UNIT-III

STEAM NOZZLES AND TURBINES

3.1. Nozzle
Definition:
A steam nozzle may be defined as a passage of varying cross-section, through
which heat energy of steam is converted to Kinetic energy.
 Its major function is to produce steam jet with high velocity to drive steam turbines., A
turbine nozzle performs two functions:
It transforms a portion of energy of steam (obtained from steam generating unit)
Into Kinetic energy.
In the impulse turbine it directs the steam jet of high velocity against blades,
Which are free to move in order to convert kinetic energy into shaft work.
In reaction turbines the nozzles which are free to move, discharge high velocity
steam. The reactive force of the steam against the nozzle produces motion and
work is obtained.
The following events take place in the nozzles:
The steam pressure decreases.
The enthalpy of the steam decreases.
The steam velocity increases
The volume of the steam increases.

There is a conversion of heat energy to kinetic energy as the heat energy from the
decreased steam enthalpy is converted into kinetic energy by the increased steam
velocity.
The nozzles may be convergent nozzles (Fig. a) or divergent nozzle (Fig b) or
They may be convergent-divergent nozzles (Fig. c).
Convergent nozzles are used for smaller pressure drops where the minimum exit
pressure is 0.577 x the inlet pressure (the critical pressure for nozzles.)
 If the exit pressure is less than 0.577x inlet pressure, eddy-currents are developed
and the exit velocity will be less than calculated. The convergent-divergent nozzles
prevent eddy-currents and the calculated velocity will be obtained even at large pressure
drops.
The purpose of the bucket or moving blade on the rotor is to convert the kinetic
energy of the steam into mechanical energy. If all kinetic energy is converted the
steam exit velocity will be 0 m/s. This is not possible but it shows that the rotor blades
must bring the steam exit velocity near 0 m/s.
3.1.1 Flow of steam through nozzles:
From the steady flow energy equation

For the steam flowing through the nozzle it is assumed that z1= z2 and there is no
heat transfer i.e. Q=0 and workdone is zero (W=0). Therefore we get

Neglecting inlet velocity

Enthalpy given is in kJ/kg; it must be multiplied by 1000 inside the root.
If nozzle efficiency (n) is given, then

3.2. Effect of friction

When the steam flows through a-nozzle the final velocity of steam for a given pressure drop
induced due to the following reasons:
the friction between the nozzle surface and steam
the internal friction of steam itself and
The shock losses.
Most of .these frictional losses occur between the throats and exit in convergent-divergent These
frictional losses entail the following effects:
(i) The expansion is no more isentropic, and enthalpy drop is reduced.
ii) The final dryness friction of steam is increased as the kinetic energy gets converted into heat
friction and is absorbed by steam.
ii) The specific volume of steam is increased as the steam becomes more dry due to this frictional
power.

Critical pressure ratio

 fig . Effect of friction on steam flow through a nozzle

SUPERSATURATED OR METASTABLE EXPANSION Of STEAM IN A NOZZLE

When steam flows through a nozzle, it would normally be expected that the discharge of
steam through the nozzle would be slightly less than the theoretical value. But it has been
observed during experiments on flow of wet steam that the discharge is slightly greater than
that calculated by the formula.
This phenomenon is explained as follows: The converging part of the nozzle is so short
and the steam velocity so high that the molecules of steam have insufficient time to collect and
form droplets so that normal condensation does not take place: Such rapid expansion is said to
be metastable and produces a supersaturated state.
 In this state of supersaturation the steam is undercooled to a temperature less than that
corresponding to its pressure; consequently the density of steam increases and hence the weight
of discharge

