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5 Signal Constellations 3
5.1 Pulse-amplitude Modulation (PAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
5.1.1 Performance of PAM in Additive White Gaussian Noise . . . 4
5.2 Phase-shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.2.1 Performance of PSK in Additive Gaussian Noise . . . . . . . 7
5.3 Quadrature Amplitude-modulation (QAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.4 Performance of QAM in Additive Gaussian Noise . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.5 Frequency-shift keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.6 Performance in additive Gaussian noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.7 Continuous-phase modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.8 The Power Spectrum of Linearly Modulated Signals . . . . . . . . . 14
1
List of Figures
5.1 The signal space representation of binary PAM, 4-PAM and 8-PAM
constellations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
5.2 Symbol error probability for 2, 4 and 8-PAM as a function of SNR
per bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.3 Signal space representation of various PSK constellations. . . . . . . 6
5.4 The function f (). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.5 Symbol error probability for BPSK, QPSK, 8-PSK and 16-PSK as a
function of the signal-to-noise ratio per bit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.6 Signal-space representation of various QAM constellations. . . . . . 10
5.7 Symbol error probability as a function of SNR per bit for 4, 16, and
64-QAM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.8 Error probability comparison between coherent and incoherent FSK. 13
2
Chapter 5
Signal Constellations
where
ai = (2i 1 M )A, i = 1, 2, , M, (5.2)
(t) is a unit-energy signal, and A is half the spacing between adjacent signals in
the constellation (i.e. dmin = 2A where dmin is the minimum Euclidean distance of
the contellation). Figure 5.1 shows the signal-space representation of PAM signals
assuming A = 1. Clearly not every signal in the constellation has the same energy.
8-PAM
4-PAM
2-PAM
-7 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7
Figure 5.1: The signal space representation of binary PAM, 4-PAM and 8-PAM
constellations.
3
CHAPTER 5. SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS 4
In signal space, the decision boundaries for this receiver are midway between con-
stellation points, and a decision is made accordingly, based on where r falls on the
real line.
The error probability for M -ary PAM signals is derived in Appendix ?? and is
given by s !
(M 1) 3 Eav
PPAM (e) = erfc . (5.6)
M M 2 1 N0
The error probability for various PAM constellations is shown in Figure 5.2 as a
function of SNR per bit. Cleraly, even for the same SNR per bit, as M increases,
performance degrades. The gain, of course, is in increased bit-rate for the same
bandwidth.
1
One notable exception is in PCM modems, where the system makes use of the 256 PCM levels
in the digital part of the telephone network
CHAPTER 5. SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS 5
10 0
10 -1
10 -2
Error-Probability
8-PAM
4-PAM
10 -3
2-PAM
-4
10
10 -5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
SNR, dB
Figure 5.2: Symbol error probability for 2, 4 and 8-PAM as a function of SNR per
bit.
where
2(i 1)
i = , i = 1, 2, , M
M
and Z T
E= s2i (t)dt
0
CHAPTER 5. SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS 6
is the signal energy (the same for all signals). Equation (5.7) can be re-written in a
slightly different form as
" r r #
2 2
si (t) = E cos(i ) cos(2fc t) sin(i ) sin(2fc t)
T T
= E [cos(i )1 (t) sin(i )2 (t)]
where
r
2
1 (t) =
cos(2fc t) (5.8)
rT
2
2 (t) = sin(2fc t) (5.9)
T
are easily seen to be orthonormal. Thus, PSK signals are points in a two-dimensional
space spanned by 1 (t) and 2 (t). Figure 5.3 illustrates various PSK signal constel-
lations, including binary PSK (BPSK), and 4-ary PSK, also known as quadrature
PSK (QPSK). The figure also illustrates the mapping of information bits to each
2 (t ) 2 (t )
01
11 00
1 (t ) 1 (t )
E E
10
110 000
1 (t ) 1 (t )
E E
111 100
101
8-PSK: d min = 2 E sin( ) 16-PSK: d min = 2 E sin( )
8 16
signal in the constellation for 4-PSK and 8-PSK. The illustrated mapping, known as
Gray coding, has the property that adjacent signals are assigned binary sequences
that differ in only one bit. This is desirable in practice, because, when a detection
error is made, it is more likely to be to a signal adjacent to the transmitted signal.
