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Arch. Met. Geoph. Biocl., Ser. B 36,297-316 (1986)

FOR METEOROLOGY,
G E O P H Y S I C S , AND
BIOCLIMATOLOGY
by Springer-Verlag 1986

551.582.2(72)
Estaci6n de Biologh Chameta, Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de M6xico, M6xico

Climate of Chamela, Jalisco, and Trends

in the South Coastal Region of Mexico

S. H. Bullock
With 4 Figures
Received October 25, 1985
Revised December 30, 1985

Summary
The warm, seasonally dry climate of Mexico's south coast is represented by data from the
biological station at Chamela, Jatisco, and is compared with 26 other localities. The mean
annual temperature was 24.9 C; monthly mean maximums were equitable (29.1 to
32.0 ) but minimums showed significant seasonal changes (14.8 to 22.9). Local winds
were strongest in the late dry season. Most cyclonic features moved parallel to the coast.
Hurricanes made landfall much more frequently along some parts of the coast than
others. The average annual precipitation was 748 ram, with a coefficient of variation of
16% for eight years. Rainfall was measurable on an average of 53 days per year, but the
seven heaviest rains contributed over 50%of the total; 80% of the total fell between
2 July and 4 November. Occasionally, there was substantial rain in December or January.
For unsheltered lowland localities, rainfall increased with elevation, as did length of the
wet season. Longer-term records (40 and more years) from four localities showed signifi-
cant oscillations in precipitation that were correlated between sites.

Zusammenfassung
Das Klima von Chamela (Jalisco) und Trends an der siidlichen Kiistenregion Mexikos
Das warme, jahreszeitlich trockene Klima der mexikanischen Kiiste wird anhand der
Daten der biologischen Station Chamela (Jalisco) untersucht und mit 26 anderen
Stationen verglichen. Das Jahresrnittel der Temperatur betrug 24,9 C, die mittleren
Monatsmaxima schwankten geringftigigzwischen 29,1 und 32,0 C, die mittleren Monats-
minima dagegen stark zwischen 14,8 und 22,9 C. Die lokalen Windsysteme entwickelten
sich am besten am Ende der Trockenzeit. Die meisten Zyklonen zogen entlang der Ktiste,
tropische Wirbelsttirme drangen bevorzugt an bestimmten Kiistenstreifen ins Landesinnere
vor. Die Jahressumme des Niederschlags betrug 748 mm, mit einer 16%-Schwankung in
acht Jahren. Met~barer Niederschlag fiel an 53 Tagen im Jahr, mehr als 50% des Gesamt-
niederschlags stammte jedoch yon den 7 st~irksten Ereignissen. 80% der Jahressumme
298 S.H. Bullock

wurden zwischen 2. Juli und 4. November gemessen. Gelegentlich trat starker Niederschlag
im Dezember oder Januar auf. Ftir nicht abgeschirmte Gebiete erh6hte sich der Gesamt-
niederschlag und die Dauer der Regenzeit mit der Seeh6he. Liingere Zeitreihen (mindes-
tens 40 JaNe) in vier Regionen zeigten bedeutende Schwankungen des Niederschlags,
wobei die Stationen miteinander korreliert waren.

1. Introduction
In the tropics, diverse and tong-term studies in ecology and behavior have
tended to concentrate at relatively few field sites. The northern reaches of
the Neotropics in Mexico contain several of the newer natural reserves to
gain some assurance o f perpetuity. It is fundamental for any comparative
understanding to describe the physical setting of each site, and to relate
local to regional characteristics, given the complexity of tropical geography.
Clearly, one of the most influential and geographically variable aspects of
env~or~nent in the lowland tropics is the climatic regime. Several aspects
of the climate are described here for a reserve of deciduous and semi-decidu-
ous forest in the state o f Jalisco, that has developed as a focus o f research
in the Mexican tropics. The Estaci6n de Biolog~a Chamela is located at
approximately 19 30'N, 105 03'W, less than 2 kin from the Pacific coast,
in the municipality o f La Huerta (Fig. 1). The flora and vegetation have
been described [ 1, 2] and systeinqevel studies of several watersheds are in
progress, comparable to those at other Neotropical sites [3, 4, 5]. This paper
is comprised of the following: a brief description of substrate conditions;
analysis o f data for insolation and temperature, rainfall, and winds
( 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 8 4 ) , and regional cyclonic activity ( 1 9 2 1 - 1 9 7 5 ) ; analysis of
regional patterns in the rainfall regime ( 1 9 6 1 - 1 9 8 0 ) and long-term trends
( 1 9 3 5 - 1 9 8 0 ) ; discussion of the position of Chamela in climatic classifi-
cations; discussion o f the problem of delimiting seasons and of intra-annual
anomalies; a brief mention of some dynamic factors possibly underlying
the climatic patterns.

