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Buckling (April 2001)

by Graham Slater

Most structural analysis is concerned with small strains and distortions in a stressed material or structure. Under
certain conditions, usually involving compressive stresses, a structural member may develop large distortions
under critical loading conditions. This condition is described as buckling instability, or simply buckling.

For columns and struts with pinned ends, the theoretical critical compressive load for buckling is given by the
EULER FORMULA:

where Pcrit = critical load

= length of strut
L = Young's Modulus
E = second moment of area
I

Other similar equations can be found for other load combinations and end conditions. The theory is only
applicable at large slenderness ratios and real struts will fail by yielding at lower loads, due to eccentricity of
loading, initial curvature, etc.

Empirical formulae and codes have been established for design of real structural columns, and can be found in
appropriate standards and textbooks. Three examples are:

i) Rankine-Gordon

where P = buckling load

r = radius of gyration
A = area of cross section
= maximum stress
a = constant dependent on end condition and material
The formula applies for very short columns as well as larger slenderness ratios. Typical values of
the constant 'a' for pin-ended struts are 10 -4 for steel and timber, and 6 x 10-4 for cast iron.

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ii) Linear
P= A [1-c(L/r)]

where c is a constant and equals 0.005 for steel and 0.008 for cast iron, with pinned ends.

iii) Parabolic
P= A [1-c (L/r) 2 ]

This is intended to agree with the Euler formula for long columns. For pinned ends and L/r < 150,
the constant c = 2.3 x 10-5 for mild steel.

Some section shapes may be more prone to torsional buckling than flexural buckling, especially if the shear
centre is not coincident with the centroid. Torsional loading itself may develop buckling instability, in a thin-
walled cylinder for example.

Problems of structural instability are not restricted entirely to compression members. Deep beams for example
may fail by lateral buckling involving torsion and bending perpendicular to the plane of the depth of the beam.
Pressure vessels may fail by buckling under external pressure, and sometimes under internal pressure in formed
ends.

Further reading:

Case J and Chilver A H: 'Strength of materials and structures', Edward Arnold Limited, Second Edition, 1971.

Benham P P and Crawford R J: 'Mechanics of engineering materials', Longman Scientific and Technical, 1987.

BS5950:1990: 'Structural use of steelwork in building, Part 1: Code of practice for design in simple and
continuous construction: hot rolled sections'.

Additional information

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access to all TWI content.

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Design and structural integrity - Corrosion (August 2000) Page 1 of 2
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Design and structural integrity - Corrosion

(August 2000)
Corrosion is the degradation of a material arising from exposure to its environment. There are many
different forms that corrosion may take but many may be broadly categorised as either progressive
material loss or progressive cracking so that, over a period of time, the material may become unfit for
the intended service. Common examples include:

? rusting of steel
? dissolution of metals in acid media
? localised pitting attack in chloride media
? oxidation at elevated temperatures
? degradation of polymers exposed to UV radiation
? environmentally assisted (stress corrosion) cracking
? corrosion fatigue

Design against corrosion

When designing against corrosion, one of two general philosophies may be adapted:

1. If attack proceeds fairly slowly and at a reproducible and predictable rate, a 'corrosion
allowance' may be built into the design, so that a safe material thickness remains at all points
after the anticipated lifetime of the structure. Typical phenomena that may be addressed in this
way include dissolution of steel in acid media and elevated temperature oxidation. A limitation of
this approach is the accuracy of the predictive tools or 'corrosion models' available and it may
be appropriate to perform non-destructive evaluation of the actual rate of corrosion during
service or at shutdowns, so that the corrosion model can be refined periodically. Thus the actual
useful life of the item may be determined with greater accuracy than via use of a model alone.
To assist this approach, the environment may be modified to reduce corrosion rates, where
practicable.

2. If attack may become localised and propagate rapidly once initiated, e.g. pitting and
crevice corrosion of corrosion resistant alloys, it is normal to design so that attack can never
initiate. This requires appropriate material selection. The simplest approach to materials
selection is to rely on previous experience, although it is essential to understand the operating
environment, so that changes between past and future service regimes can be accounted for.
Where previous successful experience does not exist, materials testing may be required to
demonstrate fitness for purpose. Testing typically seeks to recreate the principal components of
the service environment, whilst increasing the aggressiveness, to obtain a suitably short test
exposure period. This may be achieved by increasing temperature, increasing the concentration
of certain environmental species or by forcing electrochemical changes.