Then Gray coding results in a single bit error for the most likely signal errors.
CHAPTER 5. SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS 7
where
Z T
rc = r(t)1 (t)dt
0
Z T
rs = r(t)2 (t)dt
0
2(i 1)
ai = E cos
M
2(i 1)
bi = E sin .
M
For binary PSK, which corresponds to antipodal signaling, the probability that the
optimal receiver makes a decision error is
s !
1 E
PBPSK (e) = erfc . (5.11)
2 N0
where PBPSK (e) is as given in Eq. (5.11). An exact expression for the error prob-
ability of larger PSK constellations also exists and is derived in Appendix B. It is
given by
Z /M
PMPSK (e) = 1 f ()d, (5.12)
/M
where
1 SN R h 2
i
f () = e 1 + SN R cos()eSN Rcos () erfc SN R cos() , (5.13)
2
where, as defined earlier, SN R = E/N0 . Figure 5.4 plots the function f () for
various SNR values.
Figure 5.5 shows the error probability of various PSK constellations as a function
of the SNR per information bit.
Another interesting expression for the error-probability of two-dimensional signal
constellations, and in particular M-PSK, was obtained by Craig [1]:
Z (M 1) " #
1 M sin2 M
PMPSK (e) = exp SNR d, (5.14)
0 sin2 ()
CHAPTER 5. SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS 8
1.2
6dB
1
0.8
3dB
f ()
0.6
0.4
0.2 0dB
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
, Radians
-2 2-PSK
10
4-PSK
16-PSK
Symbol Error Probability
-4
10
8-PSK
-6
10
-8
10
-10
10
0 5 10 15 20
SNR per bit, dB
Figure 5.5: Symbol error probability for BPSK, QPSK, 8-PSK and 16-PSK as a
function of the signal-to-noise ratio per bit.
where ai and bi take values from the set {1, 3, 5, } and E and p(t) are as
defined earlier. The signal-space representation of QAM signals is shown in Figure
5.6 for various values of M which are powers of 2, that is, M = 2k , k = 2, 3, .
For even values of k, the constellations are square, whereas for odd values of k
the constellations have a cross shape and are thus called cross constellations. For
square constellations, QAM corresponds to the independent amplitude modulation
of an in-phase carrier (i.e., the cosine carrier) and a quadrature carrier (i.e., the sine
carrier).
64-QAM
32-QAM
16-QAM
8-QAM
4-QAM
where Z T
rc = r(t)p(t) cos(2fc t)dt
0
and Z T
rs = r(t)p(t) sin(2fc t)dt
0
For square constellations which correspond to independent PAM of each carrier,
an exact error probability is derived easily and is given by
" s !#2
1 3 Eav
PQAM (e) = 1 1 1 erfc .
M 2(M 1) N0
For cross constellations, tight upper-bounds and good approximations are available.
Figure 5.7 plots the symbol-error probability of various square QAM constellations
as a function of SNR per bit.
-1
10
64-QAM
Error-Probability
-2
10
16-QAM
-3
10
-4
10
4-QAM
-5
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
SNR per bit, dB
Figure 5.7: Symbol error probability as a function of SNR per bit for 4, 16, and
64-QAM.
and was the modulation of choice for the first, low-rate modems. Its main attribute
that makes it of interest in some applications is that it is detected incoherently (and
coherently), which reduces the cost of the receiver. Mathematically, the modulated
M -ary FSK signal is described by
s
2E
si (t) = cos[2(fc + fi )t], 0 t T, i = 1, 2, , M
T
where
2i 1 M
fi = f.
2
f is the minimum frequency separation between modulation tones. For orthogo-
nal signaling (i.e. when the correlation between all pairs of distinct signals is zero),
the minimum tone spacing is 1/2T . This is often a condition imposed in practice.
Orthogonal signaling performs well as a function of energy per bit, but it is also
rather bandwidth-inefficient, making it impractical for high-speed, band-limited ap-
plications.
CHAPTER 5. SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS 12
which is 3dB worse than BPSK. For M -ary signaling, an exact expression exists in
integral form and is found, for example, in [?].