2. Substrate
The station comprises 1600 hectares, mostly below 150 In elevation, the
range being from less than 30 m to about 500 m. Slope gradients below 6
are infrequent (7% of 100 sainple points) while gradients over 21 are
c o m m o n (43%). However, there are also several tens o f hectares o f flat
upland areas. These must forinerly have been deposition sites, having coarse
textured soils with an abundance o f poorly sorted, well worn rocks. A few
extremely abrupt slopes indicate fautt lines. The topography is sufficient in
some places for enhanced protection from or exposure to winds - both
onshore breezes during the dry season and cyclonic storms in the wet season.
 Climate of Chamela, Jalisco 299

+ + 0o+

)-5
\
+ + + ,4-
104 IO0 96 92

Fig. 1. South coastal Mexico, with the 1000 m contour, and localities for which pre-
cipitation data were analyzed. 1 E1 Tuito, 2 Tomatlfin, 3 Estaci6n de Biolog{aChamela,
4 Cuitzmata, 5 Cihuatlgn, 6 Purificaci6n, 7 Autlfin, 8 Manzanillo, 9 Cerro de Ortega,
10 Tepames, 11 Quito, 12 San Telmo, 13 Coalcomfin,14 Apatzingan, 15 Arteaga,
16 La Uni6n, 17 Acapulco, 18 Arcelia, 19 Chilpancingo,20 Iguala, 21 Yautepec,
22 Mat[as Romero, 23 Tehuantepec, 24 Argelia, 25 Puerto Madero, 26 Tapachula,
2 7 Uni6n Jufirez

During the drought periods, groundwater is probably reliable in a few parts

of arroyos, but absent from the hills. Surface water lasts only a few days in
most years. There are only three permanent rivers within 100 km up or
down the coast from Chamela.
The soils are essentially pH neutral (6.89 -+ 0.15, n = t0) and the organic
matter content is generally low (5.41% -+1.24, n = 10). Variation o f soil
depth over three orders of magnitude is apparent in a variety of cuts along
roads and arroyos. Ifillside soils are generally derived from basalts or from
rhyolites.

3. Insolation and Temperature

At the latitude o f Chamela the difference between maximum and minimum

daylength should be 136.5 min (derived from [61). The range o f solar alti-
tudes should be about 42 to either side o f the zenith, and the zenith should
be passed on about 16 May and 25 July.
21 Arch. Met. Geoph. Biocl. B, Bd. 36, H, 3 4
300 S.H. Bulto&

Daily w e a t h e r readings have usually included subjective ratings o f cloud

cover at 1900 hrs. T h e original data in octaves were c o n v e r t e d to t e n t h s , and
were summarized o n a m o n t h l y basis for 1 9 7 9 - 1 9 8 3 (Table 1). Relative
m i n i m u m s occurred in March (2.6) and N o v e m b e r (2.5), while cloudiness
generally increased in May and June t o a m a x i m u m in J u l y (7.8).
The y e a r l y m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e was 24.9 (Table 1). T h e range o f m o n t h l y
m i n i m u m s was 14.8 to 22.9 , and t h e coldest night r e c o r d e d was 12 . Low
t e m p e r a t u r e s in winter are part o f a daily course and n o t due to t h e in-
cursion o f large cold air systems. T h e range o f m o n t h l y mean m a x i m u m s
was considerably less, 29.1 o t o 32.0; the h o t t e s t d a y r e c o r d e d was 35.0 .
That higher t e m p e r a t u r e s are n o t reached is p r o b a b l y due to the p r o x i m i t y
to the ocean. Evaluating the significance o f differences among m o n t h s
showed distinct breaks in t h e m i n i m u m s , b u t t h e m a x i m u m s showed o n l y
a very slow and gradual t r e n d ( A N O V A , p < .05, Table 1 ).

Table 1. Monthly Climatic Summao~for the ChamelaField Station. Cloud cover (1900 hrs)
ratings range from 0 to 10. Wind velocity ratings (1900 hrs) are approximate Beaufort
scale equivalents. Temperature is in degrees Celsius. (The original temperature data were
heavily censored with respect to observer and instrument due to some consistent
problems; here, sample size in days per month ranges from I0 to 38.) Rainfall is in
millimeters (seven year mean and standard deviation; (*) assuming there was no rainfall
m 1977 prior to June). Below, months are ranked by temperature minimums and maxi-
mums; bars connect months that do not differ significantly (i.e.p > .05)

Month Cloud Wind Temperature RainfaI1

cover velocity Min Max Mean

Jan. 3.1 2.8 15.8 29.3 22.6 30.5 -+ 41.3*

Feb. 3.0 2.9 14.8 30.0 22.4 3.6 7.8*
March 2.6 3.4 15.5 29.1 22.3 0*
Aprit 3.0 3.6 17.6 29.3 23.4 0*
May 3.9 3.5 20.0 30.0 25.0 22.2 62.7*
June 5.4 3.4 22.0 31,9 27.0 56.4 57.5
July 7.8 2.6 22.9 31.7 27.3 132.4 46.8
Aug. 7.1 2.2 22.1 32,0 27.0 147.2 108.7
Sept. 7.5 2.4 22.1 31.8 27.0 234.6 144.8
Oct. 5.1 2.2 21.5 31.7 26.6 79.4 54.3
Nov. 2.5 1.9 20.3 31.0 25.6 25.1 42.3
Dec. 3.6 2.1 16.9 30.6 23.8 16.4 31.3

Minimum: Feb., March, Jan., Dec., April, May, Nov, Oct., June, Aug., Sept., July

Maximum: March, Jan., April, Feb., May, Dec., Nov., Oct., July, Sept., June, Aug.
 Climate of Chamela, Jalisco 301

4. Rainfall

T h e t o t a l annual rainfall f o r t h e years 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 8 4 averaged 748 m m w i t h a

standard deviation o f 119 m m and a range o f 5 8 5 - 9 6 1 m m (Table 2). T h e
coefficient o f variation for this short period was 15.9%. T h e n u m b e r o f days
per year w i t h at least 0.254 m m o f rain averaged 53.2 w i t h a range o f 4 3 - 6 0
(Table 2).

