4/20/2017 AbdalHakimMuradSpiritualLifeinOttomanTurkey[Oct2005]

www.masud.co.uk>ShaikhAbdalHakimMurad

SpiritualLifeinOttomanTurkey
AbdalHakimMurad

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typically grounded its claims to legitimacy in its successful implementation of the gazi
tradition of triumphant war against Byzantium. Dwelling in retreats in the mountains of
northwestern Anatolia, from which they descended gradually to wrest control of the
BithynianplainfromtheirChristianfoes,thefirstOttomansweretypicallymenofthesword
withlittletimeeitherforasophisticatedcontemplativemysticismorforformalscholarship.

AstherulersofvillagersandnomadicpastoralistswithnolongstandinginstitutionsofIslamic
learning,theearlyAnatolianTurkspractisedadistinctiveversionofIslamnourishedinpart
bytheirCentralAsianroots.Thoserootswereultimatelyshamanistic:beforetheirconversion
toIslamtheTurkishreligiouslifehadcentredontheozan,theshamanwhomadeauguriesfor
hisclan,castspells,andpresidedoveritscollectiverites.TheslowinfiltrationofIslamamong
the Turks from the ninth century onwards replaced the ozan with the Muslim figure of the
ata, who transmitted a rudimentary form of Sufism to his people. The ata also taught the
virtues of the gaza, the war for God, which would inculcate the virtues of selfdenial and
chivalry,andbringtothesinceregazitheprospectofeverlastingrewardinParadise.[i]

This Sufi vision cherished by simple cavalrymen gave the Turks a military prowess whose
achievementsinsomewaysrecalledtheearlyconquestsofIslam.ThefirstOttomansultans
wereurgedtocontinuethefightforthefaithbyspiritualguideswhosefameandsanctityhad
broughtthemintotheintimatecircleoftheruler,therebyaddingtohischarisma.Themost
prominentexamplewasAkSemseddin(d.1459),thephysician,mysticpoetandSufiinstructor
(seyh) who encouraged Mehmed II to conquer Constantinople, and who preached the first
FridaysermonattheformercathedralofAyaSofya.[ii]Thepowerofhisspiritualimpact,as
wellastheIslamicsophisticationoftheruler,areevidentinmuchofMehmedspoetry,asina
lyric poem where the sultan uses the classical Sufi metaphors of spiritual drunkenness to
affirmhisdependenceonhispreceptor:

Again,letusaway,intoxicated,tothetavernofruin,

Letusboastofourservicetothewinepresser!

Letuswatchashebringsfromthewinejarsomethingfortheworld.

LetusscaleMountSinaiandagaincommunewithGod.[iii]

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The Conquerors refined spiritual literacy was the product of over a century of cultural
development in the Ottoman realm. Following the capture of Bursa in 1326 and the
subsequent creation of a large Ottoman urban class, the unlettered Turkish nomads who
migratedtothecitieshadbeenintroducedtoamoreclassicalIslamicpietybySufipoetsofa
didacticandorthodoxtendency,whowroteinthevernacularsoastobeunderstood.Among
these masses, particularly influential were works such as the Mevlid of Sleyman elebi
(d.1422),agreatanthemforthebirthdayoftheProphet,whichunlikemostearlierattemptsat
creating a Turkish Islamic poetic tradition was much more than the mere translation of a
Persianoriginal.Proseworksbegantoappear,chiefamongwhichistheMuzekkienNufsof
Esrefoglu Rumi of Iznik (d.1469). His declared intention of writing in simple Turkish to
attractsupportamongordinarypeoplewithoutahighIslamiceducationisalsoevidentinhis
popularcollectionofmysticalpoems.[iv]

Thankstosuchliteraryproselytising,andunderthesultansguidanceandpatronage,bythe
timeConstantinoplehadbeenwonforIslamin1453theOttomanstateandmuchoftheurban
population had committed itself definitively to the orthoprax Hanafi school of law, the
orthodoxMoturiditheology,andtoavarietyofSufitarikats.Inthecomplexpatternsofpost
conquestOttomansociety,threehierarchiescametowieldspiritualpoweroverthepopulace
and maintained a stable ascendancy which only began to be broken with the onset of
Westernisingreforminthemidnineteenthcentury.

