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Table 1.1 Types of machines and nature energy conversion performed in them
TYPE OF MACHINE ENERGY CONVERSION
FROM TO
Motor Electrical Mechanical
Dynamo
Generator Mechanical Electrical
Transformer Electrical Electrical
Battery Chemical Electrical
Solar Cells Light Electrical
Loud Speaker Electrical Sound
In this course, we shall confine ourselves to the study of the principle of working and
performance characteristics of first three of above listed machines i.e., electromechanical energy
converters (Dynamo generators and Dynamo motors) and Transformers. In all the three machines, a
magnetic circuit works like an intermediate messenger assisting the energy conversion process.
Energy from the input side is first converted to magnetic field form and then to the appropriate form in
the output side. This aspect is symbolically represented in the block diagram given below in Figure 1.1
system referred to in the diagram is usually constituted by a ferromagnetic material with / without an
air gap.
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
In the courses ECT1016 Circuit theory and ECT 1026 Field theory of the -year, you have been
exposed to the basics of Electrical Circuits and Fields. The topics to be covered in the present course
are built on the foundation laid in those two courses. The first chapter of this course deals with the
following sub-topics:
Mechanical Systems both linear and rotational - the different quantities and interrelating
mathematical relationships.
Magnetic Circuits basic concepts and energy storage and conversion principles.
Two
Electrical Coupling Mechanical i
port e
System Field System network
e, i
, Fig 1.2b Two port representation
Figure 1.2a Block representation of electromechanical energy of the Electro-magnetic machine
While acting as motor, the rotating conductors cut the magnetic field and an e.m.f. e is induced in
them which is really a reaction voltage. In the case of a generator, the reverse process takes place. Here,
the rotating member namely the rotor, is driven by a prime mover (steam turbine, gasoline engine, etc.)
causing an induced voltage e to appear across the machine winding terminals. Upon the connection of
an electrical load to these terminals, a current i flows delivering electrical power to the load. Note that
the flow of this current through the armature conductors interacts with the magnetic field to produce a
reaction torque opposing the applied torque from the prime mover. From above its clear that the input
to a generator and the output of a motor are mechanical in nature. It is then useful to review the
relationships between mechanical quantities involved in the rotational system.
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
1.2.4 Torque
In a linear system involving motion along a straight line, the velocity of an object does not
change unless a force acts on it. When an object is rotating, its angular velocity is constant unless a
torque is present on it. The greater the torque on the object, the higher the rate of change of angular
velocity of the object.
Torque can be described as a twisting force on an object, refer figure 1.3a and 1.3b. Suppose we
have a cylinder that is free to rotate about its axis. If a force is applied to the cylinder in such a way that
its line of action passes through the axis (as shown in Figure 1.3a), then the cylinder will not rotate.
However, if the same force is placed so that its line of action passes to the right of the axis (Figure
1.3b), then the cylinder will tend to rotate in a counterclockwise direction. The torque or twisting action
on the cylinder depends on the magnitude of the applied force, and the distance between the axis of
rotation and the line of action of the force.
F
F
=0
180- = F.r.sin().
Axis of Axis of
revolution revolution
r.sin()
Figure 1.3a Force applied along the Figure 1.3b Force applied away
line passing through the axis, = 0. from the axis, = F.r.sin().
The torque on an object is defined as the product of the force applied to the object and the
smallest distance between the line of action of the force and the objects axis of rotation. If r is a vector
pointing from the axis of rotation to the point of application of the force, and if F is the applied force,
then the torque can be described as
= (force applied) X (perpendicular distance)
= F (r sin )
= r F sin , (1.5)
where is the angle between the vector r and the vector F. The direction of the torque is clockwise if it
would tend to cause a clockwise rotation and counterclockwise if it would tend to cause a
counterclockwise rotation. The unit of torque is newton-meters (Nm).