A similar approach may be taken when designing against stress corrosion cracking, e.g. chloride

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stress corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steel and sulphide stress cracking of carbon steels,
where any crack initiation is considered unacceptable due to the rapid rate of subsequent
propagation. In this case, three factors contribute to cracking

i. material type and microstructure,

ii. applied stress and
iii. the environment.

Therefore, avoidance of the problem may be achieved through appropriate material selection or by
keeping the stress below the critical level for cracking. Where practicable, the environment may be
modified but this is only occasionally possible.

Corrosion fatigue, although similar outwardly to stress corrosion, tends to propagate more steadily
and reproducibly than stress corrosion and consequently may be designed against by assigning a
lifetime, based on predictions made from experimental data, i.e. in a very similar way to fatigue in the
absence of an aggressive environment.

Further information

Other relevant items include -

FAQ: What is the effect of corrosion on the fatigue strength of welded steel structures?

The effect of low H 2 S concentrations on welded steels

TWI: Corrosion, welds and pipelines - An update (July 2000)

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Failure of welded structures (February 2001) Page 1 of 3
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Failure of welded structures (February 2001)

Failures of welded structures can and do occasionally occur, sometimes with serious human,
environmental and economic consequences. Table 1 shows approximate failure rates for various
types of welded structure. It shows amongst other things how the use of experience-based
engineering codes and standards can reduce failure rate (the ASME Boiler Code Committee was
established in 1911, when boiler explosions in the USA were occurring at the rate of virtually one per
day). Although such occurrences are much less common a century on, the continued prevention of
failure requires careful attention to design, materials, construction, inspection and maintenance.

A useful way of categorising failures in welded structures is to distinguish between instant failure
modes and time-dependent failure processes. Examples of instant failure modes include brittle
fracture, overload failure and buckling. In all cases, the failure occurs when the 'driving force' for
failure (e.g. applied stress, applied stress intensity) exceeds the materials resistance (e.g. tensile
strength, fracture toughness). Consequently, instant failure modes are quite likely to occur early in the
life cycle of the structure, perhaps due to errors in design, construction, materials or inspection.
Failure of pressure vessels during their final hydrotest [1,2] (see also Catastrophic Failures of Steel
Structures in Industry: Case Histories.' TWI report 632/1998, February 1998 ) and of bridges during
construction[3] , come into this category. On the other hand, 'instant' failures may also occur after
many years of operation because of statistically rare events, such as the loading induced by a severe
storm or the reduction in fracture toughness caused by unusually low temperatures. It should also be
borne in mind that fracture toughness can fall over time as a result of embrittlement (e.g. temper
embrittlement, radiation embrittlement) so that a structure which was safe at the start of life may later
become unsafe.

Time-dependent failure processes include fatigue and creep crack growth, stress corrosion, other
forms of corrosion, and wear. These may eventually lead to final failure by one of the instant failure
modes described above, but are more amenable to control by in -service inspection. For example,
welded joints are particularly susceptible to fatigue, typically initiating from discontinuities at the weld
toe. However, the relationship between applied stress range, joint geometry and fatigue life is well-
documented, and failure can be prevented by basing the design on an appropriate design codes. [4,5] .
The FAQ 'Where a welded structure is subjected to cyclic rather than static loading, how is the
allowable stress calculated?' provides further information on this topic.

Although design codes allow a notional design life to be assigned to a welded structure, life extension
and/or change of use of a welded structure are often possible through the use of in -service
inspection, materials assessment and application of fitness-for-purpose procedures[6-10] . additional
information is contained in the FAQ 'Are there any codifed procedures to evaluate the significance of
weld flaws in metallic structures and components?' .