Table 2. Rainfall Totals for the Chamela Station by Month and Year. Definitions of wet
and dry seasons are in the text; dry season ending in year i is tabled with year i-1. Drought
criteria are in the text, (a) is .254 mm level and (b) is the 10 mm level. (*) Winter total
for 1984-1985 includes rainless period from February through April 1985

Month Year
1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Jan. - 0 23.3 39.1 124.4 0 18.7 38.4

Feb. - 22.1 0 6.8 0 0 0 0
March - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
April - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
May - 0 0 0 0 0 177.3 0
June 63.9 144.5 11.7 20.0 13.9 18.3 32.5 146.7
July 62.2 209.6 118.1 168.9 98.0 109.8 125.8 167.1
Aug. 318.4 27.1 106.9 287.7 192.3 60.7 124.4 59.9
Sept. 73.4 314.8 455.5 33.2 249.1 133.5 266.1 350.9
Oct. 78.1 52.2 27.4 75.7 165.1 102 A 134.4 0
Nov. 43.5 1.0 0 0 0 119.6 36.8 0
Dec. 3.3 0 1.3 0 0 40.9 0 85.6

Annual
mm 642.8 771.3 744.2 631.4 842.8 585.2 916.0 848.6
Days 54 64 43 51 53 51 60 50
Wet season
mm 626.6 700.5 706.9 575.6 718.4 544.3 896.0 724.6
Length 126 121 116 137 117 118 147 98
Droughts
(a) 65 71 83 83 74 73 95 57
(b) 103 94 95 100 88 92 115 70
Dry season
Length 134 161 151 166 236 126 135 -
Rainfall year (May-April)
rnm
Total 664.9 772.5 766.8 709.9 718.4 603.9 935.7 829.2
May-Oct. 596.0 748.2 719.6 585.5 718 A 424.7 860.5 724.6
Nov.-Apr. 68.9 24.3 47.2 124.4 0 179.2 75.2 104.6"
21"
302 S.H. Bullock

The mean rainfall per month is presented in Table 1 ; the years are presented
separately in Table 2. In January and February, it was uncommon for more
than one storm to occur but this was often (six years) sufficient to result in
a general leaf flush and some flowering. From mid-February to late May no
rainfall at all was recorded. The totals for June were low relative to the mid-
season values. The first single rain of at least 10 mm was generally recorded
after 22 June, suggesting a late effective end to drought. A four month
period following summer solstice, 2 July to 4 November, accounted for an
average of 80.2% of the annual totals. The months of maximum rainfall were
August or September, the latter having the highest eight-year average.
Averages at the beginning and end of the season were biased due to ex-
ceptional events. In late May 1983 tropical storm Adolfo brought 177.3 mm;
no other rains have been recorded in May. Both November and December
had less than 2 mm in five years, but November had one storm (in 1982)
leaving 119.6 mm. Three storms in December (1982, 1984) contributed
96% of the eight-year total for that month.
The mode for 24 hr rainfall totals was below 10 mm (Table 3). Nearly 63%
of the 24 hr records were less than 10 mm, and yearly expectation for rains
of > 60 mm was only two. This strong negative skew had the result that
h e a w rains (> 30 mm), though few (t 3.1%, or 7 days), on average contri-
buted the greater part o f the annual total (53.3%). All o f these rains were
probably due to tropical cyclones. These did not always fall neatly in the
24 hr samples ( 0 7 0 0 - 0 7 0 0 hrs) but storm events were not distinguished in
the original data.

Table 3. Frequency Distribution o f 24 hr Rainfall Totals, Based on 426 Rainy Days,

1977-1984

24 hour total (ram)

0.2-t0.0 10.1-30.0 30.1-60.0 60.t-100.0 I00.1-150.0

Frequency (%) 62.7 24.2 8.9 2.8 1.4

It should be noted that lightning, virtually absent in winter, is plentiful in

association with summer storms. Apparently no fires result from this in the
forests around Chamela.
No instrumental data and only sporadic notes exist on condensation
moisture at Chameta. However, heavy dews were common at the beginning
of the dry season, in conjunction with decreasing night temperatures. Fogs
were sporadic in occurrence and location, and but occasionally gave indi-
cation of large scale land-sea interactions. The subject is of particular interest
 Climate of Chamela, Jalisco 303

at Chamela, where the growing season could be noticeably lengthened and/or

the rate o f leaf drop lowered despite the end of precipitation. Condensation
moisture may also be of particular significance in sustaining this area's
abundance o f lichens and bromeliads. The effect of condensation moisture
on plants is debateable. Stone's (7) review of the literature shows conflict-
ing results both in respect to the reduction of transpiration and possible re-
hydration. Some agreement on crucial questions and techniques seems to
be necessary before more field work can make a contribution.

