Table of Contents Note to Students and Acknowledgements Chapter 1 Speaking Mathematically Chapter 1 Review Chapter 2. The Logie of Compound Statements Chapter 2 Review Chapter 3. ‘The Logic of Quantified Statements Chapter 3 Review Chapter 4 Elementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof Chapter 4 Review Chapter 5 Sequences, Mathematical Induction, and Recursion Chapter 5 Review Formats for Proving Formnlas by Mathematical Induct Chapter 6 Set Theory Chapter 6 Review Chapter 7 Functions Chapter 7 Review Chapter 8 Relations Chapter 8 Review Chapter 9. Countingg and Probability Chapter 9 Review Chapter 10 Graphs and Trees Chapter 10 Review Chapter 11 Analy Chapter 1 Review Chapter 12 Regular Expre Chapter 12 Review Additional Review: of Algoritlun Efficiency us and Finite-State Automata Conventions for Mathematical Writing Tips for Success with Proof aud Disproof Find-the-Mistake Problems Answers for the Pind-the-Mistake Problems 2 Cengage Leming. I Rights Reseed. May ot be xand cod or pis posto a publicly accesible webs, in whale rin pnNote to Students ‘This Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide for the fourth edition of Discrete Mathematics with Applications contains complete solutions to every third exercise in the text that is not fully answered in Appendix B. It also contains additional explanation, and review material. The specific topics developed in the book provide a foundation for virtually every other mathe- ‘matics or computer science subject you might study in the future. Perhaps more important, however, is the book's recurring focus on the logical principles used in mathematical reasoning and the tech- niques of mathematical proof. Why should it matter for you to learn these things? ‘The main reason is that these principles and techniques are the foundation for all kinds of careful analyses, whether of mathematical statements, computer programs, legal documents, or other technical writing. A person who understands and knows how to develop basic mathematical proofs has learned to think in a highly disciplined way, is able to deduce correct consequences from a few basic principles, can build a logically connected chain of statements and appreciates the need for giving a valid reason for each statement in the chain, able to move flexibly between abstract symbols and concrete objects, and can deal with multiple levels of abstraction. Mastery of these skills opens a host of interesting and rewarding possibilities in a person's life. In studying the subject matter of this book, you are embarking on an exciting and challenging adventure. I wish you much success! Acknowledgements Tam enormously indebted to the work of Tom Jenkyns, whose eagle eye, mathematical knowledge, and understanding of language made nn invaluable contribution to this volume. I am also most grateful to my husband, Helmut Epp and my daughter, Caroline Epp, who constructed all the diagrams and, especially, to my husband, who provided much support and wise counsel over many years. Susanna $. Epp (02012 Cengage Leaning. All Rigs Reserved. May nl scanned, copie or pia or pose 0 pabley acess web, a whoring.Chapter 1: Speaking Mathematically ‘The aim of this chapter is to provide some of the basic terminology that is used throughout the book. Section 1.1 introduces special terms that. are used to describe aspects of mathematical thinking and contains exercises to help you start getting used to expressing mathematical statements both formally and informally, ‘To be successful in mathematics, it is important to be able comfortably to translate from formal to informal and from informal to formal modes of expression. Sections 1.2 and 1.3 ‘and functions introduce the basic notions of sets, rel Section 1.1 6. a. #18 negative —b, negative: the cube root of s is negative (Or: Ys is negative) is negative; Y/5 is negative (Or: the eube root of s is negative) , has at anost two real solutions ¢. has at most two real n; has at most two real solutions ¢. E has at most. two 9. a, have at most two real solu solutions d. is a quadratic equati real solutions Section 1.2 6. Ty and Ts each have two elements, and Ty and 7; each have one element. Justification: Ty = (2,2) = {2.4}, Tos = {~8,(-3)7} = {-3.9}, Ty = {1,12} = (11 = (1), and To = (0,07) = {0,0} = {0}. 9. ¢. No: The only elements in {1,2} are 1 and 2, and {2} is not equal to either of these. d. Yes: {3} is one of the elements listed in {1. {2}. {3}}. ce. Yes: {1} is the sct whose only element is 1 4g. Yes: The only element in {1} is 1, and 1 is an element in {1,2}, h, No: The only elements in {{1},2} are {1} and 2, and 1 is not equal to either of these. j. Yes: The only clement in {1} is 1, which isis an element in {1}. So every element in {1} is, in (1) 12. All four sets have nine elements a, ST = {(2.1). (2,3), (2,5)s (4, 1), (4, 3)s (4.5); (6,1) (6,3) (6, 5)} b.T x S = {(1,2)s (3,2) (6,2). (1o4), (8.4), 54), (1.6), (3,6), (5,6)} $x S = {(2,2).(2,4)e (256), (4,2), (4.4), (4,6), (6,2), (6,4), (6,6)} 4. TXT = {(1.1), (1,3), (1.5). (8,1). (8.8); (8.5), 551) (5.3), (5.5)} Section 1.3 6. a, (2.4) € R beennse d= (4,2) ¢ R because 2 4 42. (3,9) € R becuse 9 = (~3)? (9,3) ¢ R beenuse 34 9%, {©2012 Cengage Leong AIL RightsReserved Mayo be cn cpio dapetd of pose to pabicly aces web, in we rin part2 Chapter 1: Speaking Mathematically ®. 12, T is not a function because, for example, both (0,1) and (0,-1) are in T but 1 # ~1. Many other examples could be given showing that T does not satisfy property (2) of the definition ‘of function, 15. c. This diagram does not determine a function because 4 is related to both 1 and 2, which violates property (2) of the definition of function. d. This diagram defines a function; both properties (1) and (2) are satisfied. ¢. This diagram does not determine a function because 2 is in the domain but it is not related to any element in the co-domain, 18. h(~#2) = (2) = (8) =2 (©2012 Congas Leaing Al Rights Resoved Mayne cnn, copa or dpi or porto pully ceil Webs, in whol np.Chapter 1 Review 3 Review Guide: Chapter 1 ‘Variables and Mathematical Statements What. are the two main ways variables are used? (p. 1) What is a universal statement? Give one example. (p- 2) ‘What is a conditional statement? Give one example. (p. 2) ‘What is an existential statement Give one example. (p. 2) ‘© Give an example of a universal conditional statement. (p. 3) (p. 3) niversal statement. (p. 4) Give an example of a universal existential statem ¢ Give an example of an existential Sets What does the notation r € $ mean? (». 7) What does the notation ¢ $ mean? (p. 7) How is the set-roster notation used to define a set? (p. 7) What is the axiom of extension? (p. 7) What do the symbols R, Z, and Q stand for? (p. 8) What is the set builder notation? (p. 8) If S is a set and P(x) is a property that elements may or may not satisfy, how should the following be read out loud: {x € $| P(x)}? (p. 8) Subsets # If A and B are sets, what does it mean for A to be a subset of BY What is the notation that indicates that A is a subset of B? (p. 9) © What does the notation AZ B incan? (p. 9) 4 What does it mean for one set to be a proper subset of another? (p. 9) # How are the symbols © snd € different front each other? (p. 10) Cartesian Products ¢ What does it mean for an ordered pair (a,)) to equal an ordered pair (c,d)? (p. 11) ‘© Given sets A and 2, what is the Cartesian product of A and B.? What is the notation for the Cartesian product of A and B? (p. 11) ‘© What is the Cartesian plane? (p. 12) Relations ¢ What is a relation from a set A toa set BY (p. 14) # If Risa relation from A to B, what is the domain of R? (p. 14) # If Ris a relation from A to B, what is the co-domain of RY (p. 14) ‘If Riya relation from A to B, what does the notation x Ry mean? (p. 14) ‘¢ How should the following notation be read: x Ry? (p. 14) ‘¢ How is the arrow dingran for a relation drawn? (p. 16) Functions ¢ What isa fmetion F from a set. A toa set BY (p. 17) {©2012 Cevpge Leaming, Al igh Reserve, May not be scanned dpe o posed to pablil acces web, in whole or inp Sessa csc4 Chapter 1: Speaking Mathematically ‘* What are less forimal/more formal ways to state the two properties a function F must satisfy? (. 17) iven a function F from a set A toa set B and an element « in A, what is F(z)? (p. 17) ‘© What is the squaring function from R. to R? (p. 20) ‘+ What is the successor function from Z to 2? (p. 20) © Give an example of a constant function. (p. 20) ‘* What is the difference between the notations f and f(z)? (pp. 17, 20) # If f and g are functions from A to B, what does it mean for f to equal g? (p. 20) (©2012 Cengage Leming, Al igh Reserved, May nt bested, copieor pitt of one publ accesible webinar. aac eeChapter 2: The Logic of Compound Statements ‘The ability to reason using the prineiples of logic is essential for solving problems in abstract math- ‘ematics and computer science and for understanding the reasoning used in mathematical proof an disproof. In this chapter the various rules used in logical reasoning are developed both symbolically and in the context of their somewhat limited but very important use in everyday language Exercise sets for Sections 2.1-2.3 and 3.1 3.4 contain sentences for you to negate, write the ‘contrapositive for, and so forth, These are designed to ielp you learn to incorporate the rules of logic into your getteral reasoning processes. Chapters 2 and 3 also present the rudiments of symbolic log as a foundation for « variety of upper-dlivision courses. Symbolic logic is used in, among others, the study of digital logic circuits, relational databases, art telligence, and program verification. Section 2.1 9. (nVE)A~ (WAR) 15, When you are filling out a truth table, a convenient way to remember the definitions of ~ (not), A (and), and V (or) is to think of them in words ass follows. (1) A not statement has opposite truth value from that of the statement. So to fill out a column of a truth table for the negation of a statement, you look at the column representing the truth values for the statement. In each row where the truth value for the statement is 7, you place an F in the corresponding row in the column representing the truth value of the negation. In each row where the truth value for the statement is F, you place a T in the corresponding row in the column representing the truth value of the negation. (2) The only time nn and statement is true is when both components are true. Thus to fill ont a column of a truth table where the word and Tinks two component statements, just look at the columns with the tnth values for the component statements. In any row where both, columns have aT, you put a Tin the same row in the columu for the and statement. In every other row of this column, you put a F. (3) The only time an or statement is false is when both components are false. So to fill out a column of a truth table where the word or links two component statements, you look at the colums with the truth values for the component statements. In any row where both columns have a F, you put a F in the same row in the column for the or statement. In every other row of this cohunn, you put a T. Pla |e) ~a|~ave | paeavn TIT|T)F] © T r\|t|F|y el F FE rlel[r| rt] or Tr rlrFle| r| 3r T Fl[r|r| ere] ¢ F Fl[riei er] e P FlF{[rir| + F Flele|r| E ‘The truth table shows that pA (q Vr) and (pq) V (y Ar) always have the same truth values. Therefore they are logically equivalent. This proves the distributive law for A over V. {©2012 Cengage Leaing A Rights Reserved. May ut be sand cpio pio, of poe to a pubic seeusbe web, wha rin prt6 Chapter 2: The Logic of Compound Statements 24, p|a|r|pva| par | @va)v@Ar) (vgar T\T{|Ty|T T T iid Tt eet |e Tr F rlr|r) r |r Tr Tr e T\Fl|re| cle T F F(r|T] vr] F T Tr F(rjry vr | F Tr F + Fle|r| F | F F P Fle[Fi ele F FE different truth values The truth table shows that (pq) V (pr) and (pV g) Ar have different truth values in rows 2, 3, and 6. Hence they are not logically equivalent. 30. The dollar is not at an all-time high or the stock market is not at a record low. 33. 102 rorr>2 39, The statement’s logical form is (p Aq) V ((r As) AZ). 80 its noga yn has the form ~(PADV( ASAD) = ~DWAgA~((rAs)AL) (~pv~a)A(~(rAsV~8) (~pv~aa((~rv~s)v~t)). ‘Thus a negation is (num.orders > 50 or num.instock < 300) and ((50 > num.orders or num_orders > 75) or num.instock < 500). a2. =P 2 5 TR PADAGAT [ (= PADACATA TS . sass - 7 : maasssssls massa SSN? Sal nal aN aa a al Fs Since all the truth values of ((~ pAg) A(gAr))A~q ate Fy ((~ PAG) A(GAT))A~ ais. a ccontradi 45. Let b be “Bob is a double math and computer science major,” m be “Ann is a math major,” and a be “Ann is a double math and computer ‘Then the two statements can be symbolized as follows: a. (bAm)A~ a and b.~(bAa) A (mAb). Note: The entries in the truth table assume that a person who is a double math and computer science major is also a math major and a computer science major. © 2012 Cngee Learing Al RightsReserved May nt be scanned, ope of dpi, ose io pully cee Webi, a who arin pe.Section 22 7 Dm [a [xa [bam [mab [Aa] GAG | DAMA ~ a] ~WAaAlmAd) Tat alata lease F F alter eer) ea r r rlelrPe| rf ei r] F Fr F rlele]r| ef} ele) ¢ P FP elit eee an F P e[rje| r| e |e je] ot rE P elel|ri el] e |e je] 3 F F eleje}r| re leler) +7 E E es ‘same truth values The truth table shows that (bAm)A ~ a and ~ (ba) A (mA 6) always have the same truth values. Hence they are logically equivalent. 