Table 1. Examples of failure frequencies of welded structures

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Type of structure Failure rate Reference

Boiler (explosion), USA, approx. 400 per year (rate 11

c.1900 per vessel year not stated)

Boiler (explosion), USA, approx. 20 per year (rate 11

c.1970 per vessel year not stated)
Onshore gas pipeline, 0.6 per 1000km/year 12
Western Europe

Petroleum products 0.55 per 1000km/year 13

pipeline, USA

Pressure vessels 2x10 -6 per vessel year 14,15

(catastrophic failure), UK

References
N Author Title
1 Hayes, B: 'Six case histories of pressure vessel failures', Engineering Failure Analysis,
3/3, 1996, 157-170
2 Hayes, B and 'Catastrophic Failures of Steel Structures in Industry: Case Histories' TWI
Phaal, R: report 632/1998, February 1998
3 Hartbower C E: 'Brittle fracture of the tension flange of a steel box -girder bridge'. In Book:
Handbook of Case Histories in Failure Analysis, Ed. K A Esaklul, Publ. ASM
International, Vol.1, 1992, pp.369-377.
4 BS7608:1993 'Code of practice for fatigue design and assessment of steel structures'
5 AWS D1.1:2000: 'Structural welding code - steel', 17th edition
6 BS7910: 1999 'Guidance on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic
structures (incorporating Amendment 1)'
7 SINTAP: 'Structural integrity assessment procedures for European Industry', Final
Procedure, November 1999
8 IIW guidance on assessment of the fitness for purpose of welded structures,
IIW/IIS-SST-1157-90, 1990
9 API 579: Recommended practice for fitness-for-service, API, January 2000
10 WES 2805:1997: 'Method of assessment for flaws in fusion welded joints with respect to brittle
fracture and fatigue growth'. Japanese Welding Engineering Society, 1997
11 Walters, S: 'The beginnings', Mechanical Engineering, April 1984, 38-62
12 Jones, D: 'Inspection - the key to a reliable future', Pipes and Pipelines International,
March-April 1997, 32-43
13 Hovey D J and 'Pipeline accident, failure probability determined from historical data', Oil and
Framer E J: Gas Journal, July 12 1993, 104-107
14 Smith, T A. and 'A survey of defects in pressure vessels in the UK for the period 1962-1978
Warwick, R G: and its relevance to nuclear primary circuits', International Journal of
Pressure Vessels and Piping, 1983, 11, 127-166.
15 Davenport, T J: 'A further study of pressure vessel failures in the UK', International
Conference on Reliability Techniques and their application, Reliability '91,
London, UK, 10-12 June 1991
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Further information
Use SEARCH to identify other relevant information and knowledge. TWI Industrial Members have
unrestricted access to all TWI content.

You can use the Weldasearch literature database to supplement what you find in JoinIT.

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Fatigue (January 2001) Page 1 of 2
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Fatigue (January 2001)

by Peter Tubby

Fatigue is a mechanism of failure experienced by materials under the action of a cyclic stress. It
involves initiation and growth of a crack under an applied stress amplitude which may be well within
the static capacity of the material. Discontinuities such as changes in section or material flaws are
favoured sites for fatigue initiation. During subsequent propagation the crack grows a microscopic
amount with each load cycle. The crack so-formed often remains tightly closed, and thus difficult to
find by visual inspection during the majority of the life. If cracking remains undiscovered, there is a
risk that it may spread across a significant portion of the load-bearing cross section, leading to final
separation by fracture of the remaining ligament, or another failure mode may intervene such as
jamming of a mechanism. Fatigue occurs in metals, plastics, composites and ceramics. It is the most
common mode of failure in structural and mechanical engineering components.

The phenomenon has been investigated extensively over many decades, particularly in metals and
alloys. As a result, design guidance is readily available in many texts and is widely codified. Joints in
materials are particularly susceptible to fatigue and therefore need to be designed with care for cyclic
loading. Fatigue design rules for welded and bolted connections in steel and aluminium alloys have
been produced by the International Institute of Welding (IIW) see Ref. 1 ; similar rules can also be
found in many national standards, e.g. BS 7608 (Ref. 2 ) is widely used in the UK. Data for other
alloys and joining methods have not been codified to the same extent, but a good deal of published
information exists which may be accessed via Weldasearch .