Firstly, there was the ilmiyye (learned) institution which provided the muftis, judges,
schoolteachersandmosqueimamsfortheempire,[v]asinglehierarchywhichculminatedin
the supreme office of the seyhlislam, who handed down authoritative doctrine and legal
opinion to the entire empire. This official Islam, which legitimised and in turn enjoyed the
financialpatronageofthestate,providedtheformalreligiousbackboneofOttomanMuslim
society.

Secondly, there was the selffinancing but officially sanctioned network of guilds (esnaf).
These,whichevolvedmorecomplexformsinOttomansocietythanelsewhereintheIslamic
world, grew from informal fraternities of young men, often bachelors known as ahis, who
subscribed to the canons known collectively as ftvvet, a principle which may lie at the
sourceofthechivalricidealintheWest.Mutuallysupportive,morallyupright,anddevotedto
the ideal model of ftvvet that was the caliph Ali (r.a.), these groups had by the fifteenth
centuryevolvedintoformalguildswhichprobablyincludedalmostallurbancraftsmen.The
governing documents of these guilds, known as ftvvetnmes, detailed not only the
religiousandmoraldutiesoftheguildmembers,butalsothedegreesofrankwhichstretched
fromthehumblegrade of apprentice up to the headship of the guild. Ofteneachapprentice
(nzil) would be allocated a senior on the path (yol atasi) and, from among more senior
apprentices, two brothers (yol kardesleri) to assist and counsel him. The organisation of
some vocations was much more hierarchically rigid than others, and the leatherworkers, in

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particular, came to recognise one universal guide, the Ahi Baba, whose grand lodge was at
theAnatoliantownofKirsehir,andwhoseauthoritywasoftenacknowledgedbyotherguilds
aswell.[vi]

The third spiritual hierarchy in Ottoman Turkey was provided by the Sufi orders (tarikats).
ManydozensofthesegroupsappeardownthesixcenturiesofOttomanhistorybutforour
purposesitwillsufficetosummarisetwobroadtendencies.

The first is represented by the Sufi cults of the tribal hinterlands where the high Islamic
teaching of the religious colleges (medreses) had not penetrated. These tarikats grew up
around charismatic leaders who were prone to making dramatic claims to mahdistic or
messianicstatus,andwhoseattitudetotheorthodoxypreachedbytheulemawas,moreoften
thannot,somewhatcontemptuous.AnexamplewasBarakBabaofTokat,anearlyfourteenth
centurydervishwhoseappearancestronglyrecalledtheTurcomanshamanisticpatrimony.He
woreonlyaredloinclothandaturbanadornedwithtwobuffalohorns.Wanderingthestreets
withhissimilarlyattireddisciples,hewouldblowahorn,playadrum,anddance.Whilehe
beat soundly any of his followers who neglected the canonical prayers, he failed to keep the
fast of Ramadan. His beliefs, apparently shared by many others, involved faith in
reincarnation,andanextremedevotiontothecaliphAli.[vii]

Such antinomianism drove a range of other movements. One such was the loosely defined
Kalendarbrotherhoodofraggedwanderers,oftenindifferenttothenormativerulesofIslamic
practice(sariat),whogatheredintheirownlodges(kalendarhanes)where,atleastaccording
tothechroniclers,allmannerofwickednesstookplace.Thechiliasticbeliefsofsomeofthese
tarikats did more than simply scandalise the orthodox: they could end in open rebellion
against the authorities. The most disastrous from the Ottoman viewpoint was the Safavid
tarikat,which,althoughfoundedbytheorthodoxSafialDinArdabili(d.1334),wassuddenly
converted to extreme Shiism at the hands of his fourth successor, Seyh Cneid (d.1460).
CneidsgrandsonIsmail(d.1524)claimedtobebothGodHimselfandareincarnationofAli.
[viii]UnderIsmail,whosedeputiesweremainlyTurcomannomadchieftainsfromAnatolia,
the formerly Sunni country of < w:st="on">Iran was forcibly converted to Shiism amid
extreme scenes of massacre and religious persecution which are more reminiscent of
sixteenthcenturyEuropeanhistorythanofthatoftheMiddleEast.[ix]

Such examples drove the Ottomans to suppress the extreme (ghulat) Shii tarikats on their
territory. This was partly achieved through the execution or deportation of those of their
members who were in rebellion against the state, and partly through the official
encouragementofotherpopulartarikatswhichcontrivedtocombineadevotiontothefigure
ofAliwithaloyalistattitudetotheOttomanrulers.