5. Solution 1: pA(~ qv p) PA(DV~4) commutative law for V P absorption law Solution 2: pA(~qVp) (PA~a)V (PAP) ributive law (pA~q)Vp identity law for A P by exercise 50. 5A. (palm (~ Pv a) VRAD (PA(~(~ P\A~ 9) V(pAq) De Morgan's Inw @A@A~A)V PAA) double negative lave (@ApA~q)V@Aq) associative law for A @a~av ng idempotent law for A PA(~ava) distributive law patna) commutative aw for V pat negation law for V » fdentity law for A Section 2.2 6. PL 4 | ~P[~PAa | pve] VIVO PAD | VOY PA) a TIT] FFT T F Teen | Tr FE alee te e| ew T T ele|r| fie E Tr pla)? fanr|poa] re -@—n | ear Tt et eat Tr T r|r|rF] e |r F F ee e i ce T tle|rl r |e r r Peels | cep r Tr FT| F - bee ae F o Flele)| 7 |r Tr le Flelel_c T Tr FE = ——— «lifferent. truth values The truth table shows that p> (qr) and (p > q) +r do not always have the same truth values, (They differ for the combinations of truth values for p, , and r shown in rows 6, 7, and 8.) Therefore they are not logically equivalent. 12012 Cngnpe Laing. I Right Reseed. My ot be sand coil or pied or posed ox publicly acessle west, in woe rin pan8 Chapter 2: The Logic of Compound Statements 18. Part 1: Let p represent “It walle like a duck,” q represent “It talks like w duck,” and r represent “It is a duck.” The statement “If it walks like a duck and it talks like a duck, then it is a duck” has the form p Aq —r. And the statement “Either it does not walk like a duck or it does not. talk like a duck or it is a duck” has the form ~ pv ~ q Vr ?] a] [=P <0] par] ~pv~a] p Age | evar TIT|TP FTF]? TF T T tirle[el|el| re} F F F tle[rie| ri] re) 3 T r tlelele|r|e | 7 r r Firirtrle| | or T T F[rle|rierl|e| 3 r r rle[riri rie | 3 T r Peers mecca oe F ee Ee ee — ame erat values ‘The truth table shows that p Aq — rand (~ pV ~ q) Vr always have the same truth values, Thus the following statements are logically equivalent: If it walks like a duck and it talks a duck, then it is a duck” and “Either it does not walk like a duck or it does not talk li duck oF it is a duck.” Part 2: The statement “If it docs not walk like a duck and it does not talk Tike a duck then it is not a duck” has the form ~ pA ~q—~ r >la|*~e|~a|~* [psa] ~pA~a | pagar | pang aor Pry yr FLFyt F T T rirjefele[r| 3r F r Tr = rle|rte | ciel e F r rielefe |r] r| Fr r Tr ei|r|[r}r|ele| e F Tr Tr Fl[rjelr|er| or] e F r r Flei[r| ri} rir] e Tr Tr Fe - elele|r|ri{r}e r r r different truth valuos ‘The truth table shows that p Ag — rand (~ pA ~ q) ~ r do not always have the same truth values. (They differ for the combinations of truth values of p, q, and r shown in rows 2 and 7.) Thus they are not logically equivalent, and so the statement “If it walks like a duck ‘and it talks like & duck, theu it is a duck” is not logically equivalent to the statement “If it does not walk like a duck and it does not talk like a duck then it is not a duck.” In addition, because of the logical equivalence shown in Part 1, we ean also conelude that the following two statements are not logically equivalent: “Either it does not walk like a duck or it does not talk like a duck or it is a duck” and “If it does not walk like a duck and it does not talk like a duck then it is not a duck.” 21. By the truth table for —, p + q is false if, and only if, p is true and q is false. Under these circumstances, (b) pV q is true and (¢) q — pis also true. © 2012 Cengage Leaning, AI Right Rese May nae cnc dpi, or poe o a pay secesuble website, a whole a ipaSection 22 9 » z = 2 Pp] ~~ naa mals RAS sas ‘The truth table shows that q— p and ~ p —~ q always have the same truth values, so they are logically equivalent. Thus the converse and inverse of a conditional statement ate logically equivalent to each other 30. The corresponding tautology is p A (Vr) = (p Aq) V(p Ar) FLITE a Paap PAU @ADVO RAY PRG @Ady Ar) TELE PP T T rlrlefr for fr] ot r T rle|rf rile fr] r r tlelrF} ele le] e F r e[r[r] r |e] e |e P r F[rje) cle] er] F T Fler] rl of P T rlele] ele F r (py. Ag)V(p Ar) is always true, Hence it is a tautology. 33. If this integer is even, then it equals twice some integer, and if this integer equals twice some integer, then it is even. 36. The Personnel Director did not lie. By using the phrase “only if,” the Personnel Director set forth conditions that. were necessary but not sufficient for being hired: if you did not satisfy those coucitions then you would not be hired. The Personnel Director's statement said nothing, about what would happen if you did satisfy those conditions. 39. b. Ifa security code is not entered, then the door will not open. 45, If this computer program produces error messages during translation, then it is not correct. If this computer program is correct, then it does not produce error messages during translation. 48.4. pV~qorVa = ~(V~a)Vir Va) fan acceptable answer] (~pa~ (wa) V(r Va) by De Morgan's law [another acceptable answer) (~pAgv(rva) ‘by the double negative law [another acceptable answer] bo pvwqorva (pawy(rva) Dy part (a) x (~(~pAga~(r V@)) by De Morgan's law =X (~(~pAg)A(wrA~q)) by De Morgan's law ‘The steps in the answer to part (b) would also be acceptable answers for part (a). BL. Yes. As in exercises 47-60, the following logical equivalences can be used to rewrite any statement form: in a logically equivalent way using only ~ and A; (~p Va) A(~avp) pvgar(~prwa) — ~(~P)EP pe (©2012 Cangage Leaning. lL RightsReserved: May nt be sand copied or dpi poste oa publi accesible webs, n wha rin pr10 Chapter 2: The Logic of Compound Statements ‘The logical equivalence p Aq = ~ (~ pV ~q) can then be used to rewrite any statement form in a logically equivalent way using only ~ and V. Section 2.3 9. premises ‘conclusion —— pla]* [~a] =? [pag paga~r [va a= T|T{[TTF [FT F T T r\rjele |r] 3 T T T T+—feritical row r\r|[r| r| el] e 7 T r P—teritical row r\rlrlr| rl er Tr r r T —feritical row Fl[r|ri_ ele) er Tr FE Tr el|rjel el] or) e r F T Fle{[r| rc] el P Tr T r elelelr|{ri er r a EF Rows 2, 3, and 4 of the truth table are the eritical rows in wl row 3 shows that it is possible for an argument of this for conclusion. Hence the argument form is invalid. i all the premises are true, but 1 to have true premises and a false 12. b. premises conclusion ——. pla|e—a[~e] ~a TIT] T [F TlF| Ff fF Fir] rife Ff critical row Fle| rt fir T—} critical row Rows 3, and 4 of the truth table represent the situations in which all the premises are true, but row 3 shows that it is possible for an argument of this form to have true premises and a false conclusion. Hence the argument formn is invalid. 15. premise conclusion @ pva T Tp critical row a Tp critical row E ‘The truth table shows that in the two situations (represented by rows 1 and 3) in which the is true, the conclusion is also true. Therefore, the the second version of generalization ssl. safe > a, premises conclusion ———— Pla]? |pvalp—rlaor + TiT|Ty tT] Tyr critical row title] tr] Fe |] re rle|r} cr] rr Tt critical row rlrlril 7] er | cr eno | rr critical row F\rje} cr] or) Fle|r] el] r | 3 Flelr] Fe} rit ©2012 Cengage Leaning AI Rights Reserved May nt be canned, coped dpe rps opi secessible webs, jn whole on paSection 24 11. ‘The truth table shows that in the three situations (represented by rows 1, 3, 5) in which all three premises are true, the conclusion is also true. Therefore, proof by division into cases is valid. 30. form: p—q invalid, converse error 4 P 1. with a false conclusion must have at least one false premise. In the following tine because its hypothesis is false.) negative. 33. A valid argun example, the second premise is false. (The first premise IE the square of every real number is positive, then no real number ‘The square of every real number is positive. ‘Therefore, no real number is negative, 42, (1) qr promise b ~r premise d ~q by modus tollen (2) pVq premise a ~q — by(I) P by elimination (8) ~q—uAs promise e ~a by () was by modus ponens @ wars ty@) 8 by specialization @) Pp by (2) 8 by (4) PAs by conjunction (6) pAs—t premise c pas by(5) t by modus ponens Section 2.4 6. The input/output table is as follows: Input | Output P_o|_f eae eo 20 | 1 ot | oO oo] 0 12. (PYQV~ (QAR) 1© 2012 Cngage Luming Al Rips Reseed. May not be sme copie or pied posted a a publ acesbe webs, in whale rin pa.12 Chapter 2: The Logic of Compound Statements 16. : )os> 27. The Boolean expression for circuit (a) is~ P A(~ (~ P.AQ)) and for cireuit (b) it is ~ (P VQ). ‘We must show that if these expressions are regarded as statement forms, then they are logically equivalent. But ~P A(w(~PAQ)) ~PA(~(~PV~Q) by De Morgan's law ~PAPV~Q) by he double negative law (~ P AP)V(~ PA~Q) by the distributive law eV(~ PA~Q) by the negation law for A. SPAmQ by the identity lw for V ~(P VQ) by De Morgan's law. (PIQ)|(P1Q) = ~[(P1Q)A(P| QI] by definition of | ~(P1Q) by the idempotent lw for A ~[X(PAQ)} by definition of | = PAQ by the double negative law. a PA(~QVR) = (PI(~QVR)N(PM~ QV) by part (a) (PIU Ar QDR ADP Vr Q)|(RIR)) by Example 2.4.7(b) (PUCQ1Q) (QQ) (AIRY) | (PUCQ1Q)1(Q1Q)) (AIRY) by Example 2.4.7(a) " w Section 2.5 3. 287 = 256+ 1648444241 = 1000111112 6. 1424 = 1024 + 256 + 128 + 16 = 10110010000, 9. 110110, = 32+ 16-+4+2= Sy 110102 18-1101, 1 21. b. $=0,T=1 0 9=0,7=0 24, GTyo = (64 +2 + 1)io = 010000112 — 10111100 — 10111101. So the ewo's complement is 10111101. 30. 10111010 —+ =(01000101 + 1}2 —+ -010001102 = ~(64 +4 + 2)i0 = -7010 {©2012 Cengage Laing Al Rigs Reserved May nt be scanned, ope or plied or pose toa pully wcsible webs, n whol on paSection 25 13 36, 1239 = (64 +32 + 16-+8 +24 1)io = 011110112 ~94y0 = ~(64-+ 16-+8 +4 +2)19 = ~O1011110, —+ (10100001 + 1)2 — 10100010 So the 8-bit representations of 123 and —94 are 01111011 and 10100010. Adding the &-bit representations gives onion + 10100010 TOOOTTIOT ‘Truncating the 1 in the 2th position gives 00011101. Since the leading bit of this number is 20, the answer is positive. Converting back to decimal form gives (00011101 — 111012 = (16+ 8+4+ I)io = ro. So the answer is 29. 39. BODig = 14-16? +0-+ 13 = 359710 42, B53DF8)« = 101101010011 1101 1111 10002 45, 10110111 110001012 = B7C516 ©2012 Cogn Luring Al Rights Reserved, May not be seamed copied or dpe postal oa publi acosibe webs, a whale orn par,14 Chapter 2: The Logic of Compound Statements Review Guide: Chapter 2 Compound Statements # Ip and q ae statements, how do you symbolize “p but q” and “neither p nor g? (p. 25) © What does the notation a << b mean? (p. 26) ‘© What is the conjunction of statements p and q? (p. 27) ‘© What is the disjunction of statements p and q? (p. 28) ‘What are the truth table definitions for ~ p, pAg. pVq. p> and p++ q? (pp. 26-28,39,45) How do you construct a truth table for a general compound statement form? (p. 29) © What is exclusive or? (p. 29) What is a tautology, and what is a contradict What is a conditional statement? (p. 40) © Given a conditional statement, what is its hypothesis (antecedle (p. 39-40) ‘© What is a biconditional statement? (p. 43) ‘© What is the order of operations for the logical operators? (p. 46) n? (p. 94) ? eonclusion (consequent)? Logical Equivalence «© What does it mean for two statement forms to be logically equivalent? (p. 30) © How do you test to see whether two statement. forms are logically equivalent? (p. 30) # How do you annotate a truth table to explain how it shows that two statement forms are or are not logially equivalent? (p. 30-81) What is the double negative property? (p. 1) ‘# What are De Morgan's laws? (p. 32) ‘¢ How is Theorem 2.1.1 nsed to show that two statement formns are logically equivalent? (p. 36) © What are negati 2 (pp. 82,42) =PAg -pva = pa (if p then 4) for the following forms of state Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive «# What isthe contrapositive of a statement of the form “If p then 4°? (p. 43) ¢ What are the converse and inverse of a statement of the form “If p then q"? (p. 44) © Can you express converses, inverses, and contrapositives of conditional statements in ordinary English? (pp. 43-44) «Ia conditional statement is true, eam itv converse also be true? (p. 44) + Given a conditional statement and its contrapositi logically equivalent and which are not? (p. 44) . converse, and inverse, which of these are Necessary and Sufficient Conditions, Only If ‘What does it mean to say that something is How are statements about only-if statements translated, What does i ‘© What does it mean to say that something true only if something else is true? (p. 45) 2 (p. 45) 1ean to say that something is a necessary condition for something else? (p. 46) ‘a sufficient condition for something else? (p. 46) then forn (©2012 Conage Lesming Al Rights Reserve. May nt be sere, cope ot dpe of pose 1 publ esse webs, a Whole on pa,Chapter 2Review 15 «How are statements about necessary and sulficient conditions transtated into if-then form.2/p. 47) Validity and Invalidity ‘¢ How co you identify the logical form of an argument? (p. 24) 4¢ What does it mean for a form of argument to be valid? (p. 51) ‘* How do you test to see whether a given form of argument is valid? (p. 52) ‘© How do you annotate a truth table to explain how it shows that an argument is or is not valid? (pp. 52, 59, A9-A10) © What does it mean for an argument to be sound? (p. 59) ‘© What are modus ponens and modus tollens? (pp. 52-53) ‘© Can you give examples for and prove the validity of the following forms of argument? (pp. 54-56) as ancl a pva pva ok paq » a - pve pyg y)- final version of negation: J. in D such that. y in E, xy % y. (Or: 3 in D such that ¥ y in B, 2y y. Here is, a table showing one way to do this: how all possible choices for x could be matched with ay so that zy > y. Ghee = [you oud akoy= [way Sa =2 —2 (=2)-(=2 2a2v =I o (G1)-0= 03-17 0 1 O1=0307 7 1 TIsistv 2 z BI=4S2V 4. first version of negation: W 2 iu D, ~ (¥ yin Ey < y). final version of negation: Wz in D, 3 y in E such that x ¢ y. (Or: Varin D, 3 y in E such that z>y) ‘The statement is true. It says that there is a number in D that is less than or equal to every number in D. In fact, ~2 is in D and —2 is less than or equal to every number in D (—2, —1. 