sensor

Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-

Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C

Sensor

Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-

Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C

Sensor

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Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-

Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C

Sensor

Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-

Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C

Sensor

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Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-

Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C

Sensor

Process
Controller Actuator
Room
Three Way
Setpoint
Voltage + Temperature
Valve
Heating Coil Room
Integration
Temperature
Converter Control Logic Response Response C
C Response over Time
10mV/C 10V/V 5kW/L/s 0.005C/kJ
3L/s/V
-

Temperature
Sensor
10mV/C

Sensor

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