Effects of supersaturating.
In a nozzle in which supersaturation occurs the effects may be summarised as follows:
There is an increase in the entropy and specific volume of steam. .
The heat drop is reduced below that for thermal equilibrium as a consequence the
Exit velocity of steam is reduced.
Since the condensation does not take place during supersaturated expansion,
so the temperature at which the supersaturation occurs will be less than the
Saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure. Therefore, the density
Of supersaturaled steam will be more than that the equilibrium conditions which
 gives the increase in the mass of steam discharged.
The dryness fraction of steam is improved. The problems on supersaturated flow
cannot be solved by Mollier chart unless Wilson line is drawn it.
Turbines
Turbine is a rotary engine that converts the energy of a moving stream of water, steam, or
gas into mechanical energy. The basic element in a turbine is a wheel or rotor with addles,
propellers, blades, or buckets arranged on its circumference in such a fashion that the
moving fluid exerts a tangential force that turns the wheel and imparts energy to it.
This mechanical energy is then transferred through a drive shaft to operate a machine,
compressor, electric generator, or propeller.
Turbines are classified as hydraulic, or water, turbines, steam turbines, or gas
turbines. Today turbine-powered generators produce most of the world's electrical energy.
Windmills that generate electricity are known as wind turbines
Advantages
Ability to utilize high pressure and high temperature steam.
High efficiency.
High rotational speed.
High capacity/weight ratio.
Smooth, nearly vibration-free operation.
No internal lubrication.
Oil free exhaust steam.
Can be built in small or very large units (up to 1200 MW).
2.1 Operation Principles
The steam turbine unlike the reciprocating steam engine (which operates due to the
pressure energy of system) operates due to dynamic action of the steam.
The acceleration, which may be a change in either magnitude or direction of a stream of
fluid, produces a turning moment on a rotating shaft. In a steam turbine, the velocity of
steam is increased at the expense of pressure by passing the steam through a set of
nozzles and this high velocity steam when allowed to impinge on a series of moving
blades fixed to a common shaft, produces the shaft work.
 The velocity of steam may be partly increased in the passage between the moving blades
themselves.

There are two principles through which turbine operates.

They are
Impulse principle
Reaction principle.
2.1.1 Impulse principle
For a turbine to be purely impulse there should be no pressure drop in moving blade ring.
In principle the impulse steam turbine consists of a casing containing stationary steam
nozzles and a rotor with moving or rotating buckets.
The steam passes through the stationary nozzles and is directed at high velocity against
the rotor buckets causing the rotor to rotate at high speed. If steam at high pressure is
allowed to expand through a stationary nozzle, the result will be a drop in the steam
pressure and an increase in steam velocity.
In fact, the steam will issue from the nozzle in the form of a high-speed jet. If this high
velocity steam is applied to a properly shaped turbine blade, the steam will change in
direction due to the shape of the blade.
The effect of this change in direction of the steam flow will be to produce an impulse
force on the blade causing it to move. If the blade is attached to the rotor of a turbine,
then the rotor will revolve.
The force applied to the blade is developed by causing the steam to change direction of
flow (Newton's 2nd Law - change of momentum). The change of momentum produces
the impulse force.
In an actual impulse turbine there are a number of stationary nozzles and the moving
blades are arranged completely around the rotor periphery. Note that the pressure drops
and the velocity increases as the steam passes through the nozzles.
Then as the steam passes through the moving blades the velocity drops but the pressure
remains the same. The fact that the pressure does not drop across the moving blades is the
 Distinguishing feature of the impulse turbine. The pressure at the inlet to the moving
blades is the same as the pressure at the outlet from the moving blades.

2.1.2 Reaction principle:

If the moving blades of a turbine are shaped in such a way that the steam expands and
drops in pressure as it passes through them, then a reaction will be produced which gives
a force to the blades.
If there is no escape opening or nozzle for the steam, then the pressure will be the same
on all walls of the container and the container will remain at rest. If, however, the
container has an escape opening or nozzle, then steam will expand through the opening
and drop in pressure.
Therefore there will be an unbalanced pressure on the wall opposite to the opening and a
reaction force will be produced causing the container to move due to reaction effect. A
reaction turbine has rows of fixed blades alternating with rows of moving blades.
The steam expands first in the stationary or fixed blades where it gains some velocity as it
drops in pressure. It then enters the moving blades where its direction of flow is changed
thus producing an impulse force on the moving blades.
In addition, however, the steam upon passing through the moving blades, again expands
and further drops in pressure giving a reaction force to the blades. This sequence is
repeated as the steam passes through additional rows of fixed and moving blades.
Note that the steam pressure drops across both the fixed and the moving blades while the
absolute velocity rises in the fixed blades and drops in the moving blades.
The distinguishing feature of the reaction turbine is the fact that the pressure does drop
across the moving blades. In other words there is a pressure difference between the inlet
to the moving blades and the outlet from the moving blades.
Special Aspects of Reaction Turbines
There is a difference in pressure across the moving blades. The steam will therefore tend
to leak around the periphery of the blades instead of passing through them. Blade
clearances therefore must be kept to a minimum.
 Also, due to pressure drop across the moving blades, an unbalanced thrust will be
developed upon the rotor and some arrangement must be made to balance this.