In welded joints, fabrication flaws may give rise to premature fatigue failure, particularly planar flaws
such as lack of fusion. Using fracture mechanics, the rate at which fatigue cracking will grow from
such features can be estimated, and in this way tolerable flaw sizes can be derived. British Standard
7910 (Ref. 3 ) provides detailed guidance on this method of assessment.

Fatigue continues as a subject of current research worldwide, to the extent that several technical
journals are devoted solely to the subject. With respect to the behaviour of joints, fatigue data are
lacking for all but the most commonly used alloys and joining methods. Other areas of current
research include improved methods of predicting fatigue crack growth, refining theoretical stress
analysis methods for fatigue sensitive structures and development of fatigue sensors.

References
1. Fatigue design of welded joints and components
Recommendations of IIW joint working group XIII and XV
Edited by A Hobbacher
Abington Publishing, 1996
ISBN 1 85573 315 3

2. BS 7608 , Fatigue design and assessment of steel structures, British Standards Institution, 1993

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Fatigue (January 2001) Page 2 of 2

3. BS 7910 , Guidance on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures
(incorporating Amendment 1), British Standards Institution, 1999

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The principles of fracture mechanics-based fitness-for-purpose assessments of structures or components
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The principles of fracture mechanics-based

fitness-for-purpose assessments of structures
or components containing flaws

It is now well accepted that all welded structures contain flaws, and that these do not necessarily
affect structural integrity or service performance. This is implicitly recognised by most welding
fabrication codes which specify weld flaw tolerance levels based on experience and workmanship
practice. However, these flaw acceptance levels cannot provide quantitative measures of structural
integrity, for instance how 'close' a particular structure containing weld flaws is to the failure condition.
In addition, flaws can develop during service due to e.g. corrosion and fatigue and the tolerance of
the component regarding these needs to be known.

The fracture mechanics based fitness-for-purpose approach enables the significance of flaws to be
assessed in terms of structural integrity. It can be used to demonstrate that a given flaw can be left as
it is and so avoid unnecessary repairs. Because of its tremendous economic potential, the fitness-for-
purpose concept has undergone rapid developments in the past 20 years and so an internationally -
recognised and widely used procedure has been developed in the UK, published as the British
Standards Institution Guide BS 7910: 1999[1].

Approach
When applying the fitness-for-purpose approach, all potential failure modes should be identified and
an assessment conducted to ensure that the conditions for failure are not reached during the design
life of the structure. Typical failure modes to be considered include:

? Fracture
? Fatigue
? Gross yielding or plastic collapse
? Leakage
? Corrosion and erosion
? Stress corrosion and corrosion fatigue
? Buckling
? Creep and creep/fatigue

Often, a combination of failure modes needs to be considered. For example, a fabrication flaw may
initially grow by fatigue to a size where fracture, gross yielding or leakage can occur. In the following,
only the failure modes of fracture, gross yielding and fatigue will be considered. An important
requirement for any structural assessment is the need to define the size of the flaw present.

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Fracture Assessment
Fracture is a failure mechanism that involves the stable or unstable propagation of a crack within a
structure. In ferritic steels, the overall fracture behaviour will depend strongly on temperature. At low
temperatures, brittle fracture prevails for which, once the crack has started to extend, crack
propagation may occur extremely rapidly. At high temperatures and for materials such as austenitic
stainless steels, the fracture behaviour is ductile and crack growth takes place by a stable tearing
mechanism.

Whatever the mechanism, for fracture or crack growth to occur, a detrimental combination of applied
stress, crack dimension and the material's fracture toughness is required, see Fig.1 . This condition
can be expressed mathematically as:

KI Kmat

Fig.1 Factors controlling fracture

i.e. if the crack driving force (expressed as the applied stress intensity factor, KI) is greater or equal
than the brittle or ductile fracture toughness, K mat , fracture will occur. The stress intensity factor
characterises the stress field at the crack tip, and it is the conditions at the crack tip which govern the
general behaviour of a cracked structure.

The applied stress intensity factor, KI, is calculated using relations involving the geometry of the
component, the magnitude of the applied stresses and the crack dimensions. For elastic -plastic
conditions, the strain hardening behaviour of the material in question is also important. The stress
analysis should consider stress concentrations, including those which may arise from deviations from
the intended design, such as misalignment; and welded residual stresses (of up to yield strength
magnitude) must be taken into account.