5. Winds

Weather records at Chamela have also included subjective ratings o f wind

velocity. Terminology varied among observers over the following range:
quieto, calma, lento, suave, ligera, regular, fuerte, veloz, r~pido. The
Beaufort scale equivalents are 0 - 5 , although higher force winds were
occasional for short periods. The summary of observations at 1900 hrs,
1 9 7 9 - 1 9 8 3 (Table 1), shows monthly mean values exceeded 3.0 from
March through June, and below 2.5 from August through December. The
afternoon breezes in the dry season were apparently due to local or regional
land-sea temperature differences and not to larger features of the general
circulation.
Records of appreciable cyclonic weather anomalies of the tropical Pacific
passing near Mexico were compiled for the years 1921-1975 by Arroyo
Garcia et al. [8]. Only after 1960 was the distinction made between de-
pression (winds < 63 kin/h), storm ( 6 3 - t 17 km/hr), and hurricane ( > 119
km/hr). Also, an exceptionally low frequency of cyclones in the 1940s
suggested poor reporting. However, there were notable geographic trends
for sections o f the coast from Cabo Corrientes, Jalisco, to the Guatemalan
border. Two sections of the coast > 200 km long had no recorded entrances:
section 1, Puerto Madero to east of Salina Cruz, and section 3, west o f
Puerto Escondido to east of Acapulco. Reported entrances over land were
concentrated in four sections: section 2, from Salina Cruz to Puerto
Escondido; section 4, the vicinity of Acapulco; section 6, from Zihuatenejo
to west of Playa Azul; and section 8, from Rio Armeria to Rio Cuitzmala.
Of eight hurricanes reaching land from 1960 to 1975, seven arrived in these
sections, four near the mouth o f the Rio Balsas. Notably, section 2 showed
I0 cyclones moving over land from 1927 to 1945, but only three from 1946
to 1975.
The tabulations by Arroyo Garcia et al. [8] also supported the following
generalizations. The vast majority of the Pacific cyclones moved westward
or northwestward roughly parallel to the coast and at some distance from
it, and the outstanding area of dissipation over land or sea was near the
304 S.H. Bullock

Table 4. (A) Cyclone Distribution Expressed as the Number o f Cyclones Entering Over
Land per 100 k m Coastline per 10 Years, for the Coast From Puerto Madero, Chiapas,
to Cabo Corrientes, Jalisco. (Length of coast sections was measured on a 1:3500000
scale map.) (B) TemporalDistribution (1951-1975). Based on maps and tables in [8]

(a)
Section Limiting Meridians Length of Cyclone frequency
No. East West section (km) (No./100 km/10 years)

1 9230 ' 9430 ' 356 0

2 9430 ' 97 10' 249 0.88
3 97 10' 99 218 0
4 99 100 30' 166 0.88
5 10030 ' 10130 ' 111 0.16
6 101030 ' 102050 ' 159 1.72
7 10250 ' t04 149 0.12
8 104 105 125 1.46
9 105 105040 ' 138 0.13

(B) May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.

Mean
frequency 0.36-+0..57 1.72-+1.10 2.88-+2.17 2.72-+2.17 2.96-+1.31 1.96-+1.24 0.36-+0.64

Tropic o f Cancer. Of recorded events only 28% reached land (n = 484,

1 9 2 1 - 1 9 7 5 ) . While nearly half o f recent events were "tropical storms",
the frequency o f hurricanes was also considerable (37%; n = 239,
t 9 6 0 - 1 9 7 5 ) . The major cyclone activity was from July through September
(Table 4). Storms from December to Pebruary were probably o f a different
origin (but see [9]), and it is reasonable to suppose changes in sea surface
temperatures and associated changes in currents were significant factors in
the seasonality. Since the advent o f meteorological satellites, the observed
frequency o f cyclones has increased, to 14.6 per year for 1 9 6 5 - 1 9 7 9 [ 10].
For the latter period, the temporal frequency o f storms showed relative
maximums at 1 5 - 3 0 day intervals and the major peak in early September.
It is also notable that the frequency o f landfalls below latitude 20N was
greater in June than later in the year [ 10].