MostsignificantinthiscategorywastheBektashiorderofdervishes.Itsfounder,HaciBektas,
wasanimmigrantwhocametoAnatoliafromKhurasanatsomepointinthelatethirteenth

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century. A work reliably attributed to him, the Makalat, shows him to have been a learned
Sufiwhorecognisedthenecessityofadherencetothesariat.Hedescribesthefortystations
oftheSufipath,tenundereachoftheclassicheadsofSariat(theLaw),Tarikat(the Way),
Hakikat (the Truth), and Marifat (Knowledge). The stations of Tarikat, for instance, are:
repentance (tevbe), aspiration (iradet), dervishhood (dervislik), mortification (mcahede),
service to the brethren (hidmet), fear of God (hawf), hope in Him (mid), the special dress
code and regalia of the Bektashi way, love for the absent Beloved (muhabbet) and passion
uponexperiencingHim(ask).[x]

DespitetheseeminglymainstreamoriginsoftheBektashis,theprocesswhichhadsubverted
the Safavis was soon at work, and subsequent generations of rural Turks introduced the
ghulatbeliefswhicharesaidtocharacterisethetarikattothisday.Butdespitethehostilityof
theilmiyye institution, the staunch loyalism of the Bektashis offered the sultans a means of
harnessing the Alid piety of the Turcomans in the service of the state. The Janissaries, the
slaveinfantry which made up the core of the Ottoman army until the early nineteenth
century,wereusuallyaffiliatedtothistarikat.

The second type of Ottoman Sufism is represented by a range of more solidly orthodox
tarikats.AmongthemostconspicuousofthesewastheNaksibendiye,foundedbyBahaalDin
NaqshbandofBukhara.Withinacenturyofitsfoundersdeathin1389,thefirstNaksibendi
tekke (dervish lodge) had been established in Istanbul by Molla Abdullah Ilahi, an itinerant
scholar from the Anatolian town of Simav who had received the Naksibendi initiation from
KhwajaUbaydullahAhrarinSamarqand.Afterhisreturnto<w:st="on">Turkey,MollaIlahi
launchedalargescalemissionamongtheTurks,callingthemtoorthodoxIslam.Hisliterary
legacyinthreelanguagesincludesworkssuchastheWayoftheSeekers(MaslakalTalibIn),
andhisfamousTravellingfareoftheLovers(ZadalMushtaqin). A secondfounder of the
Naksibendiorderin<w:st="on">TurkeywasMawlanaKhalidBaghdadi(d.1827),aKurdwho
brought the NaksibendiMujaddidi order from Delhi and worked to ensure its diffusion
throughouttheempire.[xi]

Partly because their staunch orthodoxy recommended them to the ulema, the Naksibendiye
were among the most widespread and politically and socially influential Ottoman tarikats.
TheirimpacttodayonmanyTurkishreligiouspoliticiansissaidtobeconsiderable.[xii]

Other key tarikats included the Kadiriye, founded by Abd alQadir alJilani of Baghdad
(d.1167). The principal Turkish representative of this order, Haci Bayram Veli of Ankara
(d.1430), was a pupil of the ascetic Hamiduddin Aksarayi (d.1412). While he left no literary
legacyotherthanacoupleofpoems,hissanctityandtheprofusionofhisacolytesestablished
the Bayramiye as a noteworthy tarikat in its own right.[xiii] Two of his deputies, Ak
Semseddin,thespiritualguideofSultanMehmedtheConqueror,andEsrefogluRumi,have
alreadybeenmentioned.Alaterbranchofthispopulartarikat,theCelvetiye,wasfoundedby
AzizMahmudHudi(d.1629),theoristoftheincantatorypropertiesoftheDivineNames.It
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was expounded by the prolific Ismail Haqqi of Bursa (d.1724), whose Ruh alBayan, a ten
volumecommentaryontheKoran,isconsideredoneofthemajorliterarymonumentsoflater
Sufism.[xiv]

Another Bayrami saint was Dede mer Sikkini of Gynk (d.1475), an austere figure who
revived the early Khurasani tradition of the path of blame (melmatiye), which seeks to
achievetruesinceritybyperformingactionswhich,althoughnotsinful,bringpubliccontempt
upon the spiritual wayfarer. The BayramiyeMelmatiye tarikat persisted through Ottoman
history,and,whilesometimesfrowneduponbytheulema,spurredothertarikatstointroduce
elementsofthemelmatiphilosophy.[xv]