Kmat is measured using pre-cracked specimens taken from the material which represent the region in
which the subject crack is located. For example, if the subject crack is located in weld metal, the
fracture toughness specimen will be notched and fatigue pre-cracked into a test weld representing the
structural weld. The test procedures are described in national and international standards [2,3].
Fracture toughness values are sensitive to material microstructure, heat treatment condition, loading
rate and test temperature (particularly in ferritic steels) and, in certain circumstances, specimen
thickness.

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In most structural materials, plasticity effects precede failure, and, in the limit, gross yielding effects
predominate and failure occurs by plastic collapse. To account for the range of possible behaviours,
i.e. elastic fracture, plasticity effects through to plastic collapse, a two-parameter approach to failure
has been developed. This is expressed in the form of a failure assessment diagram (FAD), see Fig.2
(from PD6493) [4].

Fig.2 Failure analysis diagram (FAD) as used in

PD6493

In this diagram, the proximity to fracture is given on the vertical axis as the ratio of applied stress
intensity, K I, to fracture toughness, Kmat :

Kr = KI/Kmat

If Kr = 1, failure is predicted to occur by brittle fracture.

The proximity to plastic collapse is given by the ratio of applied net section stress, n
, to flow stress
f.

Sr = n
/ f

i.e. if Sr = 1, failure is predicted to occur by plastic collapse.

A failure locus provides the connection between Kr and S r and any assessment point falling on or
below the failure locus means that the flaw is stable and does not present a significant risk of failure.
Assessment points above the failure locus represent unacceptable flaws which may cause failure.

For materials which fracture in an elastic-plastic fashion, alternative fracture toughness parameters
have been proposed, namely J and the crack tip opening displacement CTOD. CTOD testing and
assessment procedures are extensively used in the offshore construction and pipeline industries,
whilst J testing procedures are more common in the power generating industries. For cases where
these parameters describe fracture, KI and K Ic are replaced by J or CTOD using suitable relations.

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However, the principle of the assessment procedure remains the same.

Fatigue Assessment
Fatigue is a failure mechanism that involves the stable propagation of a crack under repeated or
cyclic loading. Each load cycle causes a very small, but finite amount of crack extension. The crack
therefore extends steadily until a final failure mode such as fracture or gross yield intervenes.

The basis for all fatigue assessment is the assumption that the increment of crack extension, da, per
cycle, dN, is a function of the applied stress intensity factor range, KI:

da/dN = A KIm

KI is calculated in the same manner as the applied stress intensity factor, KI for fracture
assessments with the exception that the applied stress ranges rather than the applied stresses are
used.

Although the constants in - A and m - are material dependent, extensive experimental work has
shown that for steels and aluminium alloys, they have similar values for a wide range of steel yield
strengths and microstructures for a given environment. Thus, for steel, fatigue behaviour can be
assumed to be independent of microstructure. Experiments have also shown that below a threshold
stress intensity factor, no fatigue crack growth occurs in steels (see BS 7910 [1]).

The above equation can be invoked to calculate the number of cycles N corresponding to the growth
from an initial to a final size, to estimate fatigue life.

The initial flaw size often represents the height of a flaw found by non-destructive testing, and the
final flaw size is set by the limiting failure condition, such as through wall cracking, leakage or the
maximum tolerable size calculated using the fracture assessment procedure described in the
previous section. For an assessment based on the failure analysis diagram ( Fig.2 ), the final crack
size would correspond to a point on the failure locus.

Conclusions
There now exist fully documented and accepted procedures for assessing weld flaws using fitness-
for-purpose principles. Application of these procedures offer extensive scope for significant cost
saving in design and fabrication; during inspection and operation; and at the end of the design life of
welded structures with quantifiably ensured structural integrity.

References
1. BS 7910:1999: 'Guidance on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic
structures (incorporating Amendment 1)'. London; British Standards Institution, 1999.

2. BS 7448: 'Fracture mechanics toughness tests: Part 1 : 1991. Method for determination of KIc,
critical CTOD and critical J values of metallic materials'. London; British Standards Institution,
1991.

