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DEFINITION
The Word psychology is derived from Greek Words, psyche (soul) and logos
(science) Thus literally it means the science of the soul But to be a science, it must be able to
demonstrate the phenomenon on which observation and experimental methods can be applied.
But soul or mind or even consciousness can never be demonstrated nor even be
observed. Thus the definition of psychology as science of soul or Mind or consciousness
had to be changed as the science of behaviour How, as science of behaviour, psychology
deals with responses to any and every kind of situation that life presents. Human psychology is
concerned chiefly with such activities as per receiving imagining, feeling, thinking
remembering, and acting. Psychology attempts to collects, organize describe and to some
degree explain and interpret the facts of experience and behaviour. owing to the obvious fact
that the environment is always changing and the human organism is always changing, and
absolute science of human behaviour is a impossibility. There are however, no absolute
sciences; even physics, Chemistry and Mathematics are far from being exact. Science is
relative Since Psychology is far from being an exact science, this is even more true of it. It is
an emerging science.
The ultimate aim of the psychologist is to make predictions about behaviour. Predictions
help in controlling and developing behaviour.
METHODS :
Having agreed on aims of psychology, the psychologists must decide upon the ways of
collecting date for prediction. The methods generally applied for the purpose are :
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(ii) Extrospection : Observation may be made objective by looking out wards upon the
external expressions of mind of other people / animals. This method helps in inferring the
mental processes of other people / animals from observation of their outward looks, gesture.
LIMITATIONS
In the Laboratory it is relatively easy to design experiments so that they can be repeated.
Some experiments can also be designed in industries easily and can be repeated. However, may
industrial problems are so complex that repetition under exactly similar conditions often is not
possible. This, of course does not mean that experimental methods should not be applied to the
industrial problems. It does mean that Industrial psychologists have to be aware of the
limitations.
However, we may say that psychology is concerned with mind as well as its expression
in behaviour. It must combine all methods, together to get a fuller picture of the behaviour
under study so that effective prediction, as far, as possible may be made. It must, there fore,
combine introspection with objective observations and be supported by experimental method
where ever possible.
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
2. Physiological Psychology : Mainly deals with the relation between mind and
body chemicals and their effects on human behaviour.
7. Social Psychology : The main concern is the study of group behaviour. Behaviour of
man in society, It applies the methods and techniques of psychology to the measurement and
the prediction of social phenomena, such as attitude formation, prejudice and group behaviour.
8. Industrial Psychology : The branch of applied psychology which concerns itself with
the application of psychological methods and results of problems arising in the industrial or
economic field, inclusive of the selection and training of workers, methods and conditions of
work etc. A dictionary of psychology James Driver. Industrial psychology is a branch of
psychology. Psychology is the science of human mind and deals with human behaviour in
work environment.
It can be regarded as and aid to human resources management, because its object is to
make the work interesting and inspiring so that every worker puts forth his best. It is connected
with changing the attitude of the worker in such a manner that he may find leisure in his
work It seeks to give the worker the greatest amount ease, both physical and mental at his job.
The worker feels tired and becomes less efficient not only on account of overwork, but
also because of mental uneasiness reflected through irritability, annoyance anxiety fear,
resentment etc. Remove these, increase interest, improve general metal atmosphere, and
complaints of overstrain will mostly vanish says Myers.
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Nature and scope : When a manager organizes human relationships in an industrial under
taking, he has to take into account not only the physical needs of the workers but also their
psychological requirements. This is necessary because every human being has not only a body,
but also a mind. The mind of the worker functions through impulses, emotions and passions all
of which combine together to influence his attitude and behaviour.
In the ultimate analysis, it is the attitude of the worker toward his work and his
employer which determines the results of his efforts. If a worker does not feel happy at his job
either because he has no taste for it or because it is so repetitive that it is tedious, he is likely to
adopt on indifferent attitude toward his work.
Similarly, if the worker is not satisfied with the treatment meted out by his employer he
will develop grievances against the employer and will not be able to do his best for. The
concern. Every human being his certain instincts, which are the essential springs of all
thought and action These instincts require satisfaction.
If they are not satisfied, the individual concerned is bound to feel dissatisfied and even
frust rated with his job and environment. The behaviour of an individual is governed and
controlled by such powerful instincts as fear, anger, love hatre, pride and curiosity, whether in
industry or in the social life at large.