The Suhrawardiye was another urban tarikat, founded by Umar alSuhrawardi (d.1234),
whose classic Arabic manual of Sufism, Awarif alMaarif was translated into Turkish by
Ahmet Bigwi (d.1458). The main Anatolian branch of this tarikat was the Zeyniye, named
afterZeyneddinHafiofKhurasan(d.1438),whosetwoAnatolianmissionariesAbdurrahman
Merzifoni and Abdullatifi Kudsi spread the order throughout the Central Anatolian towns.
[xvi]

OneofthemostintricatestoriesinOttomanSufismisthatoftheHalvetitarikat,foundedin
TabrizbyUmarKhalvati(d.1397),whosediscipleYahyaShirvani(d.1464)becametheorders
missionary to Anatolia. The important Sabaniye branch of this order was established by
Sabani Veli of Kastamonu (d.1568), celebrated, along with Rumi, Haci Bektas and Haci
Bayram, as one of the Four Pillars (aktabi arbaa) of Anatolian Sufism. Like the other
Pillars, he was celebrated for urging the army to show courage, and for bringing Islam to
manyChristianregionsoftheempire.Inthisrespect,theFourPillarscanbecomparedtothe
WaliSongo,theNineSaintsofJava,whobroughtaboutmassconversionstoIslaminSouth
eastAsiaduringthesameperiod.

The Egyptbased Glseniye founded by Ibrahim Glseni (d.1533) was a Halveti subbranch
whoseinfluencein<w:st="on">Turkeycamelargelyviatheintellectualisedmysticalpoetryof
its founder. Another branch was the Misriye, named for the talented poet Niyazi Misri
(d.1694).Afurtherbranch,theCerrahiye,wasfoundedbyNureddinCerrahi(d.1722),whose
lodgeintheKaragmrkquarterofIstanbulistodaythemainconservatoryofthetraditions
andparticularlythemusicalheritageoflaterTurkishSufism.[xvii]

The Rifai order, which traced its lineage back to Ahmad alRifai of Basra (d.1182), came to
Anatolia in the fourteenth century, and thence penetrated < w:st="on">Bosnia and the
territories of the Volga Tatars. The Rifai seyh AbulHuda of Aleppo (d.1909), in particular,
wasknownasoneofthespiritualdirectorsofSultanAbdlhamitII.[xviii]

TheKazeruniyetarikat,foundedbyAbuIshaqalKazaruniofShiraz(d.1034),whicharrivedin
Anatoliainthefourteenthcentury,wasfamousforitsproselytisingzealamongnonMuslims

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andtheenthusiasmwithwhichitsmemberstookpartinthegaza.[xix]

Better known than all these tarikats was the Mevleviye, founded by Jalal alDin Rumi
(d.1273). This was an lite tarikat, which numbered ulema, senior bureaucrats and even
sultansamongitsmembers:theearlyOttomanrulersandprincesworethewoollenMevlevi
(Hurasani)cap,[xx]whilethereformingSelimIII(17891808)wasanenthusiasticmember
andpatronoftheorder.Asmallnumberofdiscipleswereauthorisedtoperformthedevrn,
the famous slow turning rite on account of which European travellers styled them the
Whirling Dervishes. Intellectually and aesthetically inspired by the poetry of Rumi, the
MevlevisproducedsomeofTurkeysfinestmusiciansandcalligraphers,andalsotheTurkish
languages most sophisticated religious poet, Glib Dede of Galata (d.1799), whose brilliant
extended poem Beauty and Love (Hsn Ask) belies the stereotype of Muslim cultural
declineduringthatperiod.[xxi]AnotherfeatureofthelaterMevlevis,aswithmanyHalvetis,
Bayramis, and some others, was a strong devotion to the family of the Prophet, an attitude
which some of them pushed beyond the point usually reached in Sunni piety, so that
pilgrimagestoKarbala,commemorationsofthedeathofImamHseyinandotherdevotional
emphasesmoreusuallyassociatedwithShiismbecamewidespread.However,thisdevotional
Shiism,acharacteristicofTurkishpietyevenoutsidethetarikats,almostneversteppedover
thedividinglineintosectarianShiism.AstheMevlevipoetEsrarDede(d.1797)expressedit:

IamtheslaveoftheloversoftheProphet,

NeitheraKharijitenoramisledShiiteamI

IamthebondsmanofAbuBakr,UmarandUthman,

AndItraveluponthepathofAli,Godssaint.[xxii]