2.5 Compounding
In order for the steam to give up all its kinetic energy to the moving blades in an impulse
turbine, it should leave the blades at zero absolute velocity. This condition will exist if the
blade velocity is equal to one half of the steam velocity.
Therefore, for good efficiency the blade velocity should be about one half of the steam
velocity. If the steam was expanded from initial entry pressure down to final exhaust
pressure in a single set of nozzles (single stage) then the velocity of the steam leaving the
nozzles might be in the order of 1100 m per second.
In order to have good efficiency the blade velocity would have to be of about 550 m per
second, which would require excessively high rev/mm of the turbine rotor and failure
due to centrifugal force could result.
In addition to this, excessively high steam velocity will cause high friction losses in
nozzles and blading. A large pressure ratio in a vapour cycle will result in high thermal
efficiency.
But, when expansion of steam takes place from the high initial pressure to the exhaust
pressure in only one stage, the velocity of it will be very high and this will set up
excessively blade velocities. Further the lost velocity or the leaving loss namely;
kinetic energy of the fluid leaving the turbine will also be high.
Therefore, in order to restrict the rotational speed of the turbine and also to minimize
the leaving loss, the exhaust steam from the first ring of moving blades is diverted to
a second ring of moving blades with the help of a ring of stationary blades.
There may be two or more rings of moving blades keyed to a common shaft and in
between two rings of moving blades there will be a ring if stationary blades usually
anchored to the turbine casing. This way of reducing rotor speed is known as
compounding.
There are three number of methods of compounding.
 Pressure compounding
Velocity compounding.
Pressure-velocity compounding.

2.5.1 Pressure Compounding (RATEAU).

The expansion of steam from boiler pressure to exhaust pressure is carried out in a
number of steps or stages. Each stage has a set of nozzles and a row of moving blades.
The rows of moving blades are separated from each other by partitions or diaphragms,
into which the nozzles are set.
As only a portion of the velocity available is developed in each set of nozzles, the blade
velocity is kept down to a reasonable amount. This type of compounding is known as the
pressure compounding and the nozzle and blade arrangement for a pressure compounded
impulse turbine is sketched.
In this arrangement, the pressure of the steam drops in each set of nozzles as indicated by
the pressure graph. The steam velocity is increased by each pressure drop and then
decreases again in each row of moving blades, as the velocity graph shows.

Fig: pressure compounding

 This amounts to a number of simple impulse turbines in series, the nozzle of one stage
receiving steam discharged by the preceding ring of moving blades. The distribution of
the total enthalpy drop to a number of sets of nozzle will be about the same and the
velocity of steam at the outlet of each set of nozzles will be lower than the maximum
velocity obtainable by single expansion.
The work output of a pressure compounded turbine is the sum of that produced by the
separate impulse stages. However, the velocity of steam at entrance to nozzles
particularly after the first stage must be taken into account.
2.5.2 Velocity Compounding (CURTIS):
This design consists of one set of nozzles in which the steam is expanded from initial to
exhaust pressure. The velocity of the steam resulting from this expansion is absorbed in
two or more rows of moving blades.
Rows of fixed or guide blades, attached to the casing, are set between rows of moving
blades and receive and redirect the steam to the next row of moving blades. As the
velocity is absorbed in more than one row of moving blades, the blade speed is less than
if the velocity was all absorbed in one row of blades.
This type of compounding is known as the velocity compounding and the blade and
nozzle arrangement for a velocity compounded impulse turbine is shown.
 Fig: velocity compounding
The pressure drops from inlet pressure to exhaust pressure in the single set of nozzles as
the pressure graph shows. This large single pressure drop produces high steam velocity,
which is absorbed in the two rows of moving blades. Note that there is no pressure or
velocity drop in the fixed guide blades.