If a worker cam clan credit for creating something prefect, if gives his a feeling of pride
which inspires him to work with greater enthusiasm. On the other hand, if the credit gores to
some body else, his instinct for pride and self-display may be hurt and he may cease to work
with enthusiasm.
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2. Human behaviour is caused and does not occur automatically be itself. Let us examine
the implication of these assumptions and their relevance to industrial psychology here:
Even when several people are working on identical machines, it will usually be found
that there are differences in their productivity.
Then he makes those responses by which be can procure food. In other words he
behaves in a way that he can get food and satisfy his need and his want.
Once the need for food is satisfied for the time being. Some other need (say, the urge to
meet fried and share time with him) may become dominant and the individual then engages in
behavior that will satisfy this urge.
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The well-known psychologist Maslow gives the following classification of the
psychological needs of man.
These categories of need are arranged in a hierarchy with the second categories arising
after the first has been met to a considerable extent and third assessing after the second has
been satisfied reasonably well and so on.
1. Selection and Placement: One of the most important factors in industrial efficiency is
the selection of the right men for the right jobs. This calls for a systematic analysis of the job
requirements to determine the criteria for successful job performance. On the basis of these
criteria, predictors of job success are determined. The available candidates for a job are then
evaluated in terms of these predictors and their individual differences in trials like intelligence,
aptitude, dexterity, skills, abilities, interests and personality characteristics are measured. For
this purpose, industrial psychology offers a whole array of tests. By the use of psychological
tests and systematic planned depth interviews, the best incumbent for the given job is chosen.
Industrial Psychology has helped to make selection more systematic and scientific and less
open to hit and miss methods, thus saving industrial organizations from frequent changes in the
work-force and ensuring maximum efficiency and job satisfaction to individual employees.
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derive pleasure and satisfaction from their jobs. Such adjustment can be attained through the
use of the scientific methods of selection arid placement by industrial firms and also by the
choice of prosper vacations by men. This necessitates a systematic analysis of personal traits of
an individual and matching, it with the requirements of different jobs to which he will be best
suited. Vocational guidance may be arranged by the Employment Exchanges or Counseling
Bureaus manned by specialists. Counseling in an industrial firm may be required for workers
who have problems with their work, fellow-workers or supervisors. The attempt, in such cases,
is to find out causes of the maladjustment of an employee and the remedy that can be used to
make him well-adjusted.
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5. Employee Attitude and Morale :Industrial Psychologists have been trying to examine
the relationship between the attitudes of the employees and their performance. They have also
gone into the process of attitude change from the point of view of raising levels of individual
group productivity. An outstanding contribution of Industrial Psychology to better management
of the human factor in industry is the analysis of morale and job satisfaction the over all
attitude of satisfaction or otherwise with the job and work environment on the part of a work
group. Psychology provides useful aid to management through the identification of the
dimensions or the factors of morale and through the development of the techniques to measure
employee attitudes and morale.
6. Job Evaluation and Merit rating : To the industrial psychologist also goes the credit
of developing suitable scientific bases of basic wage-rate fixation and employee performance
appraisal. Job evaluation methods developed by industrial psychologists aim at determining the
relative worth or value of the different categories of jobs so that a rational wage structure can
be built up. Merit rating techniques are designed to achieve a systematic appraisal of the worth
of each employee in terms of his ability and performance for the purposes of promotions,
transfers, counseling etc.
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found that only about 10 percent of the industrial accidents are due to distinctly physical
factors such as faulty equipment or bad building conditions. This shows how important
psychological or personal factors are in any program of accident prevention. Industrial
Psychologists have made a significant contribution to the development of safety programme
and the preservation of the valuable human factor in industry by analyzing the factors that
make certain individuals more accident prone than others. They have also been able to suggest
positive ways and means for reducing accident proneness.
9. Human Relations : For a long time managers and industrial psychologists both
regarded an individual employee as the unit of motivation and work performances it was
believed that if the individual employee was taken care of problems of motivation and
productivity would be automatically settled. This assumed that workers are individuals each
pursuing his own interests and the workforce in an individual organization could therefore be
compared with a rabble (dump of loose materials).
