WEATHERING

Definition:Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of rocks and

minerals at or near the Earth's surface into products that are more in equilibrium
with the conditions found in this environment. Most rocks and minerals are
formed deep within the Earth's crust where temperatures and pressures differ
greatly from the surface.

Weathering includes two processes,

1-Disintigration or physical breaking

2-Decomposition or chemical decay

Types of weathering

a)Chemical weathering

b)Physical weathering
The physical and chemical nature of materials formed in the Earth's interior are
characteristically in disequilibrium with conditions occurring on the surface. Because of this
disequilbrium, these materials are easily attacked, decomposed, and eroded by various
chemical and physical surface processes.

Weathering is the first step for a number of other geomorphic and biogeochemical processes.
The products of weathering are a major source of sediments for erosion and deposition. Many
types of sedimentary rocks are composed of particles that have been weathered, eroded,
transported, and terminally deposited in basins. Weathering also contributes to the formation
of soil by providing mineral particles like sand, silt, and clay. Elements and compounds
extracted from the rocks and minerals by weathering processes supply nutrients for plant
uptake. The fact that the oceans are saline in the result of the release of ion salts from rock
and minerals on the continents. Leaching and runoff transport these ions from land to the
ocean basins where they accumulate in seawater. In conclusion, weathering is a process that
is fundamental to many other aspects of the hydrosphere, lithosphere, and
biospheremineralogical composition of the weathered material.

a) Chemical weathering:
A number of different processes can result in chemical weathering. The most common
chemical weathering processes are hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, hydration, carbonation,
and solution.
1-Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is the weathering reaction that occurs when the two surfaces of water and
compound meet. It involves the reaction between mineral ions and the ions of water (OH- and
H+), and results in the decomposition of the rock surface by forming new compounds, and by
increasing the pH of the solution involved through the release of the hydroxide ions.
Hydrolysis is especially effective in the weathering of common silicate and alumino-silicate
minerals because of their electrically charged crystal surfaces.

2-Oxidation
Oxidation is the reaction that occurs between compounds and oxygen. The net result of this
reaction is the removal of one or more electrons from a compound, which causes the structure
to be less rigid and increasingly unstable. The most common oxides are those of iron and
aluminum, and their respective red and yellow staining of soils is quite common in tropical
regions which have high temperatures and precipitation. Reduction is simply the reverse of
oxidation, and is thus caused by the addition of one or more electrons producing a more
stable compound.

3-Hydration

Hydration involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH- ions to a reacted compound. In many
situations the H and OH ions become a structural part of the crystal lattice of the mineral.
Hydration also allows for the acceleration of other decompositional reactions by expanding
the crystal lattice offering more surface area for reaction.

4-Carbonation

Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate ions with minerals. The formation of
carbonates usually takes place as a result of other chemical processes. Carbonation is
especially active when the reaction environment is abundant with carbon dioxide. The
formation of carbonic acid, a product of carbon dioxide and water, is important in the solution
of carbonates and the decomposition of mineral surfaces because of its acidic nature.

Water and the ions it carries as it moves through and around rocks and minerals can further
the weathering process. Geomorphologists call this phenomena solution. The effects of
dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in water have already been mentioned.

5-Solution

solution also entails the effects of a number of other dissolved compounds on a mineral or
rock surface. Molecules can mix in solution to form a great variety of basic and acidic
decompositional compounds. The extent, however, of rock being subjected to solution is
determined primarily by climatic conditions. Solution tends to be most effective in areas that
have humid and hot climates.

Climate and soil formation

The most important factor affecting all of the above mentioned chemical weathering
processes is climate. Climatic conditions control the rate of weathering that takes place by
regulating the catalysts of moisture and temperature. Experimentation has discovered that
tropical weathering rates, where temperature and moisture are at their maximum, are three
and a half times higher than rates in temperate environments.

b) Physical weathering
1-Frost

Physical weathering is the breakdown of mineral or rock material by entirely mechanical

methods brought about by a variety of causes. Some of the forces originate within the rock or
mineral, while others are applied externally. Both of these stresses lead to strain and the
rupture of the rock. The processes that may cause mechanical rupture are abrasion,
crystallization, thermal insolation, wetting and drying, and pressure release.

Abrasion occurs when some force causes two rock surfaces to come together causing
mechanical wearing or grinding of their surfaces. Collision between rock surfaces normally
occurs through the erosional transport of material by wind, water, or ice.

Crystallization can cause the necessary stresses needed for the mechanical rupturing of rocks
and minerals. Crystal growth causes stress as a result of a compound's or an element's change
of physical state with change in temperature. The transformation from liquid to solid
crystalline form produces a volumetric change which in turn causes the necessary mechanical
action for rupture. There are primarily two types of crystal growth that occurice and salt.
Upon freezing, the volumetric change of water from liquid to solid is 9%. This relatively
large volumetric change upon freezing has potentially a great rupturing effect. Several
researchers have discovered in the laboratory and the field that frost action plays a major role
in weathering in temperate and polar regions of the Earth. The threshold temperature for frost
action is at least 5 Celsius, and it is at this temperature that the most effective rupturing
occurs.