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
1.2.6 Work W
For linear motion, work is defined as the product of a force F and the resulting displacement of
the object dx. In equation form,
W = F . dx (1.7)
If the force F is constant such that the displacement is x, the equation of the work becomes
W=F.x (1.8)
The unit of work is joule J. For rotational motion, work done is due to the application of a torque and
the accompanying angular displacement d. The equation for work done is
W = .d (1.9)
If torque is constant, then
W=. (1.10)
1.2.7 Power P
Power is the rate of doing work with respect to time and may be defined as below:
dW
P= (1.11)
dt
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
The unit of P is joules per second or watts. By applying this definition and assuming that the force is
constant, one finds that power is given by
dW d( F . x ) d( x )
P= = =F . = F .v (1.12)
dt dt dt
Similarly, assuming constant torque, power in rotational motion is given by
dW d( . ) d( )
P= = = . = . (1.13)
dt dt dt
In the electrical system, we have the following equation, relating power P to a voltage e and a current i:
P = e.i (1.14)
In the light of the above, let us look at Figure 1.2b on page 2. This is a two-port configuration, which
we are familiar with, from our course on Circuits. One port represents the mechanical system. The
variables are the torque and the angular velocity . Their product is power. The second port stands
for the electrical system, with the variables v and i, whose product is again power. Either port can be
energised as an input port, with the other one being connected to a load of the suitable nature. This is an
alternative way of looking at Fig. 1.2a. If the system is ideal, . = e . i.
1.3 DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC QUANTITIES
1.3.1. Magnetic Field - Introduction
The magnetic field in a machine forms the energy link between the electrical and mechanical
systems. It is produced by currents flowing in coils of wire inside the machine, or by a combination of
coils and permanent magnets. Four basic principles describe how magnetic fields are used in the
electric machine devices.
A current-carrying wire (conductor) produces a magnetic field in the area around it.
A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on it. This is
the basis of motor action.
A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it. This is the
basis of generator action.
A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through that
coil. This is the basis of transformer action.
i
ferrite core
i
Figure 1.4 Law relating the current direction and the resultant flux direction - cork-screw rule
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
Mean magnetic
1.4. When the current i amperes
path length lc lc flows through a conductor, the
flux wraps around in a similar
Figure 1.5. A simple magnetic core
manner as that of a direction of
travel of cork-screw when turned in clockwise direction. Consider the magnetic core shown in the
diagram of Figure 1.5. It has a winding carrying a current of i amperes and N turns. It generates a
magneto motive force (MMF) of N.i ampere (A). Since the number of turns, N is dimensionless,
the SI unit for MMF is just ampere, denoted by A. The MMF creates a magnetic field in core having
an intensity of H ampere-turns / meter along the length of the magnetic path. Upon integrating the
magnetic field intensity along the magnetic path, we get,
H . dl = N.i ampere (A) (1.15)
The above is the Ampere'
s law governing the production of a magnetic field by a current carrying coil.
If the path of integration is the mean path length of the core lc, Amperes law becomes
H.lc = N.i (1.16)
This MMF drives through the magnetic core, a flux webers. The flux can be related as:
N.i
= = (1.17)
The term refers to reluctance of the magnetic core. The MMF has to drive the flux against this
reluctance . The reluctance of the magnetic core may be given by the following expression:
lc
= (1.18)
Ac .
where lc refers to the mean length of the magnetic path in meters, Ac refers to the cross-sectional area of
the flux path in meter2 and the term refers to the permeability of the magnetic material of the core.
The unit for is 1/henry or 1/H. The unit for is H/m. The permeability of free space or air is 0 and
is given by
0 = 4 107 H/m (1.19)
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
Relative permeability is a convenient way to compare the magnetizability different materials. For
example, the steels used in modern machines have relative permeability in the range 2000 to 6000. This
means that, for a given amount of current, 2000 to 6000 times more flux is established in a piece of
steel than in a corresponding area of air. Obviously, the metal in a transformer or a motor core may
plays an extremely important role in increasing and concentrating the magnetic flux in the device.