BIHRM
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN MODERN INDUSTRIES
Psychology is the science of behaviour. It deals with the study of human behaviour.
Human behaviour is of vital importance in every industrial activity, in the production and
consumption of goods as well as in the rendering of services. Industrial psychology is
interested not only in the man at work in factory, but in the salesman on the road and the girl at
the desk in the office. It is the study of people producing goods, or directing the activities of
the large corporation.
The reasons for studying human behaviour in industry arises from the fact that more
leaders of modern industry are coming from the rank of university graduates. Leadership is
business in becoming more demanding and the person without a liberal education is
handicapped in getting the kind of position from which he can move upward in any business
organization. The study of human side of management of supervision, is the province of
industrial psychology.
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Whether we work directly or not, as consumers and as citizens we find our lives
influenced on every side by industrial changes. We are concerned with labour management
conflicts because its consequences often touch our pockets; we are concerned with
technological advances and their effect on the production or goods because this determines our
material welfare; and we are concerned with the problems in industry, to at least some degree
because many people we known work there.
LELECTION :
The psychologist who work in industry is interested not only in day to day problems,
but also in long range programmes dealing with the effective utilization of human resources.
The problem of fitting men to jobs is one of such issues that requires of know how to
analyze abilities and this is purely a psychological problem. To make the proper fit, however,
the job must also be analyzed so that the abilities to look for, can be known. If the abilities
required for particular job are too complex, the psychologist may co-operate with an engineer,
in re-organizing the work so that job is redesigned to utilize a greater degree the abilities that
are available.
The selection programme by which the recruitment process is implemented has three
underlying principles. If these principles are adhered to the apparently complex system may be
amenable to an optimum decision. These are (i) principle of selection ratio (ii) Principle of
Individual Differences and (iii) Principle of prediction.
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cultural difference at the expenses of another such as mental ability is to court mediocrity and
high turnover.
Since the psychologist or the employment specialist deals with intangible human traits
such as intellectual capacity or emotional stability, etc. that do not permit direct, sensible
measurement he faces a difficult situation when he attempts to determine how much of what
trait an applicant possesses. However, by comparing the individuals performance to he
average performance of a specific group on certain will defined tasks, he can derive a set of
numerical term that imply below average average and above average performance on
these tasks and terms of this group. When the tasks and the group are relevant to some aspect
of the job situation, the derived information is quite meaningful.
TRAINING :
Teaching or training men for jobs is another purely psychological problem and one that
requires a fundamental knowledge of subject of learning. From laboratory work the
psychologist has found out how people learn and how they can be trained more economically.
HUMAN RELATIONS :
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Human relations is an important part of the subject of social psychology. The adjustments that
employees make to each other and to the supervisor are greatly influenced by the supervisors
behaviour.
The psychologist has discovered the basic principles underlying good supervision.
Training supervisors in leadership and in face to face dealings with employees is an important
part of their development.
The will to work is largely a psychological problem. The economic incentive of wages
is not sufficient to gain co-operation, for the will of man cannot be bought so cheaply. Even the
decisions of higher management cannot be reduced to a profit motive. Prestige, freedom of
choice and security become the more precious, once the basic needs are satisfied. The
psychologist has discovered many things about the needs of the worker in his struggle for
status for recognition and for the elements that lead to job satisfaction.
ACCIDENT :
Even the problem of industrial accidents has a psychological aspect. The engineer may
design safety devices, but he must design them so that the men will use them. After this part of
the problem is solved, many others remain. Some people will have accidents despite all
mechanical precautions. Safety habits, considerate supervision and proper placement of men
are psychological tools for accident.
EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT :
The industrial psychologist usually holds a staff position, largely advisory, which
enables him to apply knowledge wherever they are needed. He helps to improve safety
programmes and the works with the engineer on the human relation aspect of equipment
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design. He assists the office of the public relations in its interactions with consumers and with
the community in which the company operates. The industrial psychologist may draw up a plan
for the executive development of newly recruits on one hand and discuss the problem of aging
employees the other. From personnel selection to training from supervision to job evaluation,
from career planning to labour relations, the industrial psychologist moves in a wide and every
varying scene.
BIHRM
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND THEIR SIGNINFICANCE IN INDUSTRY
Individual differences was the first problem to be studies in industrial psychology and
has been studied more than any other psychological problem in industry. Psychologists have
long been interested in determining the ultimate cause of individual differences among people.