2.5.3 Pressure-Velocity Compounding

This is a combination of the first two methods of compounding, namely pressure
compounding and velocity compounding. The steam is expanded in two or more sets of
nozzles in series, each set having velocity compounded blades to receive the steam
issuing from the nozzles.
The arrangement showed in Figure features two sets of nozzles. The steam pressure drops
in each set of nozzles and the resulting velocity increase in each case is absorbed by in
two rows of moving blades having a row of stationary blades in between them.
The methods of reducing rotor speeds, namely, pressure compounding, velocity
compounding, and pressure-velocity compounding have all applied to impulse turbines.

Fig: pressure- velocity compounding

 In the case of the reaction turbine, it is not necessary to make special blade arrangements
to reduce rotor speed. This is because the pressure drops across each row of moving
blades as well as across each row of fixed blades and consequently the pressure drops in
every stage and in small amounts all through the machine.
This requires, however, a large number of alternate rows of fixed and moving blades
resulting in a long machine.
Therefore, in order to reduce the number of blade rows necessary, reaction turbines
frequently have a velocity compounded impulse stage at
the inlet end of the machine.

2.3 Velocity diagrams for simple and multistage turbines

2.3.1 Simple impulse turbine
The simple impulse (DE LAVAL) turbine:
The first commercial steam turbine is the De Laval impulse turbine, which in its
elementary form consists of one ring of moving blades, mounted around the periphery of
a wheel. The velocity of steam is increased by passing the steam through a group of
nozzle placed partially around the periphery of the wheel where expansion takes place
from boiler pressure down to exhaust pressure.
The high velocity steam when allowed to impinge on the moving blades exerts a force on
the blades and produces shaft work. Since the primary force on the blades is due to the
high velocity steam jet, this type of turbine is classified as an impulse turbine. The
pressure and velocity variation of steam during its flow through the nozzle and the
turbine are also indicated in the figure.
Velocity diagram
The adiabatic flow of fluid through the blades of a turbine is governed by the blades
of a turbine is governed by the continuity, energy and momentum equations. They
are, respectively,
 The momentum equation is particularly important in determining the net force on the
moving blades due to a change in fluid velocity. It is to be noted that since velocity is a
vector quantity having magnitude as well as direction, the change in fluid velocity must
be determined vectorially.
For the construction of vector diagrams the following notations are followed in this text
V= Absolute velocity of fluid
 Vr= Relative velocity of fluid
Vw= Whirl velocity
Va= Axial velocity of flow
u = Velocity of the moving blades.
The suffix 1 or 2 denotes the corresponding quantity at inlet or outlet as the case may
be. The velocity diagrams are constructed by setting off absolute vectors from a selected
origin. The velocity diagrams at inlet and exit of the moving blades are shown in figure.
The jet of steam strikes the moving blade with an absolute velocity of V1 at an angle of 1
to the tangent, 1 being termed as the nozzle angle, the tangential component Vw1 at inlet
does work on the moving blades as it is the same direction of motion.
The axial component Va1 is perpendicular to the direction of motion and hence, does no
work on the blades. But the velocity of flow causes steam to flow through the turbine
axially and due to this component there will be axial thrust on the rotor.
Since the blade is moving with a velocity of u, the stream jet reaches the blade with a
relative velocity of Vr1 and is obtained by vectorial subtraction, as shown. The angle
between the relative velocity and the tangent is 1, the entrance angle of moving blade
required for shockless flow of steam.

The jet leaves the moving blades with a relative velocity of Vr2 whose direction for
 shockless exit, is at an angle 2 to the tangent. The absolute velocity V2 of the stream
jet leaving the moving blade is obtained by adding vectorially the blade velocity u
with the relative velocity Vr2. 2 is the angle between the absolute velocity V2 and
the tangent.
The tangential component of V2 is Vw2, which is the whirl velocity at exit of the moving
blade. Since the blade velocity u is common for both, it is usual to combine the entrance
and exit velocity triangles on this common base and figure shows this.