Since the permeability of iron is much higher than that of air, a major portion of the flux in
configuration like that of Figure 1.5 remains inside the core instead of traveling through the
surrounding air which has lower permeability. The small portion of flux that does not travel through the
iron core but travels through air-path is called leakage flux. Treatment of leakage flux is very important
in transformer and motors.
The flux density B may be defined as
B= . (1.19)
Ac
Resolving in the above equation using equation (1.17) and (1.18) we get,
The unit of the flux density is weber/ meter2, known as tesla (T). Thus, alternatively, the flux
determined in (1.17) may be found as below
= S
B .d S (1.20)
where dS is the differential unit of the cross-sectional area. If the flux density vector B is perpendicular
to a plane of area Ac, and if the flux density B is constant throughout the area, then this equation
reduces to
= B.Ac (1.21)
Thus, the total flux in the core in Figure 1.5 due to the current i in the winding is
. N.i.Ac
= B . Ac = (1.22)
lc
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
Ac
= (1.26)
lc
Reluctance in a magnetic circuit obeys the same rules as resistance in an electric circuit. The equivalent
reluctance of a number of individual reluctance elements in series is given below:
eq = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ... (1.27)
The equivalent permeance of number of permeance elements in parallel and series are given below:
eq = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + .... parallel combination
(1.29)
1/eq = 1/1 + 1/ 2 + 1/3 + 1/ 4 + .... series combination
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
Wb B tesla
A-T H AT/m
Figure 1.6a Magnetization curve for Figure 1.6b Magnetization curve for
ferromagnetic material in terms of MMF ferromagnetic material in terms of Magnetic
intensity
Ac
= = . (1.31)
lc
From the above two equations (1.30) and (1.31), one can see that the relations versus MMF
and B versus H are directly proportional to . The relations versus MMF and B versus H have
therefore the same shape. The slope of the curve of flux density B versus the magnetic field intensity H
in Figure 1.6b is the permeability of the core at that value of H.
The curve shows that the permeability is large and relatively constant in the unsaturated region and
then gradually drops to a very low value as the core becomes heavily saturated.
Example 1
Find the relative permeability of the typical ferromagnetic material whose magnetization curve is
shown in Figure 1.7 at (a) H =50, (b) H=100, (c) H=500, and (d) H=1000 A/m
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
Example 2
A magnetic core of square cross-section has a mean path length of 55 cm and a cross sectional area of
150 cm2. A 200-turn coil of wire is wrapped around one leg of the core. The core is made of material
having the magnetization curve shown in Figure 1.7.
How much current is required to produce 0.012 Wb of flux in the core?
What is the cores relative permeability at that current level?
What is its reluctance?
Core area Ac
Core Hc, lc
i c
+
+
g
e -
N turns
-
Air gap Hg, lg
Figure 1.8 A typical magnetic circuit with air gap and its equivalent circuit.
The MMF F = N.i is now used to drive the flux through the core and the air-gap. From the circuit-
model of Figure 1.8 and equation (1.16) we get,
= N.i = Hclc + Hglg (1.32)
From above, substituting for the magnetic field intensity in terms of the flux density, we get
Bc Bg
N.i = .l c + .l g (1.33)
c g
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
Assuming that all the core flux passes straight down the air-gap, g = c= .
= Bc.Ac = Bg.Ag. (1.34)
The reason for using different values for the area through with flux passes would be clear in section
1.3.8. Using equation (1.33) and (1.34) one gets
lc l
N.i = + g = ( c + g ) = eq . (1.35)
Ac c Ag g
g
= = (1.36)
c + g
1+ c
g
Since c in ferromagnetic materials is several thousand times g, g >> c . The permeability effect
predominates for the usual core and air-gap dimensions even though lc>>lg. It then follows from
equation (1.36), that
(1.37)
g
The above thus implies that in a magnetic circuit with air-gap(s), core reluctance may be neglected with
no significant loss of accuracy. This assumption will be generally made in modeling rotating machines.
The effect of core saturation (reduction of core permeability) will be introduced as a correction
wherever greater accuracy is desired.