0, 1, and 2). 21. c. Statement (1) is true because 2? ~ 2ry+y? = (a°—y)?. Thus given any real munber 2, take y=, then 2 —y =0, and so a? —2ry + y? Statement (2) is false. Given any real number 2, choose a real number y with y # 2. Then 2? 2ey + y? = (2 —y)? £0. d, Statement (1) is true because no matter what real nnmber a might be chosen, y can be taken to be 1 so that (x ~5)(y ~ 1) = (x ~5)-0=0. Statement (2) is also true. Take x = 5. Then for all real numbers y, (#—5)(y—1) = 0(y—1) = 0. €. Statements (1) and (2) are both false because all real numbers have nonnegative squares and the sum of any two nonnegative real munbers is nonnegative. Hence for all real numbers: and y, 2 +4? #-1. 24. bd. ~ (Ar € D (3y€ E (P(x,y)))) Vr € D(~ (3y€ E (P(z,y)))) Ver € D (ty € E (~ P(r.y))) wo 30. a. Vr €R, 3y € Ro such that x > y. . The original statement says that there is a real mumber that is greater than every negative real number. This is true, For instance, 0 is greater than every negative real number. ‘The statement with interchanged quantifiers says that no matter what real mumber might be given, it is possible to find a negative real number that is smaller. This is also true. If the number 2 that is given is positive, y could be taken to be ~1. Then x > y. On the other hand, if the number « that is given is 0 or negative, y could be taken to be x ~ 1. In this case also, my 36. a. 3. person x such that: ¥ people y, x trusts y. b. Negation: ¥ people x, 3 a person y such that x does not trust y. Or: Nobody trusts everybody. 45, Sl € D such that P(x) = 3x € D such that. (Plz) A (vy € D, if P(y) then y = z)) Or: There exists a unique in D such that P(2)- Or: There is one and only one 2: in D such that P(x). 162012 Cengage Lenin Al Rights Reserved, May pot beseanaed, coped ot dplited or ose publ acesive webs, n whale inp.Section 3.4 21 54. a. The statement is false. It says that there are a citcle and a triangle that have the same color, which is false because all the triangles are blue, and no circles are blue. b, Bx(Circle(=r) A (Sy (Triangle(y)A SaneColor(, y)))) . Wa(~Circle(x)v ~ (Sy (Triangle(y)A SameColor(z, y)))) Vo(~Cirele(x) v (vy (~Triangle(y)V ~ SameColor(z, »)))) 57. These statements do not necessarily have the same truth values. For example, let D = Z, the set of all integers, let P(x) be “x is even,” and let Q(z) be “sx is odd.” Then the statement “Va € D.(P(z) V Q(z)” can be written “V integers x, 2 is even or x is odd.” which is true. On the other hand, “(Wr € D, P(x)) (Vz € D, Q(a))” can be written “All integers are even ‘or all integers are odd,” which is false 60..a.No b, oX=9 Section 3.4 6. This computer program is not correct. 12. invalid, inverse error 15, invalid, converse error 18. valid, universal modus tollens 24, Valid. The only drawing representing the truth of the premises also represents the truth of the conclusion, [rare Te Vegetarians / a People who ear \ | (Vesa) j ("| a J 27. Valid. ‘The only drawing representing the conclusion. truth of the premises also represents the truth of things that pute me (things that make up re sijer of ti ©2012 Cengage Leming All igh Reserved, May not hexane cop or dpi things that are imelligible Lar posted ts pally este webs n whol or npn.22 Chapter 3: The Logic of Quantified Statements 30. 3. Ian object is black, then it is a square, 2. (contrapositive form) If an object is a square, then it is above all the gray objects 4. If.an object is above all the gray objects, then it is above all the triangles. 1. Ifan object _ If an object is black, then itis above all the blue objects. above all the triangles, then it is above all the blue objects. 36. ‘The universal form of elimination (part a) says that the following form of argument is val Ve in D, Pl) V Q(z). + major premise ~ Q(e) for a particular cin D. minor premise Plo) Proof of Validity: ‘Suppose the major and minor premises of the above argument form are both true. [We must show that the conclusion P(e) is also true.) By definition of truth value for a universal statement, Ya in D, P(x) VQ(z) is true if, and only: if, the statement “P(x) V Q(z)" is true for each individual element of D. So, by universal instantiation, it is true for the particular element ¢. Hence “P(e) V Q()" is true. [And since the minor premise says that ~ Q(c), it follows by the elimnination rule that P(c) is true, [This is what was to be shown.) {©2012 Cengage Laing Al Righs Rese, May not be sasad, cope or depicted posed toa publicly accesible webs, a whole on pa.Chapter 3 Review 23 Review Guide: Chapter 3 Quantified Statements ‘© What is a predicate? (p. 97) ‘¢ What is the truth sot of a predicate? (p. 97) ‘¢ What is a universal statement, and what is required for such a statement to be true? (p. 98) © What is required for a universal statement to be false? (p. 98) ‘* What is the method of exhanstion? (p. 99) © What is an exist 99) ‘What is required for a existential statement to be false? (p. 99) ‘© What are some ways to translate quantified statements from formal to informal language? (9. 100) ‘* What are some ways to translate qu 101) What is a universal conditional statement? (p. 101) ‘What are equivalent ways to write a universal conditional statements? (pp. 101-103) ‘What are equivalent ways to write existential statements? (p. 103) a trailing quantifier? (p. 101) What does it mean for « statement to be quantified implicitly? (p. £09) What do the notations =» and e mean’? (p. 104) What is the relation among ¥, 3, A, and v? (p. 112) What does it mean for a universal statement to be vacuously true? (p. 112) What is the rule for interpreting a statement that contains both a universal and an existential ‘quantifier? (pp. 118-119) ‘¢ How are statements expressed in the computer programming language Prolog? (pp. 127-128) ial statement, and iat is required for such a statement to be true? (p. ified statements from informal to formal language? (p. Negations: What are negations for the following forms of statements? © Ye, Ql) (p. 109) # Br such that Q(x) (p. 109) © Ve. if P(x) then Q(x) (p. 111) © Var, 3y such that P(z,y) (p. 123) 4 Sr such that Vy, Pl.) (p. 129) ‘Variants of Conditional Statements ‘© What are the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of a statement of the form “Yr, if P(2) then Q(2)"? (p. 113) © How are quantified stateme only-if translated into ts involving necessary andl sufficient conditions and the phrase Validity and Invalidity ‘© What is universal instantiation? (p. 132) ‘© What are the universal versions of modus ponens, modus tollens, converse error, and inverse error, and which of these forms of argument are valid and which are invalid? (pp. 139-135, 198-139) «¢ How is universal modus ponens used in a proof? (p. 134) # How can diagrams be used to test the validity of an argument with quantified statements? (pp. 136-199) 1© 2012 Cengage Leaming Al Ris Reserved Maya be cane copie o duplicated or posed publicly acesle web in wole rin partChapter 4: Elementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof ‘One aim of this chapter is to introduce you to methods for evaluating whether a given mathematical statement is true or false. Throughout the chapter the emphasis is on learning to prove and disprove statements of the form “Var in D, if P(z) then Q(z)." To prove such a statement directly, you suppose you have a particular but arbitrarily chosen element x in D for which P(2) is true and you show that Q(z) must also be true, To disprove such a statement, you show that there is an element in D (a counterexample) for which P(z) is true and Q(x) is false. To prove such a statement by contradiction, you show that no counterexample exists, that is, you suppose that there is an ze in D for which P(z) is true and Q(z) is false and you show that this supposition leads to a contradiction, Direct proof, disproof by counterexample, and proof by contradiction can, therefore, all be viewed fas three aspects of one whole. You arrive at one or the other by a thoughtful examination of the given statement, knowing what it means for a statement of that form to be true or false. ‘Another aim of the chapter is to help you obtain fundamental knowledge about, numbers that is needed in mathematics and computer science, Note that the exercise sets contain problems of ‘varying difficulty. Do not be discouraged if some of them are difficult for you. Proofs given as solutions should be regarded as samples. Your instructor will probably discuss with you the particular range of proof styles that will be considered acceptable in your course, Section 4.1 3. a. Yes, because Ars = 2-(2rs) and 2rs is an integer since r and. arc integers and produets of integers are integers. ». Yes, because Gr bas? +3 = 208" +26? 41) 41 and 3r-+2s? +1 is an integer since r and s are integers and products and sums of integers are integers. . Yes, because P+ ores = (r+5)? and r-+s is an integer that is greater than or equal to 2 since both r and s are pk ‘and thus each is greater than or equal to 1. 6. For example, let a= 1 and b= 0. Then Va+b= vi and also: Vit Vo= Vivo Henee for these values of a and b, Vatb= Vat vo. In fact, if is any nonzero integer and b = 0, then VaFb= Vat0 = a= Va+0= Vat Vo= Vat vin 12. Counterexample: Let n = 5. Then na which is not odd. 24 {©2012 Cengage Leaming AI Rigs Reserved May na be cnn, copied, o postal to a publicly aceule webs whole oi patSection 4.1 25 15. According to the order of operations for real numbers, ~a” = —(a"). The following table shows that the property is true for some values of a and n and false for other values. ells =" (ay Does -a" 2 ~F =—0=0 (Coyraor=o a 7 ~# =~) (-3)? = (-8)(-3) = 9 No =2 [3 | (27 = Fy Cea aeas Yes 2 ((=3)?) = -9 ((-3))9 = 3? No = prim 17, which is pri 31, which is pri 53, whieh is pri 9? ~ 9411 = 83, which is pri 13, which is prime. 23, which is prime. 67, which is prime. 101, which is prime, 21. Ifa real number is greater than 1, then its square it greater than itself Start of Proof: Suppose 2 is any [particular but arbitrarily chosen] real number such that z>l Conclusion to be shown: x? > x. 27. Proof 1: Suppose m and n are any (particular but arbitrarily chosen] odd integers. /We must show that m+n is even By definition of odd, there exist integers r and s such that m= 2r+1 and n =2s-+1, Then m+n = (2r+1)+(28+1) by substitution r+ 2942 = %r+s+1) by algebra. Letusrtstl. ‘Then w is an integer because r, s, and 1 are integers and a sum of integers is an integer. Hence m+n = 2u, where w is an integer, and so by definition of even, m +n is even [as was to be shoun. Proof 2: Suppose m and n are any (particular but arbitrarily chosen odd integers. (We must show that m+n is even.) By definition of odd, there exist integers r and s such that m = 2r+1 and n= 2s+1. Then m+n = (2r+1)+(28+1) by substitution 2r +2842 = Ar+s+1) by algebra, But r-+5+1 is an integer becanse r, s, and 1 are integers and a sum of integers is an integer. Hence m +1 eqnals twice an integer, and so by definition of even, m +n is even fas was to be shown. 30. Proof: Suppose m is any /particular but arbitrarily chosen) even integer./We must show that Sm +5 is odd] {©2012 Cengage Laing A RightsReserved. May nt be came copia or depicts, rpstedio a publicly accse web, a whale inp26 Chapter 4: Elementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof By definition of even, m = 2r for some integer r. Then 3m+5 = 3(2r)+5 by substitution Gr+4t1 2(8r+2)+1 by algebra, Let t= 3r +2, ‘Then ¢ is an integer because products and sums of integers are integers, and 3m +5 = 2t+1. Hence 3m +5 is odd by definition of odd fas was to be shown). 36. To prove the given statement is false, we prove that its negation is true. The negation of the statement is “For all integers n, 6n? + 27 is not prime.” Pro Suppose n is any integer. [We must show that Gn? +27 is not prime] Note that Gn? + 27 is positive because n® > 0 for all integers n and products and sums of positive real numbers are positive. Then Gn? +27 = 3(2n? +9), and both 3 and 2n? +9 are positive integers each greater than I and less than Gn? + 27. So Gn? + 27 is not prime. 