6. Regional Patterns and Long-Term Trends

The Chamela data can be put in regional perspective b y considering patterns

apparent among other Pacific slope localities east o f Cabo Corrientes (Fig. I)
for the years 1 9 6 1 - 1 9 8 0 (Table 5). Near coastal localities have rainfall
averages below 1000 mm, generally lower than more inland, higher localities
 Climate of Chamela, Jalisco 305

Table 5. Rainfitll Characteristics o f Pacific Slope Localities, Including Mean Annual

Rainfall and its Standard Deviation, the Frequency o f Wet Months [criteria o f 30 mm and
60 mm) in the Entire Record and in Winter (November through April)

Locality Longitude Altitude Annual Freo~uencyof wet months

rainfall
(m) (ram) All year Winter
Mean S.D. >30 >60 >30 >60

E1Tuito 105019 ' 600 1681 191 .5t ,45 .18 .11
Tomatlfin 10515 ' 50 832 194 ,48 ,41 .17 .10
Cuitzmala 104059 ' 20 795 339 .42 .32 .17 .10
Pulificaci6n 104o36 ' 440 i652 340 ,50 ,45 ,18 ,08
Cihuatlfin 10434 ' 20 894 232 .50 ,37 .20 .07
Autlfin 10422 ' 920 680 141 .48 ,40 .18 .08
Manzanillo 10419 ' 3 866 234 .43 .35 .11 ,08
Cerro de Ortega 10344' 20 922 267 .46 .40 .09 .08
Tepames 103038 ' 800 934 219 ,42 .38 .09 .07
Quito 10325 ' 1045 948 t59 .48 .41 .12 .05
San Telmo 103030 ' 70 797 244 .40 ,33 .07 .03
Coalcoman 103009 ' 1076 1i66 I73 .57 ,48 .22 .11
Apatzingan 102o21 ' 500 761 t30 .43 ,36 .06 .02
Arteaga 102025 ' 1040 876 203 .45 .39 .08 .05
LaUni0n 10148 ' 38 927 242 ,45 ,40 .08 ,05
Arcelia 100o17 ' 450 1174 180 .48 ,41 .05 ,02
Acapulco 99056 ' 3 1361 357 .45 ,40 .07 ,06
Chilpancingo 9930 , I360 812 152 .48 ,43 ,04 ,03
Iguala 9933 ' 635 1104 262 .48 ,43 .03 .02
Yautepec 99003 ' 1203 892 146 ,49 ,43 .05 .02
Tehuantepec 9513 ' i00 834 353 .39 ,32 .04 .02
MatiasRomero 95002 ' 200 1642 322 .66 ,50 .38 .12
Argelia 92 10' 515 1100 195 .51 ,44 .08 .0I
Pto. Madero 92024 ' 21 1421 545 ,52 .45 .12 .04
Tapachula 9215 ' 137 2326 478 .68 .60 .35 .22
Uni6nJu~rez 9203 ' 1400 3579 1083 .83 .74 .66 .48

(e.g. Tomatlfin vs. E1 Tuito, Cihuatlfin vs. Purificaci6n, San T e l m o vs. Coal-
com~n, see also [11 ]),Acapulco being the o n l y exception here. However,
some inland localities are n o t a b l e for low rainfall, due to their location in
sheltered valleys (e.g. Autlfin, Tolimfin, Yautepec). While rainfall in Chiapas
is generally higher t h a n west o f the Isthmus, b o t h o f the above effects are
nicely illustrated b y the transect Pto. Madero, Tapachula, U n i 6 n Juftrez,
Argefia. A n o t h e r a l t i t u d i n a l effect is an increase in the overall frequency
o f wet m o n t h s (Table 5), a n i n d i c a t i o n o f the length o f the wet season.
Winter anomalies are n o t a b l y less frequent in Guerrero and Oaxaca t h a n
306 S.H. Bu~ock

further west (Table 5). However, winter storms are occasionally salient
throughout much of the region (e.g. January 1967 and 1980, March 1968,
April 1966).
The only lowland locality listed here that is consistently distinct from the
south coast regime is Mat[as Romero, in the middle o f the Isthmus, which
shows the influence of winter "nortes" that affect the east coast [12].
More intensive mapping o f climatic types in smaller regions has been under-
taken by Garc{a and colleagues. In western Michoacfin, Garc~a and Reyna [ 13]
recognized several subdivisions of K6ppen type Aw that they could relate
directly to significant changes in the structure and composition of the vege-
tation. These subdivisions were located on the interior o f the Sierra Madre
del Sur, and were mostly mapped in accordance with elevation and slope
gradient and exposure. The vegetation type "Selva Baja Caducifolia" ([ 14];
equivalent to Bosque Tropical Caducifolia of [15 ]), with its corresponding
climatic subtype, was mapped as occupying the entire Pacific slope up to a
critical elevation, as well as a band along the South slope o f the Eje
VolcSnico Transversal. The climatic types were also mapped in detail over
the complex topography of southern Oaxaca [16], showing that the con-
ditions typical o f Chameta do not extend over the crest of the Sierra Madre
del Sur, nor as far as the continental divide in the Isthmus o f Tehuantepec.
Long-term trends in rainfall in this century have been considered for small
and large areas of the tropics. For sites in central Panama, Rand and Rand
[17] used linear regression to look for monotonic trends over 50 years. For
southern India, annual and spatial variability is so pronounced tha t Subrah-
manyam and Sarma [18] indexed the frequency of various levels of drought,
without trend analysis. In unraveling the year-to-year variability o f rainfall
in Zambia (8--I 8S), Nieuwolt [19] showed that poleward the rains were
more variable, the season shorter, and dry spells during the rainy season
more prevalent. These results were attributed to yearly differences in the
incursion of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The same trends
may hold in the range from Panama to Jalisco, although the importance o f
orography here is obvious, and how the ITCZ affects Mexico has been a
matter of diverse opinion.
Watlen [20] considered trends throughout Mexico for the period 1920-1950,
based on five-year running averages, showing some regionalization of differ-
ent trends. The only stations Wallen included from the southern coast were
Salina Cruz and Acapulco. The former showed a range from about 1100 to
1300 mm, but no prolonged high or low averages, while the latter showed a
range from about 1200 to 1600 mm, with a clear peak early in the period
and later low means. Using Wallen's method of five-year running averages,
the author examined trends in the region around Chamela, at Tomatlgn,
Autlfin, Manzanillo, and Arteaga (Fig. 2). The data do not suggest a single
tong-term trend nor chaotic variation. Prior to 1960 these localities showed
 Climate of Chamela, Jalisco 307