The crystallization of salt exhibits volumetric changes from 1 to 5 percent depending on the
temperature of the rock or mineral surface. Most salt weathering occurs in hot arid regions,
but it may also occur in cold climates. For example, cavernous salt weathering of granite is
widespread in the dry valley regions of South Victoria Land, Antarctica. At this location
outcrops and large boulders are pitted by holes up to 2 meters in diameter. Researchers have
also found that frost weathering is greatly enhanced by the presence of salt.
2-Heating and cooling

The physical breakdown of rock by their expansion and contraction due to diurnal
temperature changes is one of the most keenly debated topics in rock weathering research.
Known as insolation weathering, it is the result of the physical inability of rocks to conduct
heat well. This inability to conduct heat results in differential rates of expansion and
contraction. Thus, the surface of the rock expands more than its interior, and this stress will
eventually cause the rock to rupture. Differential expansion and contraction may also be due
to the variance in the colors of mineral grains in rock. Dark-colored grains, because of their
absorptive properties, will expand much more than light-colored grains. Therefore, in a rock
peppered with many different colored grains, rupturing can occur at different rates at the
various mineral boundaries.

Pressure release of rock can cause physical weathering due to unloading. The majority of
igneous rocks were created deep under the Earth's surface at much higher pressures and
temperatures. As {C}erosion brings these rock formations to the surface, they become
subjected to less and less pressure. This unloading of pressure causes the rocks to fracture
horizontally with an increasing number of fractures as the rock approaches the Earth's
surface. Spalling, the vertical development of fractures, occurs because of the bending
stresses of unloaded sheets across a three dimensional plane.

3-Organisms

plants and animals also play important part in the physical weathering of rock. Plants roots
grow into cracks and joints and push the rock fragment apart. The borrowing of animals such
as earth worms, ants, and rodents also contribute to the disintegration of rocks by making
roads cuts, tunnelling, quarrying and cultivating the land.

Types of soil
The layers of weathered particles of earth material that contain organic matter and can
support vegetation are defined as soil. . The kind of soil that develops, and how quickly it
develops, depends largely on the parent rock and the climate. There are two types of soil,

1-Residual soil deposits

2-Transported soil deposits

1-Residual soil

When soil is developed from the weathering of the underlying bedrock it is called residual
soil. In plain areas the products of rock weathering continue to accumulate in place over the
parent rock masses and give rise to a residual soil. As the action of weathering decreases
with depth such soil deposits gradually change from soil at the surface to broken rock
fragments and merge with fresh rock underneath. The common example of residual soil are
laterite, terra-rossa and peat bogs.

2-Transported soil

It is deposited by agents such as ice and water and is not derived from the underlying
bedrock. Examples include sand left by retreating glaciers and the mud that is left after a
flood. Such soils generally have no relation with the underlying rock mass. They have been
classified to the nature of the transporting agency responsible for their formation.

Transporting agency Nature of the soil

Rivers Alluvial soil

Lakes lacustrine deposits

Sea Marine deposit

Wind eolian deposit

Glacier Glayecial deposit

The size of the soil particle is extremely variable.

Boulder Size 60mm or more

Gravel Size between 60mm-2.0mm

Coarse sand Between 2-0.6mm

Medium sand Between 0.6-0.2mm

Silt Between 0.06-0.002mm

Clay Size less than 0.002mm

Work of wind
The air currents in motion is called wind .The wind is an important agent of erosion,transport,and
deposition.it is work is perticulerly seen in arid regions.
Features of erosion wind
The important features of wind erosion include polishing and grooving of rocks facea,and formation
of ventifacts and pedestal rocks.

Ventifacts
The uper surface of stones and builders which are subjected to wind abrasion becomes smooth and
flat .If the stones are composed of coarse crystal of unequelhardness they become pitted such stones
are called ventifacts.
Pedestal rocks

Pedestal rocks are the under cut vertical columns of rocks which have wider tops and narrower
bases.When the wind blows the sand particles being heavy,travel near the ground surface and cause
undercutting of the rock faces .

Deposition by wind
The material deposited by wind are called eolian deposits.The rock particles in the eolian deposits are
generally well rounded and are sorted according to their size and weight.The important wind deposits
are sand dunes ,loses.

Work of rivers
The geological work of river is to erode the velleys transport the material thus eroded and deposit the
same in the lower reaches at favourable sites

River erosion
The river do erosion in four ways

1.chemical action

2.hydraulic action

3.abrasion

4.attrition

1-Chemical action
it includes the solvent and chemical action of water on country rocks

2-Hydraulic action
flower water hammer the uneven faces of roof exposed along its channel and removes the rock
fragments . the process of erosion is called hydraulic action
3Abrasion
The power uses pebbles peovels sands etc as a tool for scratch breaking the sides and floor at the
valley the process erosion is called abrasion .
4-Atrition
It is the breaking of transporated naturals themselves due to mutualcollision.As a result of attrition the
rock particles become more rounded and smaller in size.

River transporaion
The amount of solid material transporated by a river is called its load .It is transporated mainly in
three ways .
1.soluble material as solution

2.Heavy material as bed load which rolls and slides along the river bottom
3.The finur particle s as suspention .
Locally the medium size material may travel partly by rolling as bed load and partly in suspention .
The increase of velocity increasing the transporating power of river as much as the 6 th power of
velocity .It means that during floods the transporating power of a river suddenly rises very much and
it becomes capable moving big boulders which would otherwise remain quite immovable.
River deposition
The loose rock material transpoated by a river downstream are deposited where the velocity of
flowing water is reduced. The sorting of the material takes place automatically as the larger and
lievier particles settle quickly while smaller and lighter ones continue their journey further ahead .
The deposits made by river are called alluvial deposits.