42. The mistake in the “proof” is that the same symbol, k, is used to represent two different ‘quantities. By setting both m and n equal to 2k, the "proof specifies that m = n, and, therefore, it only deduces the conclusion in case m =n. If m # n, the conclusion is often false. For instance, 6+ 4 = 10 but 10 # 4k for any integer k. 48. The statement is true. Proof: Let m and n be any even i tegers. By definition of even, m = 2r and n = 2s for some integers r and s. By substitution, m-n=2r—2s=2%r-s) 1ce 1 — # is an integer (being a difference of integers), then ‘m —n equals twice some integer, and so m ~ nis even by definition of even, 51. The statement is false. Counterexample: Let n= 2. Then n is prime but (ay = (1 = 14-1 57. The statement is false Counterexample: Let m m nor mis a perfect square. = 3. Then mn = 3-3 =9, which is a perfect square, but neither 60. The statement is false. Counterexample: When a= 1 and b= 1, Vatb=VvIFI=v2 and Vatvb=Vi+vi=2. But v242, andso Va+b¢ vat vb. ©2012 Cengage Leung, All Rights Reserve, May nt be scanned, op or dpi or pone publi acceasble websie, in whale oin pat.Section 4.2 27 63. Counterexample: Let n = 5. Then P+ 2%? 4.1 = 4,294, 967,297 = (641)- (6700417), and so 2" +1 is not prime, Section 4.2 18, The statement is true. Proof: Suppose r and # are nny two distinct rational numbers. (We must show that?$2 is rational.) By definition of rational, +r a0. By substitution and the laws of algebra, § for some integers a, be, and d with b #0 and Now ad +be and 2hd are intogers because @, b, ¢, and d are integers and products and sums of integers are integers. And 2bd # 0 by the zero product property. rte Hence "# is a quotient of integers with a nowzero denominator, and so "# is rational fas ‘was to be shown). 30. Let the quadratic equation be 0 Phot where 6 and c are rational numbers. Suppose one solution, r, is rational. Call the other solution s. Then 2 tbe bes (2-128) =2°-(r +s) +18. By equating the coefficients of x, ~(r +5), Solving for s yields (r+). Because s is the negative of a sum of two rational numbers, s also is rational (by ‘Theorem 4.2.2 and exercise 13). 38. a. Note that (x — r)(x~ 8) (rt s)etre Uf both r and s are odd integers, then r +s is even and rs is odd (by properties 2 and 3). If both r and s are even integers, then both r+ s and rs are even (by property 1). If one of v and s is even and the other is add, then r + s is odd and rs is even (by properties 4 and 5). 1. It follows from part (a) that 2? — 1253 +256 cannot be written as a product of the form (e—1)(@—8) because if it could be then r +s would equal 1253 and rs would equal 255, both of which are odd integers. But for none of the possible cases (both r and s odd, both 7 and ¢ ‘even, and one of r and odd and the other even) are both r+ and rs odd integers. Note: In Section 4.4, we establish formally that any integer is either even or odd. The type of reasoning used in this solution is called argument by contradiction. Tt ig introduced formally in Section 4.6. 102012 Ceapags Leng. Al Rights Rexrved. May nob sno, copior duplicated or usted 1 pablly aozessble wes, whol inp.28 Chapter 4: Elementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof 36. This incorrect proof just shows the theorem to be true in the one ease where one ofthe rational numbers is 1/4 and the other is 1/2. It is an example ofthe mistake of arguing, from examples. A correct proof must show the theorem is true for any two rational numbers. 39. This incorrect proof assumes what is to be proved. The second sentence asserts that a certain conclusion follows if r+ is rational, and the rest of the proof uses that conclusion to deduce that r+ s is rational. Section 4.3 ‘Yes: 0= 0:5, 2 Yos: 2a-34b = 4(17ab) and 17ab is an integer because a and b are integers and products of integers are integers 21. The statement is true. Proof: Let m and n be any two even integers. {We must show that mn is a multiple of 4.) By definition of even, m = 2r and 1 2 for some integers rand s, ‘Then mn = (2r)(28) by substitution Ars) by algebra, is an integer (being product of integers), mn is a multiple of 4 (by definition of Aivisibility) 27. The statement is false. Counterexamnpl Let a =2,b=3, and ¢=1. ‘Then a (b+) because b+e and 2| (bui)a} b because 2} 3.and a} ¢ because 24 1. 30. The statement is false. Counterexample: Let a= 4 and n =6. ‘Then a| n? and a 0 or r <0. Case 1 (r > 0): In this ease |r| =r, and so by substitution into (*), -e < |r| |r], or, equivalently, |r| 0 or r <0, rl <¢ fas was to be shouny. 48, Solution 1: We are given that AM isn matrix with m rows and n columns, stored in row major form at locations N + k, where 0 < k < mn, Given a value for &k, we want to find indices r and s so that the entry for AI in row r and columt 5, drs, is stored in location NV +k. By the quotient-remainder theorem, k = nQ + R, where Q and R are integers and 0< R O and that qi, qzy ri, and 72 are integers such that a=dytr and a=detry, where O ~r1 > =d or, equivalently, ~d < —ry <0, and ‘adding the inequalities —d < ~ry <0 and OS rz 0, N > 2° Because J . the prime fuetors of prime factors of N are all 2 ‘This contradicts the unique factorization of integers theorem, which states that the prime factors of any integer greater than 1 are unique except for the order in which they are written. Hence the supposition is false, and so logg(2) is rational. 102012 Cengage Learing Al Rights Reserved. May ot be sand copied or dpe, posted publi accesible webs, in whole or npr42 Chapter 4: Elementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof 27. a, Allof the following are prime numbers: Ng =23-5-741= 21, Ng =2-3-5-7-11 + +1 = 3, Np = 2841 =7, Ng = 295+1 = 31, 311. However, Ne 2-3-5-7-11-13-+1 = 30031 = 59-509. ‘Thus the smallest non-prime integer of the given form is 30,031 b, Bach of Ni, No, Na, Ns, and No is prime, and so each is its own smallest pri Thus g = Mi sg = Na, a3 = Nav 1 = Nay and gs = No. However, Ne is not Ne = 30031 = 59509. Since 59 and 509 are primes, the smallest prime divisor of No is go = 58. 30. Proof: Let pi,p2s.--sPu be distinct. prime numbers with p that Pipa Put 1= 4k + 3 for some integer k.j Let 2and n> 1. [We must show N= pipe-Pn +1 By the quotient-remainder theorem, there is an integer & stich that N= 4k, dk+1, dk-+2, or dk-+ 3, But NV is odd (because p1 = 2); hence Nea4k+1 or 4k+3 Suppose N = 4k +1. [We will show that this supposition leads to a contradiction. By substitution, Akt 1Pao+-Pa 1 and so 4k PAP2 “Pas ‘Thus 4 Pipas- Pa But p: = 2 and all of pa, ps, .-- »Pn are odd (being prime numbers that are greater than 2). Consequently, there is only one factor of 2 in the prime factorization of pip2~~» Pa, and $0 Af Pipes Pay which results in a contradiction. ‘Therefore the supposition that NV = 4k +1 for some integer ‘is false, and 80 /by elimination) N = 4k +3 for some integer k [as was to be shouny. 33. Existence Proof: When n = 2, then w+ 2n-3=242-2-3=5, which is prime, Thus there is a prime number of the form n? +2n ~ 3, where n is a positive integer. Uniqueness Proof (by contradiction): By the existence proof above, we know that when n = 2, then n?+2n—3 is prime. Suppose there is another positive integer m, not equal to 2, such that sm? + 2m — 1c. [We will show that this supposition leads logically to a contradiction.| By factoring, we soe that im? +2m— = (m+3)(m=1) Now sn # 1 because otherwise m?4+2m—3 = 0, which is not prime. Also m # 2 by supposition. ‘Thus m > 2. Consequently, m+ 3 > 5 and m—1 > 1, and so m? + 2m ~3 can be written as a product of two positive integers neither of which is 1 (namely m +3 and m ~ 1). ‘This ‘contradicts the supposition that. m? + 2m ~ 3 is prime. Hence the supposition is false: there is no integer m other than 2 such that m? + 2m ~ 3 is prime, (©2012 Cengage Leaming, Aliph Reserved. May tot be sand copie or depicted of posed pli accuse website, in whale in part12, 16, 18, a Section 4.8 43, Uniqueness Proof (direct): Suppose m is any positive integer such that m? + 2m ~ 3 is prime. TWe will show that m =.) By factoring, m? + 2m—3 = (m+3)(m—1). Since m? + 2m ~ 3 is prime, either m+ 3 = 1 or m—~ positive and if m +3 = 1 then m= -2. Thus m=1 be shown.) 1. Now m +3 1 because m is , which implies that m = 2 [as was to Section 4.8 be=6 Solution 1: ged(48, 54) = god(6 -8,6-9) = 6 Solution 2: ged(48, 54) = ged(2* -3, 2-39) 13 8397053 So 10933 = 832-13 + 117, and hence ged(10933, 832) = ged(832, 117) 10816 7 u 117 [B3Z_ So 832 = 117-7 + 13, and hence ged(832, 117) = ged(117, 13) 819 13 9 13 [TTP So 117 =13-9-+0, and hence ged(117, 13) = ged(13,0) uz 0 But ged(13,0) = 13. So ged(10933, 832) = 13. A 5858 B_ | i232 [i232 | oai | sor | ae far | 7] a 9850 | 1232 [931 | 301 | 28 | 21 | 7 232 | 931 [sor [28 [ai | 70 ged 7 Proof: Suppose a and b are any integers with b # 0, and suppose q and r are any integers such that bgtr. ‘We must show that ged(b,r) S ged(a,b). Step 1 (proof that any common divisor of b and r is also a common divisor of a and b): Let ¢ be a common divisor of b and r. Then c| b and ¢| r, and so by definition of divisi there are integers n and m so that bene and r=me {©2012 Cengage Laing AI Rights Rear. May not be weaned copied or pend or posed 6 x publi aces webse, in wl rin a cilIn En nnERRnnnInIUIEEEEEREEEOeneaeenaentl44 Chapter 4: Elementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof ubstit these values into the equation a = 6g-+r to obtain a= (nc)q + me = e(ng + m). But ng + m is an integer, and so by definition of divisibility ¢ | a. Because we already know that ©], we can conclude that c is a common divisor of a and 6. Step 2 (proof that ged(b,r) < ged(a, b): By step 1, every common divisor of 6 and ris a common divisor of a and 6. It follows that the greatest common divisor of b and r is a common divisor of a and b. But then ged(},r) (being one of the common divisors of a and 6) is less than or equal to the greatest common divisor of and b: ged(b,r) < ged(a, b) [as was to be shown. 24, a. Proof: Suppose a and b ate integers and a > b > 0. Part 1 (proof that every common divisor of a and b is a common divisor of b and a—) Suppose dla and djb. Then, by exercise 16 of Section 4.3, d|(a-0). Hence d is a common divisor of @ and a ~ b. Part 2 (proof that every common divisor of b and a—b is a common divisor of @ and b): Suppose d|b and d|(a-b). Then, by exercise 15 of Section 4.3, a|[b+(a—6)} But 6+ (a—6) = and 0 dja. Hence d is a common divisor of a and b. Part 3 (end of proof): Because every common divisor of a and 8 is a common divisor of b and a ~ 6, the greatest ‘common divisor of a and b is common divisor of b and a ~ and so is less than or equal to the greatest common divisor of a and a ~b. Thus ged(a,b) < ged(b,a - b). By similar reasoning, ged(b,a 0) < ged(a,b) and, therefore, ged(a,b) :d(b,a 8). 708 348 708. 7m 2 0 ES 276 | 204 | 132 | 60 a8 | 36 [24 [2 2 1 2012 Cengage Lesing Al Righs Reserved May note scant, cop or dpe poste ply ase Website n wha on pa45 27. Proof: Let a and 6 be any positive integers. Part 1 (proof that if lem(a,) = then a | b): Suppose that em(a,b) = b. By definition of least common multiple, | lem(a,b), and so by substitution, a |b. Part 2 (proof that if a |b then lem(a,b) b): Suppose that ald. ‘Then since it is also the ease that ble, bisa common multiple of @ and b, Moreover, because b divides any common multiple of both. aand b, Jem(a, 6) {©2012 Cengage Leming Al RightsReserved: May ot be ead copied or opiate, posed publicly accesible weit, in woe rin part, me46 Chapter 4: Elementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof Review Guide: Chapter 4 Definitions ‘* Why is the phrase “if, and only if” used in a definition? (p. 147) ‘* How are the following terms defined? = even integer (p. 147) = odd integer (p. 147) = prime number (p. 148) = composite number (p. 148) = rational number (p. 163) ~ divisibility of one integer by another (p. 170) = n div dand n mod d (p. 181) = the floor of a real number (p. 191) = the ceiling of a real number (p. 191) = greatest common divisor of two integers (p. 220) Proving an Existential Statement /Disproving a Universal Statement How do you determine the truth of an existential statement? (p. 148) What does it mean to “disprove” a statement? (p. 149) What is disproof by counterexample? (p. 149) How do you establish the falsity of a universal statement? (p. 149) Proving a Universal Statement /Disproving an Existential Statement ‘If a universal statement is defined over a small, finite domain, how do you use the method of exhaustion to prove that it is true? (p. 150) # What is the method of generalizing from the generic particular? (p. 151) «Ifyou use the method of direct proof to prove a statement of the form “Vz, if P(e) then Q(z)", what do you suppose and what do you have to show? (p. 152) ‘¢ What are the guidelines for writing proofs of universal statements? (pp. 155-156) ‘What are some common mistakes people make when writing mathematical proofs? (pp. 157 158) How do you disprove an existential