TOMATLAN

AUTLAN

O
O MANZANILLO

II

z 9
O
F-

ARTEAGA
(o
w 13-

5 5' ..... 4; ' ~'o . . 6 0. . . 70 8b

YEAR

Fig. 2. Five-year running average for annual precipitation at four localities

little intercorrelation, but relative minimums were general around 1965 and
1975. Whatever the mechanics involved, these data suggest some caution in
using short-term averages for climatic characterization.

7. Climate Classification

The present analyses allow the climate o f Chamela to be categorized accord-

ing to some general systems. It may first be noted that Chamela is a tropical
locality, whether by definition o f insolation or o f temperature [21 ]. How-
ever, like most o f the tropics, it does not have an "equatorial" climate
308 S.H. Bu~ock

(sensu [22]): the minimum monthly rainfall is below 60 mm, and rainfall is
not associated primarily with daily pressure changes but with disturbances.
In the system o f K6ppen (in [23 ]), Chamela pertains to type "BShw", dry
tropical with a winter dry season ("steppe climate"). However, Garcla's [23]
extensive studies o f Mexican climatology led to many modifications and
amendments to K6ppen's general scheme. The relevant conditions for the
classification o f Chamela are then as follows: a) mean annual temperature
above 22 and coldest month's mean above 18; b) maximum difference
between monthly mean temperatures less than 5 ; c) rainfall received from
November through April greater than 10.2% o f the annual total; d) r > 2
(t + 10.5), where r = annual rainfall (cm) and t = mean annual temperature
(C); e) Lang's quotient (precipitation (mm)/temperature) less than 43.2.
Thus our site can be summarized by the symbols "Aw0(x')i", at the driest
end of the hot-subhumid climates [23 ]. Since K6ppen used r = 2 (t + 14)
as the critical value, the site lies at the wet extreme o f his type BS. It should
be recalled that both winter and summer rainfall can be greatly affected by
one or two storms, and that the present record is only eight years long.
Thornthwaite's [24] climatic classification cannot yet be applied to Chamela
for lack o f an estimate o f moisture storage in the soil. However, in formu-
lating an index of potential evapotranspiration, Thornthwaite attempted
to account for temperature and daytength variation, so as an exercise o f
comparative interest the Chamela data can be used (with the correction
factor for latitude 20N) to calculate 142.21 as the yearly potential evapo-
transpiration. The monthly values range from 7.04 in February to 16.99
in July. The general climate and the relation of temperature to rainfall can
also be characterized diagramatically (Fig. 3; see [23, 25]). However, in any
consideration relating to evapotranspiration, the observed trends in cloudi-
ness should be recalled, as should the significant variability of this factor
throughout the tropics (e.g. [26]).
A classification of rainfall regimes based on the ratio o f dry months to wet
months was proposed by Mohr([27 ],cited in [28 ]), and modified by Schmidt
and Ferguson ([29], cited in [28]) to use the average of quotients for several
years instead of one quotient based on averages of monthly rainfall. This
use of a quantitative index of the length o f the growing season is a signifi-
cant refinement, although the critical Precipitation is rather arbitrary
(60 mm), and additional rainfall is simply ignored. Molar's index would be
54.4 for Chamela (assuming no wet months in 1977 prior to June). Com-
paring this to Whitmore's [28] mapping of the index for the Far East (20S
to 20N, 92E to 150E) shows that the regime at Chamela is similar to
that throughout much of Southeast Asia except Malaysia. The sensible
difference in vegetation is probably due to topography, soil depth, and the
tremendous discharge from the Himalayas [30]. In most o f tropical
Australia, drought is consistently longer, and forests comparable to
 Climate of Chamela, Jalisco 309

-200
"o
::o
I'rl
o
t.)
O
- ioo 2
LU -I
IK
-I

~ 3 0 -
3
z
-50
o_
:E - 25 ;
hl
F-

J F M A M d d A S 0 N D
Fig. 3. Climadiagram for the Estaci6n de Biolog{a Chamela

Chamela's are apparently extremely restricted [31 ]. The Serengeti ecosystem

(Tanzania, 1 - 3 S, 34 - 3 6 E ) encompasses somewhat higher and lower rain-
falls than Chamela ( 5 1 4 - 1 1 0 0 mm at different sites), with a moister dry
season and higher interannual variation [32 ].
In Venezuela, the savanna-dominated area near the station o f Los Llanos
de Calabozo (8 56'N, 6725'W; K6ppen type Aw; [33]), has a greater mean
annual rainfall (1312 ram), more rainy days (85 days), with the wet season
usually beginning in April, and no substantial winter rains were reported.
The dry forest site of Guhnica, Puerto Rico (18N, 6555'W) is more nearly
comparable to Chamela in annual rainfall (929 mm), but the seasonal distri-
bution is bimodal [3].