Alltheseorders,whiledifferingverywidelyintheirrituals,sharedsomeimportantcommon
functions within Ottoman Turkish society. The silsila, the initiatic chain which linked the
living, through the dead masters of the order, to the Prophet himself, was proof of the
integrationofanAnatolianorRumelian,howeverrecenthisconversion,intothemainstream
ofIslamicsociety.Thetekkeofeachtarikatprovidedbotharefugefromtheupheavalsofthe
outside world and a consoling context for recalling its transient status. A few Sufis,
particularly the kalendars, chose the life of mendicancy, while others became hcrenisins,
residingpermanentlyinthelodgesbutthegreatmajorityremainedpartofthewidersocial
matrix, following the principle of khalvat dar anjuman spiritual retreat in the midst of
company.FormanyTurks,mostaspectsoflifewereguidedbyandinterpretedintermsofthe
teachingsoftheseyhs,whiletheinitiation(bayat)intotheorderformedanimportantriteof
passageforyoungpeople.Throughparticipatinginthechantsandsongshandeddowninthe
lodges,thenewgenerationacquiredafamiliaritywithalargebodyofTurkishliteraturewhile
in the Mevlevi tekkes a knowledge of Persian was also inculcated. The lodges provided, too,

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opportunitiesfororganisingthepublicvirtuesrequiredofpiousMuslims.Travellers,evenof
othertarikats,couldexpecttofindrefugewithintheirwalls.Specialmealswereprovidedfor
Ramadanandthefivecandlenights(kandilgeceleri)oftheyear.Soupkitchensforthepoor,
medical services, public scriptoria, hostels for students or other worthy paupers, refuges for
dismissedstatesmen,mediationforfamilyortribaldisputes:theseandothersocialservices
wereregularlydispensedbythelargerdervishlodges.[xxiii]

Notinfrequentlyatekkewouldbeattachedtothetombofasaint,inwhichcaseitwastermed
a dergh. The Companions had visited the Prophets tomb in the early days of Islam, and
following this precedent many mosques have included or been attached to tombs. The
Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, for instance, where the jurist Ibn Taymiyya worshipped,
contains the domed mausoleum of John the Baptist (Yahya). In < w:st="on">Turkey, this
traditionwascontinued,andcontemplativevisits(ziyaret)tothegraves(trbe)ofimportant
saints and holy warriors remain an important part of conservative religious life. The
CompanionoftheProphetAbuAyyubelAnsarihashistombbytheGoldenHorn,abuttinga
courtyardwhereforcenturiesnewsultanswouldbeinvestedwiththeswordofoffice,oftenby
theelebioftheMevlevidervishes.[xxiv]

No account of Turkish spirituality would be complete without a mention of the tekkes

contribution to musical life. Many tarikats, particularly the Mevleviye and Halvetiye, used
instrumental music as part of their ceremony (sam), and over the centuries a large and
highlysophisticatedrepertoirewasevolvedwhichprovidedthefertilecoreofTurkishmusic
generally. Drawing from Byzantine, Islamic and Turkishfolk precedents, Ottoman sacred
musicinturninfluencedthemusicofthecourt,thearmyandthesecularmusicofsocietyat
large. The ilahi genre of hymns, often with words by the early dervish Yunus Emre or by
Bektashi poets, was set to a rich variety of rhythmic patterns and melodies, helping to
populariseMuslimteachingsamongthepopulation.[xxv]

Whilethedancesanderrantdoctrineslurkinginsometekkesoftendrewsharpcriticismfrom
theulema,itisnonethelesstruethatthroughouttheOttomanperiodtheilmiyyeinstitution
looked with favour on most of the tarikats. The best known of all Turkish mftis,
Kemlpasazde(d.1534),hadwrittenafatwacommendingtheSpanishSufiIbnArabi,[xxvi]
whilehisnearcontemporaryTaskprzde,authorofthedefinitivebiographicaldictionaryof
earlyOttomanulema,heapspraiseonthosescholarswhowerealsoSufis.Thelifeofformal
mosqueworship,themoraldisciplineoftheguilds,andtheemotionalintimacyofthetekkes
generallycoexistedinacomplementaryrelationship,providingatriplesourceofnourishment
fortheTurkishsoul.