statement? (p. 159) What is the method of proof by division into eases? (p. 184) What is the triangle inequality? (p. 188) If you use the method of proof by contradiction to prove a statement, what do you suppose ‘and what do you have to show? (p. 198) + If you use the method of proof by contraposition to prove a statement of the form “Va, if P(z) then Q(z)", what do you suppose and what co you have to show? (p. 202) ‘* Are you able to use the various methods of proof and disproof to establish the truth or falsity of statements about odd and even integers (pp. 154,199), prime numbers (pp. 159,210), ra- tional and irrational numbers (pp. 165, 166,201,208, 209), divisibility of integers (pp. 171,173- 175, 184, 186,202,203), absolute value (pp. 187-188), and the floor and ceiling of a real number (pp. 194-196)? Some Important Theorems and Algorithms ‘© What is the transitivity of divisibility theorem? (p. 173) ‘© What is the theorem about divisibility by a prime number? (p. 174) (02012 Cengage Laing Al Rigs Resse Mayne cnt, cop dpc, pose to publicly acele west, n whol or inpanChapter 4 Review 47 ‘* What is the unique factorization of integers theorem? (This theorem is also called the funda- ‘mental theorem of arithmetic.) (p. 176) ‘© What is the quotient-remainder theorem? Can you apply it to specific situations? (p. 180) ‘© What is the theorem about the irrationality of the square root of 2? Can you prove this theorem? (p. 208) ‘* What is the theorem about the infinitude of the prime numbers? Can you prove this theorem? (p. 210) ‘* What is the division algorithm ? (p. 219) ‘© What is the Euclidean algorithm? (pp. 220,224) ‘* How do you use the Euclidean algorithm to compute the greatest common divisor of two positive integers? (p. 223) Notation for Algorithms ‘© How is an assignment statement executed? (p. 244) -then statement executed? (p. 215) ‘© How is an if-then-else statement executed? (p. 215) How are the statements do and end do used in an algorithm? (p. 215) How is a while loop executed? (p. 216) How is a for-next loop executed? (p. 217) How do you construct a trace table for a seganent of an algorithm? (pp. 217,219) /© 2012 Cangng Leaming- Al Rigs Reserved, May ot be samc opie or dpe, posted oa publ accessible webs, n whole ain paChapter 5: Sequences, Mathematical Induction, and Recursion ‘The first section of this chapter introduces the notation for sequences, summations, products, and factorial. ‘The section is intended to help you learn to recognize patterns so as to be able, for instance, to transform expanded versions of sums into summation notation, and to handle subscripts, particularly to change variables for summations and to distinguish index variables from variables that are constant with respect to a summation. ‘The second, third, and fourth sections of the chapter treat mathematical induction. The om inary form is discussed in Sections 5.2 and 5.3 and the strong form in Section 5.4. Because of the importance of mathematical induction in discrete mathematics, a wide variety of examples is given to help you become comfortable with using the technique in many different situations. Section 5.5 then shows how to use a variation of mathematical induction to prove the correctness of an algorithm. Sections 5.6-5.8 deal with recursively defined sequences, both how to analyze a situation using recursive thinking to obtain a sequence that describes the situation and how to find an explicit formula for the sequence once it has been defined recursively. Section 5.9 applies recursive thinking to the question of defining a set, and it describes the technique of structural induction, which is the variation of mathematical induction that can be used to verify properties of a set that has been defined. Section 5.9 also introduces the concept of a recursively defined function. ‘The logic of ordinary mathematical induction can be described by relating it to the logic discussed in Chapters 2 and 3, The main point is that the inductive step establishes the truth of a sequence of ifthen statements. Together with the basis step, this sequence gives rise to a chain of inferences that lead to the desired conclusion. More formally: Suppose 1. P(1) is true; and 2. for all integers k > 1, if P(b) is true then P(k + 1) is true, ‘The truth of statement (2) implies, according to the law of universal instantiation, that no matter what particular integer k > 1 is substituted in place of k, the statement “If P(k) then P(k + 1)” is true, The following argument, therefore, lias true premises, and so by modus ponens it has a true conclusion: If P(1) then P(2), by 2 and universal instantiation PU) by 1 2) by modus ponens Similar reasoning gives the following chain of arguments, each of which has a true conclusion by ‘modus ponens: If P(2) then P(3). P(2) 3) If P(3) then P(4). PQ) P(A) If P(A) then P(S). Pla) P(5) ‘And 0 forth, ‘Thus no matter how large a positive integer n is specified, the truth of P(n) can be deduced as the final conclusion of a (possibly very long) chain of arguments continuing those shown above. 48 (©2012 Cngae Leaning Al Rigs Reserved Mayne cane, cope ode, oposite a publi acebe wee, whale oti patSection 5.1 49 Section 5.1 + [loge 1) logs 2] + [logz 3) log, 4] [log, 5] + [logs 6) 7: log 7} 8- [lon 8] 9- [log 9) 10- [Jog 10} 11- [logy 11 12. log, 12] a | 13- [logy 13 14- [log, M4 15- [logy 15} When n is an integral power of 2, ha is n times the exponent of that power. For instance, 8=2 and he =8-3. If m and n are integers and 2" 3, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 3, and suppose that Seated. = (ak ~ 16) P(r) es 3 ‘inductive hypothesis Ve mst how ti Bates pt EE pean Now the left-hand side of P(k + 1) is pa gh p eg ab Beate ap aR EAR bby making the next-to-last term explicit . ae 16) 4 gues by inductive hypothesis at 64 atl = Se, by creating a common denominator 44h oh 3 by adding the fractions aca" 16) 3 by factoring out the 4, and this is the right-hand side of P(k-+ 1) fas was to be shown]. [Since both the basis and the inductive steps have been proved, we conclude that P(t for all integers n= 3.) 12. Proof (by mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the equation fw T3723 1 n tat) net — Pn) Show that P(1) is true (1) is true because the left-hand side equals 1 right-hand side equals <-> + 7 = ake. ‘Show that for all integers k > 1, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 1 and suppose that k — Pe) 1 inductive hypothesis 1 at RED 152012 Cengage Lean. All RightsReserved. Mayo be ean copido depleted, posted publicly acesible website, in whole orn pat. a52 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction ‘We must show that ee +IMEF D+) FFT 1 k+1 EenerD ~ eee 7 PFD 1 * eee, 1 1 1 EHR, the next-to-last term explicit rat tResD by mal k . 1 Evi * e049, by inductive hypothesis (k+2) 1 = G+ e+a * be DeTD by creating a co yon denominator 242k 41 ee DETR by adding the fractions (e +1? E+nEFD because A?+2k + 1 = (k-+1)? + + | by canceling (+ 1) from numerator and denominator, and this is the right-hand side of P(k +1) fas was to be shown] 15, Proof (by mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the equation (n +1)! = 1. = Pn) Show that P(1) is true: We must show that Dj. i(i! this equation is 71_, i also. So P(1) is true. Show that for all integers k > 1, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 1, and suppose that = (1+1)!1. But the left-hand side of 1-(1!) = 1 and the right-hand side is (1+1)!-1 = 21-1 = 2-1=1 Vwi = (b+)! fe) inductive hypothesis We must show that (K+) +0)!-1, or, equivalently, ba Vii) = (+ Q- 1 PUR +) (©2012 Cengee Leaing Al Rights Rose, May nt be scanned, cope rds, poste oa publicly scssible webs, whole oi ptSection5.2 53 ‘The left-hand side of P(k + 1) is ‘ = Liay+ e+ yer yy) by writing the (k + 1)st term separately = (K+ I-14 (e+ (+1)! _ by inductive hypothesis = (FD) + (RED) =1 by combining the terms with the common factor (k++ 1)! = EDMRHIA1 (k+2)1-1 by algebra, and this is the right-hand side of P(k-+ 1) /as was to be showny. 18. Proof (by mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the equation 1 cos2ne sing sing+sin3e++---+sin (2n = 1x — Pn) Show that P(1) is true: P(1) is true because the left-hand side equals sin, and th Spek ads Oe oe ae equals sin, and the i % 82 cos?-+sin?z _ sin? 2 sing 2sinz Show that for all integers k > 1, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 1 and suppose that L-costke Pk) sing inductive hypothesis sina4sin3x+++-+sin (2k 1) We must show that sing-+sin3x-+---+sin(2{k +1) — 1x = 2S Ye 2sing or, equivalently, sine+sinde-+---+sin(2k-+1)2 = 2 s2k+ Dz sing When the next-to-last term of the the left-hand side of P(k + 1) is made explicit, the left-hand side becomes sing-+sinde-+-~-¢sin@k— Iz + sin(Qk-+ 1) = AGRE sine + nye by inductive hypothesis 12eike 4 Bsinesin(he + 2) + P+) z Taine by creating @ common denominator = Leeestke + 2sinzsin(Zke +2) ae ee Bain Lecouzke + 2sinsfsn(2he) cosz + cos2i)sin=] 4, ae sition formula for sine a a a = Lneortie t teinssin shone + ae ecm) by ating ot 1 +cos 2kx(2sin? x — 1) + 2sin z.cosrsin(2kz) A = -Lisesdhe(tsin? s— 1) + 2sinzeoss sinks) by combining like terms = -Lteendex(— cosde} + sin Qe sin(2ie)_ by the formulas for cos 2x and sin 2 Zain. = 1 (eos 2he e082 "Fn 2x sin(2kz)) oo Zain = AneegGke +2) by the addition formula for cosine = Leelee Ye) by factoring out 22, Qsinz ‘ and this is the right-hand side of P(t +1) fas was to be shown). (©2012 Cengage Learing AI Rights Reserved, May ot be sand, opie or pie, opted a a publ acessble webs, n whole orn pa. EEE EEEEEEneEEeereneadl54 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction 2. 54104 15+ 20+-+--+300 = 5 eae age +095 (SE) —ors0, 2 27. Solution 1: HEHE HHS = BLES HSH + 5H) : 0 (see 1). (62 5 Solution 2: BESS He oF LHS +5? ++ $5" = (145452) see ght = ae ee ee Note that the expression obtained in solution 2 can be transformed into the one obtained in solution 1: se sett _1gg ght? ae. TT 30, (a+ md) + (a+ (m+ 1)d) + (a+ (m+ 2)d) +--+ (a+ (m+ n)d) = (a+ md) + (a+ md +d) + (a+ md + 2d) +--+ (a+ md + nd) (a+ md) + (a+ md) +--+ (a+md)) +d{142434---4n) = (a+ Nfo+ma +a(' by Theorem 5.2.2 (a+md+ Fain +1) 7 a+ (m+ Fain +0) Any one of the Inst three equations or their algebraic equivalents could be considered a correct answer. 36. Proof: Suppose m and n are any positive integers such that m is odd. By definition of odd, m= 2g +1 for some integer ky and so, by Theorems 5.1.1 and 5:2.2, <1 engi 2 uM Saty= YO Mth =Voth= ont k= ot int Ok & = ‘ eee z +1 = 244 tym OLED 8 (2g + tn + g(20-+1) = (29 + 1)(0 +4) = (n+), But n+4q is an integer because it is a sum of integers. Hence, by definition of divisibility, D(a + &) is divisible by m. Note: If m is even, the property is no longer true, For example, if n = 1 and m = 2, then or gs Yin+h) = S04 k) =14+2=3, and 3 is not divisible by 2 Section 5.3 9. Proof (by ical induction): Let the property P(n) be the sentence 7" 1 is divisible by 6. ‘We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers n > 0. ©2012 Cengage Leming All Right Rete, May not be seamed, oped or dpe posted 1 a publiely acess webs, n holon pa.Section 5.3. 55 Show that P(0) is true: P(0) is true because because 7° and 0 is divisible by 6 (since 0 = 0-6). ‘Show that for all integers k > 0, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 0, and suppose 7 — 1 is divisible by 6. — inductive hypothesis ‘We must show that 7#*1 — 1 is divisible by 6. By definition of divisibility, the inductive hypothesis is equivalent to the statement 7 -1=6r for some integer r. Then mop = THAT = G+F-1 6-74 (7-1) by algebra 6.74 6r by inductive hypothesis or +r) by algebra Now 7#-+7 is an integer because products and sums of integers are integers.Thus, by definition of divisibilty, 7! — 1 is divisible by 6 fas was to be shown]. 12, Proof (by mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the sentence me "ig divisible by 5. We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers n 2 0. Show that P(0) is true: P(0) is true because 79 - 2° = 0 - 0 = 0 and 0 is divisible by 5 (since 0 = 5-0) Show that for all integera k > 0, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 0, and suppose 7-2! is divisible by 5. — inductive hypothesis ‘We must show that TH) — 2+ ig divisible by 5. By definition of divisibility, the inductive hypothesis is equivalent to the statement 7#—2* for some integer r. Then eH okt 7.72.2 (542). 72.98 5-742. 7H 2.28 5.74 2(7 — 2) by algebra 5-7 42-5r = 5(7+2r) Now 7 + 2r is an integer because products and sums of integers are integers. ‘Therefore, by definition of divisibility, 7+! — 2+” is divisible by 5 fas was to be shown]. 