3. ASTM 1820-99, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Fracture Toughness. American
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Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1999.

4. PD6493 : 1991 Guidance on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in fusion welded
structures. London; British Standards Institution, 1991.

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Residual stresses (September 2000) Page 1 of 2
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Residual stresses (September 2000)

The residual stresses in a component or structure are stresses caused by incompatible internal
permanent strains. They may be generated or modified at every stage in the component life cycle,
from original material production to final disposal. Welding is one of the most significant causes of
residual stresses and typically produces large tensile stresses whose maximum value is
approximately equal to the yield strength of the materials being joined, balanced by lower
compressive residual stresses elsewhere in the component.

Tensile residual stresses may reduce the performance or cause failure of manufactured products.
They may increase the rate of damage by fatigue, creep or environmental degradation. They may
reduce the load capacity by contributing to failure by brittle fracture, or cause other forms of damage
such as shape change or crazing. Compressive residual stresses are generally beneficial, but cause
a decrease in the buckling load.

Data on residual stresses may be obtained from published literature, measurements or numerical
modelling. Standard residual stress distributions for common welded joint geometries are included in
BS 7910:1999 Annex Q and API 579 Appendix E. The standard distributions were obtained by fitting
upper bounds to published data, and are available for butt welds, T-joints, girth welds in cylinders and
weld repairs.

Residual stresses may be measured by non-destructive techniques, including X-ray diffraction,

neutron diffraction and magnetic and ultrasonic methods; by locally destructive techniques, including
hole drilling and the ring core and deep hole methods; and by sectioning methods including block
removal, splitting, slicing and layering. The selection of the optimum measurement technique should
take account of volumetric resolution, material, geometry and access.

Prediction of residual stresses by numerical modelling of welding and other manufacturing processes
has increased rapidly in recent years. Modelling of welding is technically and computationally
demanding, and simplification and idealisation of the material behaviour, process parameters and
geometry is inevitable. Numerical modelling is a powerful tool for residual stress prediction, but
validation with reference to experimental results is essential.

Allowing for residual stresses in the assessment of service performance varies according to the
failure mechanism. It is not usually necessary to take account of residual stresses in calculations of
the static strength of ductile materials. Design procedures for fatigue or buckling of welded structures
usually make appropriate allowances for weld-induced residual stresses, and hence it is not
necessary to include them explicitly. Residual stresses have a major effect on fracture in the brittle
and transitional regimes, and hence the stress intensity, K, or energy release rate, J, due to residual
stresses must be calculated and included in the fracture assessment. K or J may be obtained as a
function of stress distribution, crack size and geometry by various methods, including handbook
solutions, weight functions, and finite element analysis.

Residual stresses in as-welded structures may be minimised by appropriate selection of materials,

welding process and parameters, structural geometry and fabrication sequence. Residual stresses
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may be reduced by various special welding technqiues including low stress non-distortion welding
(LSND), last pass heat sink welding (LPHSW) or inter-run peening. They may be relaxed by thermal
processes including postweld heat treatment and creep in service, or by mechanical processes
including proof testing and vibratory stress relief. Different stress relief treatments are appropriate in
different applications. The effectiveness of the treatment may be reduced or the residual stresses
may be increased if the treatment is not applied properly. Specialised processes are available for
inducing beneficial compressive residual stresses, including peening, shot blasting, induction heating
stress improvement (IHSI) and mechanical stress improvement procedures (MSIP).

Further information
Other related items covering residual stresses include:

Welds, their quality and inspection capability for high integrity structures and components (April 1999)

Tubestress' measures residual stresses in parts that other equipment cannot reach

FAQ: What are the residual stresses in a dissimilar metal weld?

Job knowledge for welders: Distortion - types and causes

Numerous Member reports and Bulletin articles on residual stresses are also available to TWI
Industrial Members.

Use SEARCH to identify other relevant information and knowledge. TWI Industrial Members have
unrestricted access to all TWI content.

You can use the Weldasearch literature database to supplement what you find in JoinIT.

Copyright 2000, TWI Ltd

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Stress analysis (July 2000) Page 1 of 2
Information
about
this

Stress analysis (July 2000)

Man-made objects have a purpose and a nominal specification. Durability is an important aspect of
the specification of built or manufactured items. Designers and engineers use materials data and
expected load levels to create suitably sized components through the use of stress analysis.