AlltheaboverelatestotheMuslimmajoritypopulation.Butitshouldbrieflyberecalledthat
the Ottoman Empire was also home to large Jewish and Christian communities, which,
despitesomelegalhandicaps,foundthatthenewdispensationgenerallyallowedthemtolive
and worship in faithful adherence to their laws and traditions. The Muslim conquest had
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preservedtheGreekChurchfromthethreatofannihilationbythegrowingpoweroftheLatin
WestastheGrandDukeLoukasNotaraswrylyacknowledgedontheeveoftheconquest:It
would be better to see the turban of the Turks reigning over the city than the Latin
mitre.[xxvii]Moreover,itseemsthattheseMuslimandOrthodoxworldsoverlappedinmore
thanthesimplegeographicalsense.Itisprobablethatmanyofthespiritualexercisesofthe
Hesychast movement championed by St Gregory Palamas, who had spent a year at the
Ottoman court debating with Muslims, were derived from Sufi and Islamic practices.[xxviii]
More generally, the Ottoman system seemed to provide an opportunity for Muslims to seek
perfection through the exercise of political power, and for Christians to seek perfection by
renouncingitinthemannerrequiredbytheGospels.

Suchanequilibriumprovedillequippedtosurviveintothemodernage.

(AlongerversionofthisarticlewasfirstpublishedintheIslamicWorldReport,1/iii(1996),
3242)

NOTES

[i]R.Sesen,EskiTrklerinDiniveSamanKelimesi,TarihEnstitsDergisi,XXI(1979
80),5790.
[ii]IslamAnsiklopedisi(newedition),II,299302.
[iii]K.E.nsel,Ftihinsiirleri(Ankara,1946),62.
[iv]TrkDiliveEdebiyatAnsiklopedisi,III,1167.
[v]R.C.Repp,TheMftiofIstanbul(London,1986).
[vi]EncyclopediaofIslam(secondedition),II,9669.
[vii]IslamAnsiklopedisi(newedition),V,612.
[viii]TourkhanGandje(ed.),IlCanzionierediSahIsmailHatai(Naples,1959),155.
[ix]E.Glassen,SchahIsmailI.unddieTheologienseinerZeit.DerIslamXLVIII(1972).
[x]Y.N.ztrk,TarihboyuncaBektasilik(Istanbul,1990).
[xi]H.Algar,DevotionalPracticesoftheKhalidiNaqshbandisofOttoman<
w:st="on">Turkey.Pp.209227ofR.Lifchez(ed.),TheDervishLodge:Architecture,Art,and
SufisminOttoman<w:st="on">Turkey(Berkeley,1992).
[xii]S.Mardin,TheNaksibendiOrderinTurkishHistory.Pp.12142ofR.Tapper(ed.),
IslaminModern<w:st="on">Turkey(London1993),134.
[xiii]F.Bayramoglu.HaciBayramiVeli(Ankara,1983).
[xiv]EncyclopaediaofIslam(secondedition),II,5423.
[xv]A.Glpinarl,MelmilikveMelmiler(Istanbul,1931).
[xvi]M.Kara,BursadaTarikatlarveTekkeler(Bursa,1990),267.
[xvii]S.Friedlander,ANoteontheKhalwatiyyahJarrahiyahOrder.Pp.2338ofS.H.Nasr
(ed.),IslamicSpirituality:Manifestations(NewYork,1991).
[xviii]EncyclopediaofIslam(secondedition),VIII,526.

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[xix]A.J.Arberry,TheBiographyofShaikhAbuIshaqalKazaruni,OriensIII(1950),16381
Kara,Bursada,1819.
[xx]I.H.Uzunarsili,OsmanlDevletininSarayTeskilat(Ankara,1945),2178.
[xxi]A.Schimmel,TheTriumphalSun:AStudyoftheWorksofJalaloddinRumi(2nded.
Albany,1993)V.Holbrooke,TheUnreadableShoreofLove(Austin,1994).
[xxii]A.Glpinarli,MevlndansonraMevlevlik(Istanbul,1953),227.
[xxiii]Kara,Bursada,437.
[xxiv]M.B.Tanman,SettingsfortheVenerationofSaints.Pp.13071ofLifchez,op.cit.
[xxv]W.Feldman,MusicalGenresandZikiroftheSunniTarikatsofIstanbul.Pp.187202of
Lifchez,op.cit.
[xxvi]M.Sara,SeyhlislamKemalPasazade:Hayai,Sahsiyeti,EserleriveBazisiirleri
(Istanbul,1995),66.
[xxvii]C.Imber,TheOttomanEmpire13001481(Istanbul,1990),150.
[xxviii]S.Runciman,TheGreatChurchinCaptivity(Cambridge,1968),1368.

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