15. Proof (by mathematical induetion): Let the property P(n) be the sentence n(n? +5) is divisible by 6. {© 2012 Cengage Leaing- AI Rights Reserved, May not be sand, copied or dled, posted oa publicly accesible web, n who rin pa, A RE56 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers n > 0. Show that P(0) is true: P(0) is true because 0(0? + 5) = 0 and 0 is divisible by 6. Show that for all integers k > 0, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with & > 0, and suppose k(K? +5) is divisible by 6. — inductive hypothesis ‘We must show that (E+ 1)((k+ 1}? +5) is divisible by 6. lity k(k? +5) = Gr for some integer r. Then (k+ 1k? + 2k +145) (k-+1)(8? + 2k +6) HOOK OR HORE 18 4 3K 4 Bk 46 (K+ 5k) + (Bk? + 3k +6) (QP +5) + (BK? +3k 46) — by algebra Gr +3(K? +h) +6, by inductive hypothesis. By definition of di (k+ 1)(e +1)? +5) Now &(k +1) is a product of two consecutive integers. By Theorem 4.4.2 one of these is even, and so [by properties 1 and 4 of Example 4.2.8] the product k(k + 1) is even, Hence (ke +1) = 2s for some integer s, Thus Or +3(R? +4) +6 = Gr +3125) +6 = 6(r +5 +1). By substitution, then, (E+ A(R +1? +5) = 6(r +441), which is divisible by 6 because r+s+1 is an integer. Therefore, (k-+1)((k-+1)?+5) is -by 6 [as was to be shown. 18. Proof (by mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the inequality 5" +9 < 6” ‘We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers n > 2. Show that P(2) is true: P(2) is true because the left-hand si the right-hand side is 6? = 36, and 34 < 36. Show that for all integers k > 2, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be ‘any integer with k > 2, and suppose ible is 5249 = 2549 = 34 and 5 49.< 6 < inductive hypothesis ‘We must show that sh ag cht! ‘Multiplying both sides of the inequality in the inductive hypothesis by 5 gives St +9) < 5-6. (*) Note that HT 49 c5Ht 445 = 5(5*+9) and 5-6" < 6h. (**) ‘Thus, by by the transitive property of order, (*), and (**), BM 49.<5(5"+9) and (58 +9)<5-6" and 5-64 < tt! So, by the transitive property of order, stage gttt Jas was to be shown]. © 2012 Congege Learning Al Rights Reserve May tte scanned, cope x dpi, pose oa publey aces webs. a whole orn pa.Section 5.3 87 21, Proof (by mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the inequality 1,ta 1 Vic qt i agtet We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers n > 2. Show that P(2) is true: To show that P(2) is true we must show that 1 vice al But this inequality is true if, and only if, 2 2, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 2, and suppose aia het = indueti i Vite ive hypothesis We must show that toad : VEFI<+—G+ vi" v2 v3 But for each integer k 2 2, Vk < VEFI (*), and multiplying both sides of (*) by VE gives kc Vee VEFI. Adding 1 to both sides gives k+l< vee VE+I+1, and dividing both sides by VEFI gives vei < ve+ By substitution from the inductive hypothesis, then, 1 VEFI< [as was to be shown]. (*) Note: Strictly speaking, the reason for this claim is that & < k+1 and for all positive real numbers a and b, if.a 2. Let the property P(n) be the equation 2 ae We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers n > 1 Show that P(1) is true: To show that P(1) is true we must show that dy and dy = 2 (by definition of di, da,ds,...). So the property holds for n= 1. Show that for all integers k > 1, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 1, and suppose that dy = inductive hypothesis ‘We must show that dest But the left-hand side of this equation is des by definition of dy da, dg, by inductive hypothesis (e+ De 2 ‘ Tepay te eee of fntions, [This is what was to be shown). which is the right-hand side of the equatio 36. Proof by mathematical induction: Let the property P(n) be the sentence In any round-robin tournament involving n teams, it is possible to label the teams T;,T2,T3...-.Tq 80 that for all i= 1,2,3...,n—1, T; beats Tes1 We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers n > 2. Show that P(2) is true: Consider any round-robin tournament involving two teams, By definition of round-robin tournament, these teams play each other exactly once. Let T; be the winner and 7 the loser of this gaine. ‘Then 7; beats 7, and so the labeling is as required for P(2) to be true. Show that for all integers k > 2, if P(k) is true then P(k-+1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 2 and suppose that In any round-robin tournament involving k teams, itis possible to label the —_—_ induct teams T;,T2,Ts,-.-,T, 80 that for all i= 1,2,3,...,k—1, T; beats Tis hypothesis (©2012 Cengage Leaming Al RightsReserved, My pot be sane, cope or dpe, or posted to publ ass webs, in whol or inpSection 5.3 59 ‘We must show that In any round-robin tournament involving k + 1 teams, it is possible to label the teams T),72,T3,.--.Tk+1 80 that for all i= 1,2,3,...,k, T; beats Toy Consider any round-robin tournament with k+1 teams. Pick one and call it 7". Temporarily remove T’ and consider the remaining k teams. Since each of these teams plays each other ‘team exactly once, the games played by these k teams form a round-robin tournament. It follows by inductive hypothesis that these k teams may be labeled 7, T3,T35..-,Ts where T; beats Ty for all i= 1,2,8,...,k— 1. Case 1 (T" beats T): In this case, relabel each T; to be Tis1, and let Ty = T". Then Ty beats the newly labeled Tp (because T” beats the old 71), and 7; beats Tit for alli = 2,3,...k (by inductive hypothesis). Case 2 (T’ loses to Ti, ,Ta,Ta,+-+1Tm and beats Tm41 where 1 3. ‘Show that P(3) is true: P(3) is true because any convex 3.sided polygon is a triangle, the sum of the interior angles of any triangle is 180 degrees, and 180(3 — 2) = 180. So the angles of any 3-sided convex polygon add up to 180(3 ~ 2) degrees. Show that for all integers k > 3, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 3 and suppose that ‘The interior angles of any k-sided convex polygon add up to 180(k — 2) degrees. So ea ‘We must show that ‘The interior angles of any (K + 1)-sided convex polygon add up to 180((k-+ 1) — 2) = 180(k — 1) degrees. Let p be any (K+ 1)-sided convex polygon. Label the vertices of p a8 v1, U2, Yay +++ 5 Uky Ukets ‘and draw a straight line from v; to v3. Because the angles at v1, vz, and vy are all less than 180 degrees, this line les entirely inside the polygon. Thus polygon p is split in two pieces: (1) the polygon p/ obtained from p by using all of its vertices except v2, and (2) triangle ¢ with vertices 0, v2, vy. This situation is illustrated in the diagram below. {©2012 Cengage Leaning Al Rights Reserved. May be cn copid or pict, ops o publicly acesibe web in whole cn pat Le rrirnnnnnn nanan enEIEEEREEEEEne,60 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction Note that p’ has k vertices, and it is convex because the sizes of the angles at v1 and vs in p/ are less than their sizes in p. Because p’ is a convex polygon with k vertices, by inductive hypothesis, the sum of its interior angles is 180(k ~ 2) degrees. Now polygon p is obtained by ing p/ and t, and since the sum of the interior angles in t is 180 degrees, the sum of the interior angles inp = _the sum of the interior angles in p’ + the sum of the interior angles in t 180(k — 2) degrees +180 degrees 180(k — 2+ 1) degrees 180( = 1) degrees, as was to be shown, Section 5.4 3. Proof (by strong mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the sentence cn is even, We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers m > 0. Show that P(0), P(1), and P(2) are true: By definition of co,¢1,c2,--.» we have that =2,c) = 2, and cz = 6 and 2, 2, and 6 are all even. So P(0), P(1), and P(2) are all true. Show that if k > 2 and P(i) is true for all integers i from 0 through k, then P(k + 1) is true: Let & be any integer with k > 2, and suppose ¢y is even for all integers i withO 2, we have that 0 < k~2< k, and ‘0, by inductive hypothesis, cx-2 is even. But the product of an even integer with any integer is even [properties 1 and 4 of Bzample 4.2.8}, and hence 3¢k—2, which equals cx, is also even [as was to be shown). {Since both the basis and the inductive steps have been proved, we conclude that P(n) is true for all integers n > 0.) 6. Proof (by strong mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the equation Sn = 3242.5", We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers n > 0. Show that P(0) and P(1) are true: By definition of fo, fi, far... we have that fo = 5 and f, = 16. Since 3-2°+2-59=3+2=5 and 3-2'+2-5' =6+410= 16, P(0) and P(1) are both true. Show that if k>1 and P(é) is true for all integers i from 0 through k, then P(k + 1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 1, and suppose he We must show that 242-51 for all integers i withO 0.} al induetion): Let the property P(n) be the inequality ~s() We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers m > 1. Show that P(1) and P(2) are true: By definition of ay,a2,as,..., we have that ay and a2 = 3. But 9. Proof (by strong mathemat Soa, < 7 and az < (7), and thus P(1) and P(2) are both true. Show that if k > 2 and P(i) is true for all integers i from 1 through k, then P(k + 1) és true: Let k be any integer with k > 2, and suppose av$ (J) forall interes withO<4< ~ inductees M1 We must show that ant $ (3) : Since k > 2, a ed by definition of a1. 4,4, ant ant by inductive hypothesis a + a3 A ato by factoring out (3)*-! + ww = at = (a(S by adding Zand 1 wren s (7) (3) want T\* 1/44 - = extn s (2) (CB) vyimisinying numerator and demominate of by 7T\*" 749 > atari < rg oe because 44 uta s (7) (3) ecm ff < #8 WT = ato < (3) G recause (48 Aue = ata < (7) bya aw of exponent, Thus acai S a” Jas was to be shown. {©2012 Cengage Learning Al Righ Reseed, May not beamed cpio pid or posed ou publicly acesbe web, in we rin par62 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction 12, Note: This problem can be solved with ordinary mathematical induction. Proof (by mathemati induction): Let the property P(n) be the sentence Given any sequence of n cans of gasoline, deposited around a circular track in such a way that the total amount of gasoline is enough for a car to make one complete circuit of the track, it is possible to find an inital location for the car so that it will be able to traverse the entire track by using the various amounts of gasoline in the cans that it encounters along the way. We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers n> 1. Show that P(1) ia true: When there is just one can, the car should be placed next to it. By hypothesis, the can contains enough gasoline to enable the car to make one complete circuit, of the track. Hence P(1) is true. Show that for all integers k > 1, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 1, and suppose that, For all integers i with 1 < i < k, given any sequence of n cans of gasoline, deposited around a circular track in such a way that the total amount of gasoline is enough for a car to make one complete circuit inductive of the track, it is possible to find an inital location for the car so that hypothesis it will be able to traverse the entire track by using the various amounts of gasoline in the cans that it encounters along the way. ‘We must show that Given any sequence of k + 1 cans of gasoline, deposited around a circular track in such a way that the total amount of gasoline is enough for a car to make one complete circuit of the track, it is possible to find an inital location for the car so that it will be able to traverse the entire track by using the various amounts of gasoline in the cans that it encounters along the way. Now, because the total amount of gasoline in all k +1 cans is enough for a car to make one complete circuit of the track, there must be at least one can, call it C, that contains enough gasoline to enable the car to reach the next can, say D, in the direction of travel along the track. Imagine pouring all the gasoline from D into C. The result would be k cans deposited around the track in such a way that the total amount of gasoline would be enough for a car to ‘make one complete circuit of the track. By inductive hypothesis, it is possible to find an initial location for the ear so that it could traverse the entire track by using the various amounts of ‘gasoline in the cans that it encounters along the way. Use that location as the starting point for the car. When the ear reaches ean C, the amount of gasoline in C is enough to enable it to reach ean D, and once the car reaches D, the additional amount of gasoline in D enables it to complete the circuit. [This is what was to be shoun.] 15, Note: This solution makes free use of the properties from Chapter 4 about sums and differences for two even and odd integers Proof (by strong mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the sentence Any sum of n even integers is even. ‘We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers n > 2. Show that P(2) is true: P(2) is true because any sum of two even integers is even, Show that if k > 2 and P(i) is true for all integers i from 2 through k, then P(k + 1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 2, and suppose that For all integers é from 2 through k, ‘any sum of i even integers is even. ee eae ©2012 Cengage Lesing. All Right Reserves May at be scan, opie or pied, coved publ ecessble webs, in whole orn pan.Section 5.4 63 We must show that any sum of k +1 even integers is even. Consider any sum $ of k-+1 even integers. Some acldition is the final one that is used to obtain S. Thus there ate integers A and B such that $= A+B, Ais asum of r even integers, and Bisa sum of (k +1) ~r even integers, where 1 0, the units digit of 9 is 1 ifn is even and is 9 if n is odd. Proof (by strong mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the sentence ‘The units digit of 9" is 1 if m is even and is 9 if n is odd, We will prove that P(n) is true for all integers n > 0. Show that P(0) and P(1) are true: P(0) is true because 0 9° = 1. P(1) is true because 1 is odd and the units digit of 9! = 9, Show that if k >1 and P(i) is true for all integers i from 0 through k, then P(k + 1) is true: Let & be any integer with k > 1, and suppose that even and the units digit of ‘The units digit of 9” is 1 if mis even and is 9 ifn is odd. inductive hypothesis ‘We must show that ‘The units digit of 9**" is 1 if k +1 is even and is 9 if k + 1 is odd. Case 1 (k +1 is even): In this case k is odd, and so, by inductive hypothesis, the units Aigit of 9* is 9. This implies that there is an integer a so that 9* = 10a +9, and hence geet 98. 