Stress is most fundamentally expressed as load divided by area. It expresses the severity of loading
experienced by material in equipment (hence, higher loads can be sustained by larger cross-sections
of the same material). A variety of reasons, however, mean that stress is never uniform in
engineering components. Stress distributions are frequently complex. The methods of stress analysis
have been developed to give engineers practical methods for assessing the level of stresses.

Stress distributions are usually classified as either linear or non-linear by engineers. In general, a
distribution will be composed of both types. The linear portion can often be calculated analytically with
relative ease. Non-linear distributions of stress can be predicted by analytical methods, but the
techniques used are complex. Encyclopaedias of the peak stresses from non-uniform stress
distributions have therefore been prepared to help the stress analyst (e.g. R E Peterson: 'Stress
Concentration Factors'. Publ: New York, USA; Wiley Interscience; 1974. ISBN Q-471-68329-9).

Computer based numerical stress analysis methods (e.g. finite element analysis or FEA) have
permitted the complex distributions of stress in engineering components to be more routinely
calculated. These allow linear elastic and non-linear (e.g. elastic-plastic) stress analyses to be
performed for static and dynamic loads. The computer-based engineering office is now integrating the
processes of component drawing and component stressing through the use of Computer Aided
Design (CAD) systems. Information transfer should therefore be more straightforward. However,
advanced software is needed to interpret and process the data. Further development of the software
and the file format protocols is needed.

Existing engineering components can be assessed using experimental stress analysis. The results
will then be applicable to the real material characteristics of the component and the correct in -service
loads.

Further information

A stress intensity factor solution for root defects in fillet and partial penetration welds. (Technology
Briefing 575 - October 1996)

FAQ: What element type should be used in finite element modelling of welded structures?

FAQ: How are welds included in models of structures?

Use SEARCH to identify other relevant information and knowledge. TWI Industrial Members have
unrestricted access to all TWI content.

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TWI information:
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Structural analysis (August 2000) Page 1 of 2
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Structural analysis (August 2000)

The civil, chemical, power generation and offshore industries all operate large and complex
engineering structures that operate for long periods and, in many cases, under arduous conditions.
The engineers who operate these structures must understand the relationship between the expected
loading and the resultant stresses and deflections of each structure. This is achieved by structural
analysis. The process can be applied to both metal and non-metal materials. In all cases, the
engineer aims to keep the stress and deflection histories below recommended values based on the
materials of the structure.

Large, complex structures have been built for thousands of years. However, stress analysis only
began to be developed in 15th and 16th centuries and has become a mature discipline in the last one
hundred years. Over the last ten years, computer-based numerical methods have been used more
frequently on complex structures because only experts are able to use analytical methods.
Experimental stress analysis is a valuable tool for the review of existing structures. This can be
combined with non-destructive testing (NDT) to directly determine the current state of structures.

All structures interact with their surroundings. This means that the applied loads (e.g. wind, wave) and
the characteristics of the supports can be complex. It is important to understand these. Effort is being
channelled into the development of user-friendly systems that reduce the risk that loading and
support issues will be overlooked or wrongly assessed. This includes the more accurate assessment
of the size and effect of stresses locked into the structure during manufacture (e.g. welding residual
stresses). A more complete understanding of structures is being made via instrumentation that is
applied by the original design team. This means that advanced structures will be easier to maintain.

Further information

Towards a simplified assessment procedure for corroded nozzles in pressure vessels (August 1999)

TWI Services to the Automotive Industry: Case Histories - On-site analysis sheds light on teleporter
stresses

FAQ: How can elevated ('dynamic') loading rates be taken into account in structural and fracture
mechanics assessments?

The use of the elastic T-stress and other constraint parameters in fracture mechanics (Technology
Briefing 516 - September 1995)

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unrestricted access to all TWI content.

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TWI information:
Information and advice from TWI are provided in good faith and based, where appropriate, on the best engineering knowledge available at the time and
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effects of applying information or advice obtained from the website, nor is any responsibility accepted for any consequential loss or damage.

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