Usually the psychologist divided the major causes into two general categories of heredity and
environment. These upholding one point of view have often minimized or even completely
ignored the possible influence of the other factor.
The advocates for the doctrine of heredity in the matter of individual differences
maintain that the capacities, the inclinations, and the accomplishment of and individual are
determined primarily by his inheritance. It has no relation with training, economic advantage
etc. but depends totally upon natural gifts present in the family, and passing from generation
to generation.
The other group the advocates of environment in matters of individual differences opine
that there is no real evidence of inheritance of human traits. It is the surroundings and training
the environmental conditions of life that make the man Dr. Watson an ardent behaviourist
writes Give me an dozen healthy infant, well formed, and my own specified world to bring
them up in and I will guarantee to take and one of them at random and train him to become any
type of specialist I might select doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, chief and yes even beggar man
and thief, regardless of his talents, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors It
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has also been found through various experimental studies that the environmental plays and
important role in determining the mental level and behaviour of the individual.
However it seems probable that both factors are usually operative but their relative
importance differs markedly in the determination of different personal characteristics. The
variability of human race results from the interaction of heredity and environment Neither
nature nor nurture alone can explain the wide rangs of differences in mental traits so
characteristic of the rece, but heredity appears to be the determining factor in accounting for
individual differences.
The people differ from one another is especially apparent from their physical
appearance. That differences are likewise present in the abilities of man is also a commonly
recognized fact. The principle of individual differences simply states that each person has own
unique characteristics that enable him to do some jobs and prevent him from doing others. For
clarification the differences have been grouped into five arbitrary and not necessarily exclusive
classifications :
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iv) Ethical differences : Families differ in their behavioural norms, values,
and ethical standards and in their convictions about what does and does not constitute
good conduct.
The principle of individual differences implies, therefore, the effective selection requires
the assessment of the whole man relation to the total job situation. To ignore one category of
individual differences such as mental ability is to invite future problems in the form of
inefficiency, maladjustment, absenteeism and low job satisfaction. To overemphasize one
category, such as the cultural differences at the expense of another such as mental ability is to
court mediocrity and high turnover.
The crux of the selection programme therefore depends, in the first palace upon
knowing what kind of human characteristics are required for successful performance on each
of the various jobs; and it depends, in the second place, upon being able to identify or measure
such characteristics at the time of employment.
The measurement of ability has been done mainly by I.Q tests which are composed of
several separate mental factors, such as :
v) Spatial factor, measured by the ability to imagine the way objects are arranged in
space.
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vi) The special aptitudes tests such as Mechanical aptitude tests clerical aptitude
tests, of manual dexterity and finger dexterity are uses in industrial selection processes.
vii) Interests are an important determinant of the individual differences that are
reflected in performance at work. Successful persons in the same occupation have to a
large extent the same interests.
viii) Personality :
The importance and the nature of the variation between people, is not generally
appreciated. Many believe that practice makes perfects; yet no amount of practice on the part
of one man will make him as proficient in his work as a little practice will make another.
Since marked differences in ability do occur, it can readily be seen that proper selection
alone greatly increases production.
Thus in terms of the mutual interests of both employees and management, it should be
the goal of personnel policy to place individuals on jobs in which their individual potentialities
can be realized in the form of satisfactory work performance.
Probable Questions :
BIHRM
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY ATTITUDE
Attitude has been described as learned readiness to react in a certain manner which
normally involves in part of symbolic act. That is to say a certain object or situation will
provide the individual with a framework within which he can react. In other words, an attitude
is a way a person tends to feel, see, or interpret a particular situation. An attitude is intangible,
it is determined by another from the way a person acts or responds to situation.
An attitude is neither (i) motive, nor (ii) r5esponse. Attitude refers to probable direction,
not the behaviour itself. Attitude is not a drive or force, as a motive is but simply state of
readiness to respond.
Attitude is not simply getting along with people. It is much more. It is an outward
manifestation of wanting to be helpful and useful to the enterprise and to other employees. It is
reflecting a wholesome feeling from inside. It stems from both the personality and mental
outlook. Giving not getting usually characteristics a good attitude. An individual can have a
good attitude and still differ with superiors on policies and decisions, but outward actions and
speeches of the individual show respect for the decisions made and co-operation in carrying
them out.