9k by algebra (a law of exponents) 9(10a-+9) by substitution 90a +81 900 + 80-+1 10(9a+8) +1 by algebra. Because 9a + 8 is an integer, it follows that the units digit of 9+ is 1 Case 2 (k +1 is odd): In this case k is even, and so, by inductive hypothesis, the units digit of 9? is 1. This implies that there is an integer a so that 9 = 10a + 1, and hence 91.9 by algebra (a law of exponents) 9(100 +1) _ by substitution 90a +9 10(92) +9 by algebra, Because 9a is an integer, it follows that the units digit of 9+" is 9. 8 digit of 9+ is as specified fas was to be shown). Hence in both cases the un (©2012 Cengage Lesng Al RightsReserved. May at be cane copied of pit, posed pubily scene web in we rin par64 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction 21. Proof by contradiction: Suppose not. That is, suppose that there exists an integer that greater than 1, that is not prime, and that is not a product of primes. /We will show that this supposition leads to a contradiction.) Let $ be the sot ofall integers that are greater than 1, are not prime, and are not a product of primes. That is, S= (ne Z |n>1, mis not prime, and n is not a product of primes } Then, by supposition, $ has one or more elements. By the well-ordering principle for the integers, S has a least clement; call it m. Then m is greater than 1, is not prime, and is not a product of primes. Now because m is greater than 1 and is not prime, m = rs for some integers r and s with 1 a. ‘Then for some integer b > a the following two statements are true: L. Pa), Pla +1), Pla +2), ..., P(b) are all true. 2. For any integer k > b, if P(i) is true for all integers é from a through k, then P(k + 1) is true, We will show that we can reach the conclusion that. P(n) is true for all integers n > a using ordinary mathematical induction Proof by mathematical induction: Let Q(n) be the property P(j) is true for all integers j from a through n. Show that Q(b) is true: For n= 6, the property is “P(j) is true for all integers j with a b, if Q(k) is true then Q(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 6, and suppose that Q(k) is true. In other words, suppose that, Pj) is true for all integers j from a through k. = inductive hypothesis We must show that Q(k +1) is true. In other words, we must show that P(j) is true for all integers j from a through k +1. Since, by inductive hypothesis, P(j) is true for all integers j from a through k, it follows from (2) above that P(k-+1) is also true, Hence P(j) is true for all integers j from a through k-+ 1, [as was to be shown. It follows by the principle of ordinary mathematical induction that. P()) is true for all integers J from a through n for all integers n > b, From this and from (1) above, we conclude that. ‘P(n) is true for all integers n > a. (©2012 Cengage Leming Al Righs Reserved May tbe seamed, ple or dpi pose «public ceil website. in whol or inp.Section 5.4 65 30. Theorem: Given any nonnegative integer n and any positive integer d, there exist integers q ‘and r such that n =dg-+r and 0 0. Show that P(Q) is true: We must show that there exist integers q and r such that O=dgtr and O 0, if P(k) is true, then P(k + 1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 0, and suppose that ‘There exist integers q andr’ such that == _—P(&) kedg+r and O0 then r20. Hence o0, then O —1 According to the pre-condition this statement is true. Ii. Inductive Property: Suppose k is any nonnegative integer such that GA 1(k) is true before an iteration of the loop. Then when execution comes to the top of the loop, aos > 0 and oth doi and A are even integers or both are odd integers and, either case, agit > Execution of statement: 1 sets anew equal to deta ~ 2. Hence dyey has the same parity as dora which is the same as A. Also since agyy > 0, then 2. Agey = Gold — 2 > 0— But since dey > —2 and since dyow is an integer, Quey 2 —1. Hence after the loop iteration, 1(k + 1) is true. IIL Eventual Falsity of Guard: The guard G is the condition @ > 0. After each iteration of the loop, yoy = Gold ~ 2 < Bold and so successive iterations of the loop give a strictly decreasing sequence of integer values of 4@ which eventually becomes less than or equal to zero, at which point G becomes false. IV. Correctness of the Post-Condition: Suppose that AV is the least number of iterations ‘ater which G is false and I(N) is true. Then (since G is false) a < 0 and (since J(WN) is true) both a and A are even integers or both are odd integers, and a > —1. Putting the inequalities together gives -1 0, - Thus for any integer k with k > 1, and 3. It follows that for any integer k with & > 1, = % by algebra, Thus =F 15, Proof : Let n be an integer with n > 1. Then aa) : (aes) (eames = Gera) (eri) . ( 1 ) (Gotan ite Bane h) aint +0 > alwensern) Gre) = aai(*) +i) = & 1_ (m4? Ts C= sea) 18.4.6) =1, be=14+1+l41=4, by=4e4t1tda 3d c. Note that it takes just as many moves to move a stack of disks from the middle pole to an outer pole as from an outer pole to the middle pole: the moves are the same except that thei order and direction are reversed. For all integers k > 2, bk = a4-1 (moves to transfer the top k I disks from pole A to pole C) +1 (move to transfer the bottom disk from pole A to pole B) +be1 (moves to transfer the top k~ 1 disks from pole C to pole B). = atl tbr. {©2012 CenggeLeaming Al igh Reserved, May nt be scant, cop o apt or oid publ acese web, in wale rin partSection 5.6 69 d. One way to transfer a tower of k disks from pole A to pole B is first to transfer the top K—1 disks from pole A to pole B (this requires by 1 moves), then transfer the top k~ 1 disks from pole B to pole C (this also requires by..1 moves), then transfer the bottom disk from pole A to pole B /this requires one move), and finally transfer the top k ~ 1 disks from pole C to pole B [this again requires by... moves]. ‘This sequence of steps need not necessarily, however, result in a minimum number of moves. Therefore, at this point, all we can say for sure is that for all integers k > 2, by Suc tOnr 14+ bea = Sea $1 e. Proof (by mathematical induction): Let the property P(k) be the equation dy = Sy +1. Show that P(2) is true: The property is true for k = 2 because for k = 2 the left-hand side is 4 (by part (a)) and the right-hand side is 3-141 =4 also. ‘Show that for all integers i > 2, if P(i) és true then P(i+1) is true: Let ibe any integer with i > 2, and suppose that = P(i) b= Bhatt = inductive hypothesis We must show that, bigs = 341. P+) But the left-hand side of P(i +1) is 6 atl tbs by part (@) ay +14 3b #1 by inductive hypothesis (Bait +2) +14 Bin +1 by exercise 17 (6) Baja $3+354+1 art 1+ 01) +1 by algebra, 36,41 by part (c) of this exercise, which is the right-hand side of P(i-+ 1) fas was to be shown]. Qa. =2, t=2+242=6 . For all integers k > 2, te = tea (moves to transfer the top 2k —2 disks from pole A to pole B) +2 (moves to transfer the bottom two disks from pole A to pole C) +tx-1 (moves to transfer the top 2k — 2 disks from pole B to pole C) ya +2, ‘Note that transferring the stack of 2k disks from pole A to pole C requires at least two transfers of the top 2(k ~ 1) disks: one to transfer them off the bottom two disks to free the bottom disks 50 that they can be moved to pole C and another to transfer the top 2(k ~ 1) disks back ‘on top of the bottom two disks. Thus at least 2t,-1 moves are needed to effect these two transfers. Two more moves are needed to transfer the bottom two disks from pole A to pole C, and this transfer cannot be effected in fewer than two moves. It follows that the sequence of moves indicated in the description of the equation above is, in fact, minimal. 24. Fig = Fin +} Fy =2834+144= 377, Fa Fiat Fa 377 + 233 = 610 (©2012 Congne Laing. All Rigs Reserved, May nt beamed coi or dpi, or posed a publicly aceae webs, a whole inp, ee70 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction 30. Proof (by mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the equation FuiaFa— Fi =(-1)" = Pn) Show that P(0) is true: The left-hand side of P(0) is Fo42Fy ~ Fi? = 2-1-1? = 1, and the right-hand side is (~1)® = 1 also. So P(0) is true. Show that for all integers k > 0, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 0, and suppose that ‘We must show that Foss Fiee Foye =(-DM1. = Pkt) But by inductive hypothesis, Fis = FesaFe — (-1)" = FesaFe t+ (-". ( Hence, FassFat — Fie (Fast + Fisa)Faot — Fda by definition of the Fibonacci sequence Fy + FeaoFen — Fito Figo Fe + (-1)*#! + FisaFig1 — Fig by substitution from equation (*) = Figa(Fe-+ Favi— Fava) +(-1)M*! by factoring out Fee2 Ficva(Fia2 — Fes) + (-1)*" by definition of the Fibonacci sequence Fg -0+ (1)! ae 36. Let L = limp-sooZn- By definition of zo,21,2%2,... and by the continuity of the square root funetion, =VOFT. 4+ L, and so L? — L~ 2 = 0. Factoring gives (L—2)(L +1) =0, and so L = 2 But L > 0 because each x; > 0, Thus L = 2. 42. Proof (by mathematical induction): Let the property P(n) be the sentence Tf.ay,42,..-44q and b1-b9,..yby ate any real sumbers hen TP (ab) = (Tey a) (Tas 6). PO) Show that P(1) is true: Let a; and by be any real numbers. By the recursive definition of product, j : : [[ais) = arta, [] ac = ar, and T] ma it a Show that for all integers k > 1, if P(k) is true then P(k-+1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 1, and suppose that Tf a), ¢2,-.. ay and by,bg,...by are any real rmumbers, then [Tf_,(aibs) = (TI a1) ( — Pe) inductive hypothesis ©2012 Cengage Leaming. All Righs Rese, My not besanad, coped or dept of posted «pully ces webs, in wise orn parSection 5.7 71 ‘We must show that Taysag,...,ay41 and by ba,-.-,beg1 are any real numbers th ee) ite) ee ‘So suppose a1, a2,...,@k41 and by,b2,.... D4) are any real numbers. Then (ait) (Ih 216) (cxssbeas) bythe reursivedefiton of product. ipa i‘ by substitution from the inductive = (isa) (Ti )) (@eaibeny gree & " by the associative and commutative = (ia) ous) (Misr) bee) pie rare (mi a) (mt 4) by the recursive definition of product. [This is what was to be shoun.} Section 5.7 6. 2 2d) +3=2-243=27+3 dy =2dp +3 = 22 +3) 43= 2942-343 dy +3 = 223 +2-34+3)4+3= 242-342-343 Qdg +3 = 2(24 + 27-342-343)4+3 = 2429 .342?-342-34+3 Guess: dy = 2" + 2"-?.342°°3.34---427-342-343 D+ 3("-2 WF po FED) gin-2y+ ) [by Theorem 5.2.3] +2"-!—3- for all integers n > 1 8 a a 1 1 - T+20+2) 14242? 2 = 1 = 1 a 42 1Fa0s242) 142s R ae a = 4 = Eee 1 1 PT 948 Tadee 42 T4RU424 PFD) FRE Guess: ga = 7 TIERED EDT Fry ll Theorem 5.2.9) for all integers m > 1 © 2012 Cengage Leming. ll Rights Reserved, May not be Samed opie or dpe, psiol to publ accesible website, in whoo np,72 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction 15, mol we =n+2 we =n+3 Me 142 (142) 49% = 1422 +3? (142? 438) +4? = 1 Oe 4B? a? ‘Guess: we Pee eg ite MOMENED by ei 10 of etn 6 21. Proof (by mathematical induction): Let r be a fixed constant and ap,ai,a2,... . a sequence a a jes the recurrence relation ay = ray for all integers k > 1 and the Let the property P(n) be the equation ay = ar". ial condition aq = ar". Show that P(0) is true: The right-hand side of P(0) is ar side of P(0). So P(0) is true. Show that for all integers k > 0, if P(k) is true then P(k + 1) és true: Let k be any integer with k > 0, and suppose that =, which is the left-hand > Pt) : inductive hypothesis ‘We must show that aus sortt!, — P(e+1) ‘The left-hand side of P(k +1) is ky) = Taq by definition of a9, 04,43, r(ar*) by inductive hypothesis art +! by the laws of exponents, which is the right-hand side of P(k + 1), fas to be shown]. 27. a. Let the original balance in the account be A dollars, and let An be the amount owed the balance is not reduced by making payments during the year. The is 18%, and go the monthily interest rate is (18/12)% = 1.5% = 0.015. The sequence Ao, A1, Aa,... satisfies the recurrence relation Ag = Agi + 0.015Ag-1 = LOISAR-a- 1.01549 = 0154 Ay = 1.0154) = 1.018(1.015A) = (1.015)7A Thus ‘Aug = 1.01841) = 1.018(1.015)""A = (1.015)!74, So the amount owed at the end of the year is (1.015)'A. It follows that the APR is (1.015)!24— 4 _ A((1.015)!? — 1) a A Note: Because Ay = 1.015A,-1 for each integer k > 1, we could have immediately con- cluded that the sequence is geometric and, therefore, satisfies the equation A,, = Ao(1.015) A(L.015)". b, Because the person pays $150 per month to pay off the loan, the balance at the end of month kis By = 1.015B,— — 150. We use iteration to find an explicit formula for Bo, By, Ba, (1.015)"? — 1 & 19.6%. (©2012 Cengage Leming, Al Righs Reseed, May nt be xno, opi o pd or oto a publi accease webs, in le ia par.Section 5.7 73. 