8. Definition of Seasons and Intra-Annual Anomalies

The task o f precisely defining wet and dry spells or seasons is problematic
(see also [17 ]), but is essential for clear description and refining notions o f
intra- and interannual variations. Most ~intersite comparisons are limited in
resolution by the use o f monthly totals. However, for Chamela the present
data suggest a useful definition might be that period from the first 24 hr
total o f at least 10 mm in May or June through the last day with at least
10 mm in October (September in 1984; Table 2). For the years 1977-1984,
the mean length o f 126 days corresponds with the number o f months (four)
averaging at least 50 mm o f rain. The complement is the length of the dry
season, defmeable as starting after the last 24 hr rain exceeding 10 mm
(September to February) and ending with the t'~rst such rain in May to July.
310 S.H. Bullock: Climate of Chamela, Jalisco

This period averaged 158+--37 days; its great variability (Table 2) is due to
winter rains, and to a much lesser degree to the unabrupt start o f the wet
season.
The usefulness of this attempt to provide a flexible but clear definition for
the start and end of the wet season remains to be tested in independent
studies. Even beyond November, winter rainfall often comes before the
forest is completely deciduous, and in addition to renewed flushing in m a n y
species, it should then prolong the life o f summer leaves. This minor season
is never continuous with the next summer. Thus it seems more reasonable to
consider the climatic year as running from May through April, rather than
January through December. In this case the mean precipitation is
is 750.2-+101.9 m m (Table 2), but for the individual year totals the differ-
ences between starting in May or January ranged from 1.2 m m to 124.4 mm.
The distribution o f rainfall within the year is normally presented by the
convenient units of monthly averages. However, for much of the non-equa-
torial tropics this masks considerable variability on shorter time scales, of
biological interest due to the high insolation. For a more detailed perspec-
tive, Nieuwolt [19] examined the frequency of occurrence of a specified
level o f rainfall for intervals of five days. The short record for Chamela is
inappropriate for such frequency calculations, but the use of shorter periods
is illustrative and can be generalized b y taking the running totals for inter-
vals of various lengths (Fig. 4). The five-day interval seems particularly
useful for emphasizing the grouping and separation of wet days, reflective
o f the inconstancy o f wet conditions, and probably o f the duration o f storm
events. The 15-day interval more clearly identifies the seasonal peaks and
shows their exaggeration compared to the rest o f the year. The strength o f
mid-season droughts in some years is also highlighted. Both periods show
the singularity o f winter storms, and the sporadic importance o f major
storms very early or very late in the season. Similarly, R was shown above
that monthly averages were misleading due to the occurrence of a few large
storms in one or another year.
Dry spells during the wet season were defined by Nieuwolt [19] as spells
of more than four days with less than 0.25 m m rain on each day. During
Chamela's wet season (see above) an average of 5.1 such spells have occurred
per year (range 3 - 7 ) . This analysis can be generalized to a frequency distri-
bution o f the number o f consecutive rainless clays with the wet season
(Table 6). A total o f 159 dry spells occurred in the seasons of 1977-1984,
but over half o f these were only one or two days long. However, 5% of the
dry spells were longer than 10 days. The mean number o f dry days during
the wet season was 75.1 days (Table 2).
A more relevant or meaningful definition for short drought periods is elusive,
given that no actual evaporation or soil moisture data exist, and that the
definition must vary according to the biological system of interest. However,
 FIFTEEN - DAY RAINFALL TOTAL ( MM ) F I V E - OAY RAINFALL TOTAL (MM)

I l 1 I I J I

,___ -~
o .~

D
co O~

u.

m
B

m ~

liP--"
IB
('b

_ . _ i
m
t- " -

i
312 S.H. Bullock

considering the frequency o f minor rains (Table 3), it seems important to use
an amount much greater than 0.2 mm as the criterion for "not dry'". Thus
the Chamela data were also analyzed by counting days between successive
records o f at least 10 mm. For the case o f consecutive rainy days with less
than t0 mm each, the author considered the cumulative rainfall, counting
days as droughty until 10 mm was reached, If consecutive rains did not
total 10 mm, the sum was reset to zero on the next rainless day. On reaching
10 mm a new count was started on the next rainless day. The season was
considered to end with the last 24 hr total exceeding 10 mm in October or
November (September in 1984). This analysis showed that all years had at
least one drought of > 20 days and another > 13 days. For all years com-
bined the percentage of droughts of more than nine days was 23% (Table 6).
The mean number of days in such droughts was 94.6 (Table 2) which
amounts to 77% of the mean length o f the wet season. The timing of these
dry spells was not regular between years, so that there was no critical evi-
dence (Table 1 and 2) o f a "canlcula" [12] or "veranillo" at this locality
(see above and Fig. 4; also Fig. 4 in [101).