The kind of a person and the quality of this life, both at work and away from work, is
strongly influenced by his attitude. The atmosphere is which on lives is determined more by his
attitude than anything else. One person may always be looking to the past, ignoring the present
and future. Another is viewing everything in the present and future; nothing is looked upon in
the perspective of the past. One has fairly fixed ideas about certain types of employees and
another considers each of then on individual merit. One individual will look upon mistake as
total and permanent losses, while another view them as opportunities from which a great deal
can be learned.
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Two major types of attitudes :
Attitude are generally classified as (i) positive or (ii) negative. A positive attitude is
directed toward a given object, that is, a person, policy, group, event or institution, whereas a
negative attitude is directed away from a given object.
Frequently, positive attitude are classed as Construction attitudes Positive attitudes are
characterized by the reaction of YES it can be done. This is the direction to take and Let
us advance along these approaches In contrast, negative attitudes have been termed
Destructive attitudes Because, they emphasize possible hurdles or stress the view point that
the objective cannot be attained. Expressions typifying this attitude are This is a poor labour
contract and will no doubt give us plenty of trouble and Right now our organization structure
is strong, but I fear our positions next year at this same month.
Most objectives are accomplished far more effectively when positive attitude prevail
than when negative attitudes are dominant. Managers should therefore strive to have positive
attitudes and develop positive attitudes in their sub-ordinates. This is essential in maximizing
managerial actuating works. Optimism is matter of attitude. Managers must first think they can
before they can. Success and victory thrive under the influence of positive attitudes. The
attitudes. The world belongs to those who have positive attitudes, energy knowledge, and
adventuresomeness.
Attitudes are learned or acquired during daily life experience. People are not born with
attitudes. From infancy on, a person acquires traditions, beliefs, opinions and knowledge, all of
which helps to formulate his attitudes. Attitudes are acquired in one or a combination of three
ways.
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b. Second, acceptance of the attitude of the group of which a person is a member.
Group codes and unwritten agreements not only guide and shape the group but give support to
each member individuality. Certain conventions, habits and attitudes are required in order for
the individuality to possess fully accepted membership.
Attitudes develop from the influences of emotions, perceptions, social factors, economic
forces and motivations. Attitudes are not necessarily related to the education and the
intelligence of the person or the facts of the situations. Many attitudes are founded more on
emotional than on rational basis.
An employees attitude is influenced by such things as the position and reputation of the
enterprise, its policies and practices, the opportunities for advancement, the thoroughness of
training, the caliber of leadership, the type of work done and the amount of compensation. The
work situation is extremely vital in attitude development and frequently is thought of as the
inclusive area which gives rise to attitudes. But the work situation is by no means the only
area.
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toward his work. On the other hand if his family is quarrelsome and a great deal of
dissatisfaction is usually prevalent, the employee will frequently reflect this attitude in the kind
and quality of work he does. The motives aroused with an employee by his children what he
wants for the, his plans for their future, his interests in their activities frequently means that he
will have a favourable attitude towards his job because he seems that through his employment
the means for providing his children are achieved.
The mode of living likewise helps shape attitudes. Some concentrate their entire efforts
upon getting material possessions, their attitudes encourage the acquisition of goods, position
and influence. In contrast, others believe in giving, not getting. Their attitude encompasses the
fundamental truth that one cannot get until he learns to give and thus they divided genuine
happiness and lasting satisfaction from his attitude.
Frames of reference :
Frames of reference are also of vital importance in the existence and development of
attitudes. What is associated with an object or is referred to in connection with it helps to
determine the attitude toward that object. Whether an attitude is favourable or infablurable
depends upon the judgment in terms of the frame of reference. If the reference is highly
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desirable, the attitude will be favourable, and coveresely a reference of low desirability will
result in an unfabourable attitude.
Every employee reflects his attitude towards his work in his daily affords. If he nervous
any faulty attitudes, his work will show it, and further more, it will affect the efforts of these
associated with him. There appears to be little doubt that the must frequent handicap of a
manager is a faulty mental attitude or mental sets which consist of such things as believing an
objective cannot be attained, lack of confidence, conceit, jealousy, fear, narrow mindedness,
fallacious thinking and personnel prejudices. Attitudes permitting such traits do not make the
task unattainable, but they render achievement more difficult.