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
1.3.8 Fringing
At an air-gap in a magnetic core, the flux fringes out into neighboring air paths as shown in
Figure 1.9, these being of reluctance comparable to that of the gap. The result is non-uniform flux
density in the air-gap (decreasing outward), enlargement of the effective air-gap area and a decrease in
the average gap flux density. The fringing effect also disturbs the core flux pattern to some depth near
the gap. The effect of fringing increases with the air-gap length. Corrections for fringing in short gaps
(as used in machines) are empirically made by adding one gap length to each of the two dimensions
making up its area. For the core given in Figure 1.8, the air-gap reluctance, given by
lg
g = . (1.38)
0 Ag
should be calculated using an Ag which is greater than Ac.
It can be shown theoretically that the magnetic flux leaves and enters the surface of an infinitely
permeable material, in a direction normal to the surface. This will be nearly so in ferromagnetic
materials which have high permeability. In electrical machines a small amount of the tangential flux
component present at iron surfaces will be neglected.
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
Figure 1.10a Wave for Figure 1.10b The hysteresis loop traced out by the
of alternating current flux in a core when a current sinusoidal is applied to it.
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
B Hysteresis loop
Energy absorbed
Energy given up be
steel
H
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
Core d (t)
(t) e(t) = - (1.40)
dt
+
where e(t) is the voltage induced in each turn of the
e(t) coil and (t) is the flux passing through the turn or
N turns flux linking the turn. If a coil has N turns and if the
-
flux linking the ith turn is i(t), then the voltage
Figure 1.12 A typical magnetic circuit induced across the whole coil is given by
N d i (t) d i (t)
i =1
e(t) = - =- (1.41)
i =1 dt dt
d
e(t) = - (1.42)
dt
where is the net flux linkage in webers. If the same amount of flux (t) links all the N turns, then the
in equation (1.42) would just be N . (t).
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
Since the induced voltage opposes the change that causes it, a minus sign is included in equation 1.42.
Lenz'
s law helps to determine the direction of induced emf e(t) and the short-circuit current i(t). Thus if
(t) having direction as shown in the diagram is increasing in magnitude, then R(t) must also be
increasing in magnitude, but in a direction opposite to that of (t). Using the cork screw rule shown in
figure 1.4, it can be ascertained that the direction of current i(t) shown in the diagram in Figure 1.13
above produces the requisite flux. Thus the polarity of the induced voltage e(t) may also be determined.
Example 3
Figure 1.13 shows a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core. If the time varying flux in the core
is given by the equation (t) = 0.05 sin(t) Wb and number of turns N=100, determine the induced
voltage e(t). Assume that the core does not get saturated and all the flux links the coil.
Current
carrying
conductor
i Force F
l
Uniform on the
magnetic conductor
field with
flux density
of B
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Electrical Machines: Introduction Lecture Notes: DCE5015
The direction of the force is given by the right-hand rule: If the index finger of the right hand
point in the direction of the vector i and the middle finger points in the direction of the flux density
vector B, then the thumb points in the direction of the resultant force on the wire. The magnitude of the
force is given by the equation
F= ilB sin (1.44)
where is the angle between the conductor and the flux density vector B. The variable B represents the
magnitude of the flux density vector.
Example 4
Figure 1.14 shows a wire carrying a current in the presence of a magnetic field. The magnetic
flux density is 0.25 T, directed into the page. If the wire is 1.0 m long and carries 0.5 A of current in the
direction from top of the page to the bottom of the page, what are the magnitude and direction of the
force induced on the wire?
Example 5
+
Figure 1.15 shows a conductor
+
conductor moving with velocity of 5.0 m/s to the
right in the presence of a magnetic
Uniform l Motion of E
magnetic the field. The flux density is 0.5 T into the
Induced
vxB
field with conductor emf page, and the wire is 1.0 m long,
flux density v
of B oriented as shown. Determine the
-
- magnitude and polarity of the
Figure 1.15 Induced emf on a moving conductor in a resulting induced voltage.
uniform magnetic field
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