1.015) Bg — 150 = 1.016(3000) ~ 150 1.015) By — 150 = (1.015)[1.015(8000) ~ 150] ~ 150 = 8000(1.015)? = 150(1.015) ~ 150 1.015) By ~ 150 = (1.015)[3000(1.015)? ~ 150(1.015) ~ 150] — 150 :3000(1.016)® — 150(1.015)? ~ 150(1.015) 150 1.015) Bs — 150 1.015)[3000(1.015)* — 150(1.015)? ~ 150(1.015) ~ 160] ~ 150 = 3000(1.015)* — 160(1.015)? — 150(1.015)? ~ 150(1.015) — 150 Guess: By, = 3000(1.015)" + [150(1.015)"-? — 150(1.015)"-? +... —160(1.015)? — 150(1.015) — 150] = 3000(1.015)" — 150{(1.015)"~" + (1.015)"-? + +++ + (1.018)? + 1.015 + 1] (2.015)y" -1 “To1s =1 = 3000(1.015)" — rs0( a 150 yn = (1.015)"(8000) — 575 ((1-015)" ~ 1) (1.015)"(8000) — 10000((1.015)" ~ 1) = (1.015)"(8000 ~ 10000) + 10000 (—7000)(1.015)" + 10000 So it appears that By = (—7000)(1.015)" + 10000. We use mathematical induction to confirm this guess. Proof (by mathematical induction): : Let Bo, Bi, Ba, be a sequence that satisfies the ‘recurrence relation By = (1.015)B,-1 —150 for all integers k > 1, with initial condition By = 3000, and let the property P(n) be the equation By = (—7000)(1.015)" + 10000. — P(n) Show that P(0) is true: The right-hand side of P(0) is (-7000)(1.015)° + 10000 = 3000, which equals Bo, the left-hand side of P(0). So P(0) is true. Show that for all integers k > 0, if P(k) is true then P(k + 1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 0, and suppose that By = (-7000)1.015)*410000. = PO eg ‘We must show that Bees = (~7000)(1.015)1 410000. — P(k+1) ‘The leftchand side of P(k + 1) is Baar = (1.015)B, — 150 by definition of Bo, By, Bay. = (1.015)[(—7000)(1.015)* + 10000] — 150 by substitution from the inductive hypothesis (—7000)(1.015)*#" + 10150 — 150 (—7000)(1.015)*** + 10000 by the laws of algebra, (02012 Cengege Leaning All Rigs Reserved. May not be samed copied or pid, or poste a pubic accesible web, a wine inp. nn EEE NAIR NIN SIIEEEERERRRENAnEETA Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction which is the right-hand side of P(k-+ 1) /as to be shown]. ¢. By part (b), By = (~7000)(1.015)" +10000, and so we need to find the value of m for which (—7000)(1.015)" + 10000 = 0. But this equation holds <= — 7000(1.015)" = 10000 10000 _ 10 "7000 ~ = (1.015)" So n © 24 months = 2 years. It will require approximately 2 years to pay off the balance, assuming that payments of $150 are made each month and the balance is not increased by any additional purchases. d. Assuming that the person makes no additional purchases and pays $150 each month, the person will have made 24 payments of $150 each, for a total of $3600 to pay off the initial balance of $3000. 33. Proof (by mathematical induction): : Let fi, fa, f--+ + be a sequence that satisfies the re- currence relation fx = fu—1 + 2 for all integers k > 2, with initial condition f, = 1, and let the property P(n) be the equation fn = 23, + Pin) ‘Show that P(1) is true: The right-hand side of P(1) is 2+" —3 = 2? -3 = 1, which equals Si, the left-hand side of P(1). So P(1) is true. Show that for all integers k > 1, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 1, and suppose that P(k) okt fin? inductive hypothesis We must show that fas = 20741 og ‘or, equivalently, fest 227-3, P(k+1) The left-hand side of P(k +1) is fuss = fet 2 by definition of fa, fay fan = 244134284 by inductive hypothesis 22k g = 223 by the laws of algebra, which is the right-hand side of P(k + 1) fas to be shown. (©2012 Cengage Leming All Rights Reserve, May not be seamed, ope or epi, or posted 1 publiely accessible webs a whoo np.Section 5.7 75 386. Proof (by mathematical induction}: Let p1,p2,Pay-..- be a sequence that satisfies the recur- rence relation py = pk-1 + 2-3 for all integers k > 2, with initial condition p, = 2, and let, the property P(n) be the equation = Pn it-hand side of P(1) is 344 —7 ‘equals pj, the left-hand side of P(1). So P(1) is true. Show that for all integers k > 1, if P(k) is true then P(k + 1) és true: Let k be any integer with k > 1, and suppose that Pk) fet des inductive hypothesis We must show that pes = EDL or, equivalently, that Pet -7 = Pkt) ‘The left-hand side of P(k + 1) is Past Pet2-ahe by definition of pi, Pa, Pay (31-7) 42-361 by inductive hypothesis 314-2) 7, 3.3) 7 aHe_7 by the lows of algebra, which is the right-hand side of P(k + 1) fas to be shown). 42. Proof (by mathem: Let fy,tayta,..-- be a sequence that satisfies the recur: enoe relation fy + 2 for all integers k > 2, with initial condition ¢, = property P(n) be the equation ty = 2"+? — 2. ta arte = Pin) Show that P(1) is true: The right-hand side of P(1) is 22 left-hand side of P(1). So P(1) is true. Show that for all integers k > 1, if P(k) is true then P(k +1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 1, and suppose that 2, which equals ¢1, the P(k) inductive hypothesis te We must show that tea EHH or, equivalently, that tar = 247-2, Pl +1) ‘The left-hand side of P(k + 1) is fa = et? by definition of ty, a: t3)--- 2(2*1 ~2) +2 by inductive hypothesis 22 44o a2 by the laws of algebra, which is the right-hand side of P(& +1) {as to be shoun. © 2012 Cengage Learing. Al Rights Reserved, May not beamed opie or dpe oposite oa publily acces webs n whoo npr,76 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction 48.4. wy =1 w, =2 ws = wy +3=143 uy =u $4244 uy = wy +5 14345 wg = we +G= 24446 wy Sw tT S1F34547 1434+5+--4n ifnisodd Guess: wy = 244464040 ifmiseven CF) if nis oad = 2 : by exercise 5 of Section 5.2 2(142434--45) ifniseven if nis odd by Theorem 5.22 ) if nis even 2 (24 itmis odd . he lava of algebra aoe — = if nis even 7 ». Proof (by strong mathematical induction): Let 11, ta,ts,-..» be a sequence that sat the recurrence relation wy = wi—2 + F for all integers k > 3, with initial conditions wy ‘and w2 = 2, and let the property P(n) be the equation 2 (2+ 0" itn is odd - for all integers n > 1 MO) itn is even Show that P(1) and P(2) are true: For n = 1 and x = 2 the right-hand sides of P(n) are which equal w, and wy respectively. So P(1) and P(2) are true. Show that if k > 2 and P(i) is true for all integers i from 1 through k, then P(k + 1) is true: Let k be any integer with k > 2, and suppose that i+? itis odd | inductive —) for all integers with 1 1. (©2012 Cengage Leaming Al Rights Reserved. May no be cane copid or upc ose publicly accesible web whol or inp.78 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Indi b. Suppose 0 < m < 1. Then tim Ye = im, (e+0 (= =t) +m") = 9 (Mesa) « m=1 o-1 = +0 (2=5)+0-% because when 0 2, be = CO-ED: (—2)*, by = C3! + De (—2)1, and by_g = C-3*-? + D- (-2)*-?, Hence, bye + 6de-2 = (C-3*-" + D(-2)!) + 6 (C-3*-? + D- (-2)-) 0. (3h! 46-32) + D- ((-2)k+! +6. (—2)*2) = C-3'-2(3-+6) + D- (-2)F-7(-2 +6) C-34-2. 38 + D- (~2)k-202 = O-3*+D-(-2)* = by 9. a. If for all integers k > 2, tt = 7! — 1014? and t # 0, then (? = 7t~ 10 and so P—Tt+10=0. But 2 — 7+ 10 = (t-2)(t-5). Thus t= 2 or t= 5. ». It follows from part (a) and the distinct roots theorem that for some constants C’ and D, the terms of the sequence by,b1,bz,... . satisfy the equation by =C-2"+D-5" for all integers n > 0. Since by = 2 and b; = 2, then {wogereererms2 ) 4 (are, | : { -c } - { B23, 0-00) } ‘Thus by = $2" — 2-5! forall ntogersn > 0 12. The characteristic equation is ¢@ — 9 = 0. Since t? —9 = (t —3)(¢+3), the roots are t = 3 and t= ~3. By the distinct roots theorem, there exist constants C’ and D such that en =C-3" + D-(~3)" for all integers n > 0. (©2012 Cengage Lean. All Rigs Reserve, May nt be sand copie or plicated or ose ta publi acesble webs, in hoe rin partSince ¢9 = 0 and e; = 2, then { ¢9 =C-3° + D: (-3)° Thus en for all integers n > 0. 15. The characteristic equation is t? — 6t + 9 = 0. Since t? — 6t +9 = (t~ 3)?, there is only one root, t = 3. By the single root theorem, there exist constants Cand D such that ty =C-3" + D-n-3" for all integers n > 0. Since f = 1 and ty = 3, then ( 0-3 + D-0-3° t ontaie Jef Thus ty = 1-3" +0-n-3" = 3" for all integers n > 0. 18. Proof: Suppose that so, 1.52,... . and to,t1,¢2,... . are sequences such that for all integers k22, fe = 5s. ‘Then for all integers k > 2, = Asq-2 and ty = Sth Ata 525-1 + Btk-1) ~ A(2su-2 + 3te—2) (5: 25p-1 ~ 4: 20pu2) + (5 Bthat = 4 3th-2) 2(58-1 ~ 48x—2) + 3(5te—1 — 4tn2) sy + 3th. [This is what was to be shown. 21. Let ao,01,02;... « be any sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation ay = Aay—1 + Bax2 for some real numbers A and B with B #0 and for all integers k > 2. Furthermore, suppose that the equation — At ~ B = 0 has a single real root r. First note that r # 0 because otherwise we would have 0? ~ A-0~- B = 0, which would imply that B = 0 and contradict the hypothesis. Second, note that the following system of equations with unknowns C and D has 2 unique solution. 9 = Cr +0: Dr? =1-C +0: D Cr! 1: Dr! = Curt Der One way to reach this conclusion is to observe that the determinant of the system is Ier—n0 = 1 £0. Another way to reach the conclusion is to write the system as wm =C a, =Cr+Dr and let C'= ap and D = (a —aor)/r. It is clear by substitution that these values of C and D satisfy the system, Conversely, if any numbers C and D satisfy the system, then C = ao, and substituting C into the second equation and solving for D yields D = (a — Cr)/r. Proof of the exercise statement by strong mathematical induction: Let ao,ai,a2,-.. . be any ‘Sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation aj = Aq, + Bay» for some real numbers A and B with B 4 0 and for all integers k > 2. Furthermore, suppose that the equation # ~ At ~ B=0 has a single real root r. Let the property P(n) be the equation aq = Cr" +nDr™ = P(n) where C and D are the unique real numbers such that ag = Cr®+0-Dr® and a, = Cr! +1-Dr!. 102012 Cengage Laing All Rigs Reserved. May nt be seamed copied or plied, posed oe publicly acenible webs, in wale rin prt80 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction ‘Show that P(0) and P(1) are true: : The fact P(0) and P(1) are true is automatic because C and D are exactly those numbers for which ay = Cr® +0- Dr? and ay = C-r! + 1- Dr! Show that if k >1 and P(i) is true for all integers i from 0 through k, then P(k + 1) és true: Let k be any integer with k > 1 and suppose that a; = Cr! + iDr* for all integers with 1 1, if P(k) is true then P(k + 1) is true: Solution (Format 2): Suppose that k is any integer with & > 1 such that 143-45 ++--+(2k— 1) = &?. [This is the inductive hypothesis, P(k).) We must show that P(k + 1) is true, where P(k + 1) is the equation V4345 40-04 (241) = (R +1) (©2012 Cengage Leaing Al Rights Reserved. Mayo be came copied or duplicated, or posed oa pubilyacesle weit, in we rin par86 Chapter 5: Sequences and Mathematical Induction Now the LHS of P(k + 1) is LESHS Het RAL) = 1F345 4+ (2-1) + K+) by making the next-to-last term explicit = K+ (2k-+1) by inductive hypothesis ‘And the RHS of P(k +1) is (k41)? = W+2k+1 by basic algebra. So the left-hand and right-hand sides of P(k+1) equal the same quantity, and thus and thus P(k+1) is true (as was to be shown) Solution (Format 3): Suppose that & is any integer with k > 1 such that 14+3+5-+---+ (2k—1) =k. (This is the ‘inductive hypothesis, P(k).] We must show that P(k + 1) is true, where P(k +1) is the equation 14+345+-+-+ (2k +1) = (kt 1)? Consider the left-hand and right-hand sides of P(k + 1): 14345+---4+(2k+1) | (+1? = 14345404 (2k 1) + (2k +1) He by making the next-to-last term explicit | =k (2k+1) I by inductive hypothesis | =P 4241 | = 4241 by basic algebra | by basic algebra, So the left-hand and right-hand sides of P(&+1) equal the same quantity, and thus and thus P(k-+1) ‘true fas was to be shown]. Solution (Format 4) Suppose that k is any integer with k > 1 such that 1+ 3-45 + -+--+(2k—1) = A. (This is the inductive hypothesis, P(k).] We must show that P(k + 1) is true, where P(k +1) is the equation 14345 4-0-4 (2k41) = (k+1). Consider the left-hand and right-hand sides of P(k + 1) 1F3454--04(2k+1) 2 (k+iP 14 9454-4 (2-1) +(2k+1) 2 oa ake1 bby making the next-to-last term explicit by basic algebra H+ (2k+1) 2 + 2k+1 by inductive hypothesis Paks = 42+ bby basie algebra, So the left-hand and right-hand sides of P(k +1) equal the same quantity, and thus P(k +1) is true [as was to be shown]. Solution (Format 5): Suppose that k is any integer with k > 1 such that 1+3+5 +--+ (2k—1) = 4%. [This is the inductive hypothesis, P(k).] We must show that P(k-+ 1) is true, where P(k + 1) is the equation 143454---+(2k+1)=(k+1) But P(k +1) is true if, and only if, (#4) T4845 464 (2k 1) + (2641) = (E41)? — by making the next-to-last term explicit, ° 4 Q2k+1) = (K+)? by inductive hypothesis e 42k +1 (e+)? which is true by basic algebra, Thus P(k + 1) is true fas was to be shown). 1 2012 Cengage Leming. All Rights Reserved. May ot be cane copia ar apical opted ion publi accu website, in whole on prt.