Attitude is also important because it holds the key to job satisfaction. When each
individual obtain genuine satisfaction from his work, the task of management is lightened.
Attempts are being made to keep the employee satisfied means of various benefits. Such
as pensions, group insurance, vacationary pay etc. These benefits are all desirable and fulfill
certain social needs, but genuine employee satisfaction comes from finding real satisfaction in
his job. Fundamentally that is what every employee actually seeks, although at times he may
not fully recognize it.
Attitude is the key that either opens or closes the employees mind to the proper service
motive installed by competent managers. Work is as much a mental attitude as it is a concrete
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thing. Without positive attitude toward his work is an important reason for keeping him from
obtaining employee satisfaction from his greatest potential his job.
Research studies have confirmed that individual and group attitudes are commonly the
difference between a highly successful work group and one that is not between a high
production until a low production unit. The individual or group that believes it can succeed,
that the mission can be accomplished his leader knows what he is doing are most likely to be
most effective. It is the right king of attitude that makes the difference.
Changing Attitude :
There is little question that managers can influence employees attitudes. The old adage
that employees reflect the shadow or perhaps more appropriately the light, of the top
management groups thinking illustrates the same point of view. Persons are influenced
favourably or unfavourable by examples provided experiences permitted, frames of reference
supplied, encouragement of certain motives and the discountenance of other forces.
However, efforts to strengthen, modify or eliminate attitudes must handled expertly and
with great care. Human being usually resist any attempt to change their attitude. People
become set in their responsiveness. This tough mindedness is not more inertia or laziness but
an active resistance to influence.
Why does a person resist a change in his attitude? Primarily because of the attitude is a
personal entity and exemplify a certain prize, affection or innermost readiness of the individual
to response sociologists are the term ego-involves explain an attitude which is clung to by an
individual because he likes to think of himself as one who has this particular attitude.
In other words, the self-evaluation and strong desire to retain a present attitude depend
in great measure not only on the possessors confidence in that attitude but also in it being
favourably responded to by others.
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A person will normally defend his attitude when it is challenged Usually challenge is
viewed as undermining something deemed important because values of ones ineffective
involved. The greater the ego involvement of the person, the less the likelihood of gaining a
change in attitude by means of arguments.
The weakening of supporting influences can be attempted in various ways. Among the
more common is to provide facts and knowledge which can be evaluated. The attempt here is
to stress greater rational consideration than emotional Supplying export of authoritative
explanations or view points along with the reasons for such view points can also be employed.
In some cases, it is effective to get the individual to review his experience, to become more
aware of what it means, and to re-conceived relationship of the individual with the reference
group, that is, to reduce the ego-involvement by lowering the favourable respondence of the
group to the attitude. Possibly the best way to achieve this so to talk with the group, request,
their co-operation and support and appeal to the group a favourable decision. It is frequently
less difficult to away a group than an individual. This is true for several reasons.
Firstly, When members of the group change the attitude, the individual can see that a
change on his part will not reduce his relative ego-involvement.
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Some suggestions for developing favourable attitude :
1. Have a wholesome, practical outlook on life and your fellow employees. Think
optimistically, show enthusiasm, be genuinely interested in the other fellow, expect mistakes
and misgivings but do not become depressed by them.
Speak, wife and act from the positive view-point, Stress confidence and progress, avoid
fear and retrospection. Keep looking until some good is found and then figure out the best
manner to utilize this good. Emphasize what to do and what not to do.
The people surrounding a person can exercise great influence upon him attitude. If they
are experiencing full, rice, helpful lives, they serve as a favourable motivation and tend to
encourage a person to greater and better accomplishments. It is difficult for an individual to
maintain an unfavourable attitude when all those around him have a favourable attitude.
Permit others to participate, their opinions, build up their self confidence, and let them
know they are doing something worthwhile. Practice the philosophy of giving, not getting.
Talk about the individuals astute accomplishments and his sagacity in arriving at the proper
decision, but refrain from talking about him.
A human being must have an outlet for his productivities; he must have a deep sense of
responsibility for certain attributes of his own choosing so that he can anchor the whole of his
activities around what constitutes to him a meaningful target.