Incoherent detection does not assume phase coherence and does not attempt to
phase-lock the locally generated carrier to the received signal. In this case, it is easy
to argue that the phase difference between the LO carrier and the received carrier
is completely randomized. An optimum receiver is also derived in this case and it
is one that maximizes over the set of frequency tones
2 2
`i = rci + rsi
where Z T
2
rci = r(t) cos[2(fc + fi )t]dt
0
and Z T
2
rsi = r(t) sin[2(fc + fi )t]dt
0
The exact error-probability performance of this incoherent receiver is available
in analytical form, but it is rather complicated to compute for the general M -ary
case (see, for example, [?]). For the binary case, the error probability has a simple
form given by
1 E
PFSK (e) = e 2N0 , (incoherent FSK)
2
Figure 5.8 compares the performance of coherent and Incoherent binary FSK.
At an error probability of about 106 , incoherent detection is inferior only slightly
more than half a dB compared with coherent detection. However, this small loss is
well compensated for by the fact that no carrier phase synchronization is needed for
the former.
CHAPTER 5. SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS 13
10-1
Incoherent
Detection
10-2
Error-Probability
10-3
Coherent
Detection
10-4
10-5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
SNR per bit, dB
Figure 5.8: Error probability comparison between coherent and incoherent FSK.
where n
X
(t; d) = 2 dk hk q(t kT ), nT t (n + 1)T.
k=
CHAPTER 5. SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS 14
The dk are the modulation symbols and hk are the modulation indices, which may
vary from symbol to symbol. For binary modulation, the modulation symbols are
either 1 or -1. Finally, q(t)is the integral of some baseband pulse p(t) containing no
impulses (thus guaranteeing that q(t) is continuous)
Z t
q(t) = p( )d.
When p(t) is zero for t T , we have what is called full response CPM, otherwise we
have partial-response CPM. In general, partial-response CPM achieves better spec-
tral sidelobe reduction than full-response CPM. A special case of CPM in which the
modulation indices are all equal and p(t) is a rectangular pulse of duration T sec-
onds is called continuous-phase FSK (CPFSK). If, further, h = 1/2, we have what
is called minimum-shift keying (MSK). A variation of MSK, in which the rectan-
gular baseband pulse is first passed through a filter with a Gaussian-shape impulse
response for further reduction in the spectral sidelobes, is called Gaussian MSK
(GMSK). Various simple ways for detecting GMSK are available, which, combined
with its spectral efficiency, has made it a popular modulation scheme. In particular,
it is the modulation scheme used for the European digital cellular radio standard,
known as GSM.
For more information on CPM signaling, including spectral characteristics and
performance in noise, refer to [?].
where {dk } is a sequence of complex symbols, 1/T is the signaling rate, and p(t)
is the transmitted pulse. We will assume that the sequence {dk } is wide-sense
stationary having mean and autocorrelation function
1
rdd (k) = E[dj dj+k ]. (5.18)
2
CHAPTER 5. SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS 15
In computing the power spectrum of x(t), we first derive an expression for the
autocorrelation function of x(t)
1
Rxx (t, t + ) = E[x (t)x(t + )] (5.19)
2
1 XX
= E[dk dj ]p (t kT )p(t + jT )
2 k j
XX
= rdd (j k)p (t kT )p(t + jT )
k j
XX
= rdd (m)p (t kT )p (t + (k + m)T )
k m
X X
= rdd (m) p (t kT )p (t + (k + m)T ) (5.20)
m k
Clearly, Rxx (t, t + ) is periodic in t with period T . In addition, the mean of x(t)
X
E[x(t)] = p(t kT )
k
Letting Z
Rpp ( ) = p (t)p (t + ) dt (5.22)
where X
Sd (f ) = rdd (k)ej2f kT (5.25)
k
17
Appendix B
18
Appendix C
19
Bibliography
[1] J.W. Craig, A New, Simple and Exact Result for Calculating the Probabil-
ity of Error for Two-Dimensional Signal Constellations, Proceedings IEEE
MILCOM91, Boston, MA, pp. 25.5.1-25.5.5.
20