Table 6. Frequency Distribution of the Length of Dry Spells During the Wet Season,
According to Two Criteriafor "Dry'" (see text)

Length of drought (days)

1-3 4-6 7-9 10-15 16-24 25-57

Frequency (%)
Criterion 0.2 mrn (n = 159) 64% 23 8 3 2 1
Criterion 10 mm (n = 101) 36% 30 12 11 7 5

In parts o f the monsoonal tropics, storms with strong winds are of particular
biological interest [ 3 3 - 3 6 ] for their effects on community structure and
dynamics. It is o f comparative interest that there were no records (in 100
years) of Pacific hurricanes reaching Costa Rica (and only one on its
Caribbean coast; [37]). Since there were no reports from the coast of
Chiapas either, one might suggest an absence of landfalls of major wind
storms to the east and south o f the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in contrast to
their occasional impact further west and north. Even in this region, the
likelihood o f a hurricane moving over land is much greater for some areas
than others.
The impact o f cyclones varies both along and perpendicular to their paths
of movement. Unfortunately, monitoring has rarely been so detailed as to
provide good examples o f this variation (but see [38 ]). One description
was compiled for the hurricane o f 2 3 - 2 7 October 1959 [39]. The center
 Climate of Chameta, Jatisco 313

of this hurricane probably passed within 10 km of Manzanillo, where anemo-

meter capacity o f 216 k m / h r was exceeded; the maximum wind was esti-
mated at 250 kin/hr. At a distance of 60 km inland (Colima, elev. 494 m)
maximum winds were 75 kin/hr. Rainfall exceeded 400 m m from Cihuatlfin
to Armeria (73 kin) near the coast, and more than 200 m m was recorded up
to 75 km inland (elev. 1000 m). Stations on either side o f Chamela (82 km
from the entrance point) reported > 100 and < 50 ram. Of potential
historical interest to Chame!a was hurricane Lily that made landfall some-
where between San Patrico and Tomatlfin on August 31, 1971 [8, 38].

9. Problem of Dynamic Factors

The dynamic determinants o f rainfall patterns along Mexico's southern coast

remain to be clarified comprehensively, and the source conditions are quite
diverse. In terms of the tropical circulation regions sketched b y Blumenstock
[21 ], two o f the major synoptic characters of our area are the relatively high
frequency o f hurricanes, and the influence o f the mid latitude westerlies (as
throughout Mesoamerica). Bryson and Kuhn ([40], see also [11 ]) considered
convergence and divergence in relation to "stress differential" effects on
winds along tropical and subtropical coastlines. Mosifio and Garc~a [12]
suggested that katabatic winds may facilitate nocturnal offshore convection,
which m a y be relevant to Chamela with its near httoral location and ob-
served predominance of nocturnal rains. On a larger scale, further attention
is needed to the dynamics o f conditions originating cyclonic disturbances,
and to the relation o f events in the northeastern and equatorial regions o f
the Pacific [41 ]. Ocean surface temperatures may be particularly relevant,
with their seasonal and annual variations due to the interplay o f the
California current and opposing tropical currents and upweltings. While a full
understanding o f the climate must encompass phenomena over a wide range
o f scales in space and time, the features described here seem characteristic,
and a useful base for more explanatory and comparative studies.

10. Conclusions

Mexico's south coast has a warm climate, with a single rainy season and pro-
longed annual drought. Total rainfall and length o f the wet season increase
with altitude for exposed sites, and may increase from west to east. The
importance o f winter rains decreases to the east. Dry season winds are not
dominated by the global circulation. Cyclonic weather systems, up to
hurricane force, are frequent in summer. At Chamela, Jalisco, monthly mean
maximum temperatures were more equitable (29.1 to 32.0 ) than mini-
314 S.H. Bullock

m u m s (14.8 to 22.9). A n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n averaged 748 m m , w i t h a

coefficient o f variation o f 16%. Rain fell on a b o u t 53 days p e r year; 80%
fell f r o m J u l y t h r o u g h O c t o b e r . Drought stress is p r o b a b l y enhanced b y
substrate conditions, and a m e l i o r a t e d b y lower winter r a d i a t i o n and un-
p r e d i c t a b l e w i n t e r precipitation. This site is p r o b a b l y among the driest
o f long-term intensive s t u d y sites in t h e tropics.

Acknowledgements
This work is dedicated to the memory of Mario Garc{a Molina, capable administrator of
the Station, and good friend. The data for Chamela were collected by F. Flores, M. Garda,
M. Gurrola, J. Landfn, L. Moreno, R. Orozco, A. P6rez, J. Robles, V. Sfinchez, A. Sol~s,
and the author. Data for other stations was provided by the Servicio Meteorol6gico
Nacional through the courtesy of S. Aguilar. Earlier drafts benefited from the comments
of G. Ceballos, L. Fanjul, E. Garcl"ade Miranda, E. Lott and J. Sarukhin.

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Author's address: Dr. S. H. Bullock, Estaci6n de Biologla Chamela, Apartado Postal 21,
San Patricio, Jalisco 48980, M6xieo.