Probable Questions
BIHRM
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
JOB SATISFACTION
The terms employee attitude Job satisfaction and Industrial morale are in many
instances used interchangeably. But according to Blum they are not synonymous. An attitude
may contribute to job satisfaction since the latter is comprised of a number of attitudes.
Similarly job satisfaction in not the same as industrial morale although it may contribute to
morale. Job attitude is the feeling the employee has about his job, his readiness to react in one
way or another to specific factors related to his job, Job satisfaction dissatisfaction is the result
of various attitudes the person holds toward his job, toward related factors and toward life in
general.
Information about employee attitudes may be obtained from the following sources :
Assessment / analysis of employees feeling toward their jobs and factors related to the
job, made by the foreman and supervisors is one of the most important sources of information
of employee attitude.
2. Grapevine Channels :
Rumored Attitudes are a part of all organizations. However, the information that rumors
carry becomes altered and often distorted as it makes its upward movement. More dangerous
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still are the attitudes communicated by the grapevine, for they may reflect only the extremes.
Within this structure, attitudes of the majority of the workers never get impartially expressed.
3. Behaviour Manifestations :
Some of the behaviour manifestations such as griping on the job, slow downs, early
quits and excessive absenteeism are true revealers of attitudes. But it is already too late by the
time such manifestations are evidenced and the damage is already done.
4. Interviewing :
This has been one of the main means of getting information of employee attitude. In the
guided interview, there is an attempt to get answers to predetermined questions.
5. The Questionnaire :
The following are the ten major factors related to job attitudes :
1. Security :
The Factor deals with the steadiness of employment, where the manager or worker feels
he has a reasonable chance of working under conditions of company stability. The man with
security feels that he is valued by the organization and that he has the abilities and opportunity
to keep his job. Security is a strong reason for liking a job and is generally mentioned first by
both men and women as contributing job satisfaction.
2. Opportunity of advancement :
This factor ranks high in importance, particularly to the person striving for upward
mobility. The results of many attitude surveys show that the lack of opportunity for
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advancement is frequently a strong reasons for disliking a job but rarely is opportunity for
advancement mentioned as contributory to satisfaction. Men are much more expressive in
giving importance to this factor than are women. However, there is some evidence that there is
a decrease in the importance of the advancement factor with increasing age.
3. Company management :
Whether we deal with the size of the organization, reputation, earnings, or public or
public relations, the employee believes that a good company is one which helps him fell some
stability in his job. Like security it contributes substantially to the employees satisfaction. In
terms of occupational level, there is some evidence that the high the skill level, the greater the
satisfaction with the company.
4. Wages :
When this factor is ranked with nine other job factors employees give it fourth place. It
is interesting that employers generally rank this factor near the top when they are asked what
the employee wants. Wages are more important to men than women worker4s, and are
generally more important to factory workers than to office workers.
There are many reasons why people like their job simply for the sake of the job. One
may like it because he has the right ability and training for it. Another may like his job parse
because it brings him recognition, third person may like his job because it is easy, gives him
an opportunity to travel, or is free of tension and pressure. Whatever the reason, what the man
does at his particular job contributes to both satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
6. Supervision :
To the worker his supervisor is an equally strong contributor to both satisfaction and
dissatisfaction. Women seem more sensitive to supervision then men, but for both bad
supervision can be a primary reason for absenteeism and labour turnover.
27
7. Social Aspect of the job :
This involves such needs as belonging and social approval. This factor contributes to
both satisfaction and dissatisfaction of the employee. A man who feels himself a member of a
productive, cohesive group is happier with his job than is someone who finds himself a misfit.
The social factor appears slightly more important to women than to men. It is relatively
independent of age and occupational level.
8. Communication :
9. Working conditions :
Temperature, lighting, ventilation, cafeteria, toilets and the like have been found to be
equally contributing to both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Working conditions are
substantially more important to women than to men. Hours are more important to men than any
other specific aspect of working conditions; but among women, especially married women this
aspect has even more significance.
10. Benefits :
Employee benefits such s retirement provisions, medical facilities, leaves vacations and
holiday etc. are a standard part of most jobs. They contribute to satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
In short it may be said that needs fulfillment and positive attitudes and intrinsic aspect of jobs,
are the contributing factors to job satisfaction.