The peripheral velocities of the blades at the entry and exit corresponding to diameters d1
and d2 are

The absolute velocity V, at both entry and exit has tangential component Vw and a radial
component Va
The tangential momentum at a given section is
 The effectiveness of the blades in producing useful shaft work from the energy presented
to them, is measured by the blade or diagram efficiency which is defined as

Blade efficiency or utilization factor,

If there were any losses in the fixed blades or nozzle, then

 A stage of a turbine constitutes a ring of nozzles or fixed blades together with a ring of
nozzles or fixed blades together with a ring of moving blades. The stage efficiency
measures the effectiveness of a stage. When there were no losses in the fixed blades or
nozzles, the stage efficiency will be equal to the blade efficiency.

The combined velocity diagram for a simple impulse wheel will be similar to figure. In
an impulse turbine, the relative velocity Vr2 at exit is equal to the relative velocity Vr1 at
inlet, friction is neglected. In practice, there will be losses due to friction and the relative
velocity Vr2 will be 85 to 90% of Vr1.
In general, Vr2 =kVr1
Where k is a coefficient that takes into account the blade loss due to friction.
The axial thrust on the wheel dueto velocity flow = rate of change of momentum in axial
direction
 In an impulse wheel, the energy supplied to the moving blades is the kinetic energy of the
jet issuing from the nozzles. Therefore,
 The blade efficiency depends on the value of
Nozzle angle 1
Blade speed ratio
Blade angles 1 and 2

Velocity coefficient k.
If the values of 1, K and C are assumed to be constant, the diagram efficiency depends
on the value of . Therefore maximum efficiency can be obtained by differentiating the
equation with respect to and equating it to zero
Substituting the value of in the blade efficiency equation, we get
2.3.3 Multi stage turbines:

Fig: Velocity diagram for velocity compounded two-stage turbine

2.6 Steam Turbine Governing:
The control and regulation of output of a turbine in accordance with the variable demand
require a positive and accurate control of speed, pressure and mass flow of steam through
the turbine.
The aim of governing the power station turbines, which are coupled to alternators, is to
maintain constant speed under varying load so as to have constancy of frequency. In
extraction turbines for industrial purposes, the flow must be regulated and the pressure of
the extracted steam must be maintained constant. Then, a second or pressure control
governor is required in addition to the main or operating governor.
Whatever may be the application, each turbine in addition to the main governor will have
an over speed or emergency trip governor which will protect the turbine against
destructive over speeding that may be caused by sudden throw of load or failure of main
governor.
The methods of governing are
Nozzle Governing
Throttle governing
By pass governing
Combination of throttle and nozzle governing
Combination of throttle and By-pass governing.

2.6.1 Throttle Governing

In the throttle governing, the mass rate of flow of steam is regulated through a single
admission valve where as in the nozzle governing, the flow is regulated through a bank of
admission valves supplying individual nozzles or group of nozzles.
The opening and closing of the admission valves are actuated through a camshaft under
the influence of the governor, which is usually of the flyball type. Hydraulic governors
using centrifugal oil pumps are also used. Throttle control is most widely used,
particularly in small turbines, because its initial cost is less and the mechanism is simple.
The nozzle type of governor has the advantage of using the steam at the boiler pressure
and throttling occurs in that valve which is partly open.
 On the other hand, in throttling governing the steam pressure is reduced before reaching
the turbine when the unit is part load.
Although, no energy is lost by throttling, availability is decreased. With throttle
governing a single large control valve controls the load from 0% to 100%. For large
turbines two control valves operating in parallel replace a large single valve.

Fig: Throttling governing

When steam is throttled, the superheat increases and the turbine exhaust steam is drier,
reducing the turbine blade erosion, but with the drier steam entering the condenser, the
condenser losses increase.
Throttling of steam through a valve is an isenthalpic (constant enthalpy) process and no
heat is lost. The so-called throttling losses occur in the condenser,
2.6.2 Nozzle governing:
With nozzle governing a series of nozzle valves open in sequence as the load increases.
This type of governing is most efficient and is used for impulse turbines

fig: Nozzle Governing

2.6.3 By-pass Governing or Overload Governing:
This system is used on impulse as well as reaction turbines, An extra set of control valves
admit steam to the space behind the Curtis wheel or for a reaction turbine to an annular
space behind the first 8-12 stages.
Bypassing part of the turbine increases the turbine capacity (overloads the turbine) but at
a reduced efficiency. The by-pass valves are smaller than the regular governor valves, as
too much bypass steam may starve the by-passed stages rotating in steam at very high
density and the blades may overheat.