28
The average figure of job dissatisfaction found in varying industries (USA) is around
13% age as a factor has been shown from twenty three studies. In general, job satisfaction is
high among young workers but tends to go down during the first few years of employment.
People who are dissatisfied with their jobs are less outgoing and friendly, are more
emotionally unbalanced, and show more boredom, daydreaming and general, discontent than
the satisfied workers.
A number of research studies found that workmen with positive job attitudes showed
higher productivity than those with negative attitudes. The basic consideration is that high
productivity accompanies high morale only when the attitudes of the group is very cohesive,
when the atmosphere is friendly, and when belonging to that specific work group is highly
desirable to its members. It has been found in a number of studies that workers with positive
attitudes have less turnover and absenteeism than workers with negative attitudes. It is also
found that workers with positive attitude out-produce workers with negative job attitudes,
when the psychological climates favour high production, where there is a good supervision,
and where the employee really wants to produce and get ahead.
Morse pointed out that employee satisfaction was a function not only of how much a
person receives from the job situation, but also of where he stands with respect to his level of
aspiration. When the environment provides little possibility for need satisfaction, those people
with the strongest desires, or highest aspirations will be the least happy. In another way The
greater the amount the individual gets the greater his satisfaction and at the sometime the more
the individuals still desires, the less his satisfaction (Morse) As the person grows older, the
need for pay and job status increases. This can lead to job dissatisfaction when the discrepancy
between levels of aspiration and possibilities of attainment gets too great.
Probable questions
29
1. What do you mean by job Satisfaction ? Is it synonymous with industrial morale ?
BIHRM
MOTIVATION
Basically the topic of motivation deals with the question of WGY animals and human
beings do what they do. People work because they what nice things. They save because they
want security. They fight because they are threatened. Most people describe the cause of their
behaviour in terms of goals toward which they are striving.
Some motives or needs are called primary needs because they are not dependent on
learning for their basic motive force (although learning may affect the social expression of
these drives). An example is, hunger, a primary drive to obtain food which is based on
unlearned biological needs. The primary motives such as hunger, thirst sex and pain avoidance
are closely co-related with physiological states.
Other, motives, sometimes called secondary motives / drives are learned or acquired
desires for particular goal such as power, money, attention, approval, acceptance, achievement,
30
living standard habit of smoking etc. The most important point here is that motives needs, or
desires impel the individual to action.
Classification of Needs :
A number of attempts have been made by psychologists to classify and categorize the
various human needs into levels to relative importance concerning their impact on motivation.
The theory that has received the highest degree of acceptance is that of Maslows hierarchy of
needs, The essence of this theory is that the overwhelming majority of normal human being
have certain common, basic needs which can be grouped into five levels and arranged in a
hierarchy of strength as follow :
Self-realization needs
Ego / Esteem needs
Social needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
Biological needs
1. Physiological needs or biological needs : Hunger, Thirst, Sex and so on (bodily
need fulfillment).
2. Safety needs : Protection against danger, Threat, Deprivation and so on.
3. Social needs : Belonging, Association, Acceptance, by others, Giving and
receiving friendship and love.
4. Ego or Esteem Needs : Self esteem (Self confidence, Independence,
achievement, competence, knowledge) and personal reputation, (status, recognition,
appreciation, respect).
5. Self Actualization or Self Fulfillment needs : Realizing ones own potential,
self development, creativity.
31
The tasks of modern management are to obtain facts, plan, direct, co-ordinate and
motivate. It is of little use for the management to carry out other actives of getting facts,
planning and so on, if people who are supposed to carry out plans, are not motivated to do so.
Under coercion they may have to do the task but it is no substitute of or voluntary action. One
may drag a horse to water but cannot make it to drink.
Human performance of human input depends upon ability and motivation. We may say :
The motivation on the other hand is the function of social condition, individual needs
and physical condition. Schematically :
32
11. Mutual sacrifice, participation in group activities, experience of progress towards goal
and confidence in leaders.
The importance of various needs or wants which motivate man was expertly expressed
by prof. Doughlas McGregor as follows.
Man is a wanting animal as soon as one of his needs is satisfied, another appears in its
place. This process is unending. It continues from birth to death. Man continuously put forth
the effort works, if you please to satisfy his needs A satisfied need is not a motivation. This is a
fact which is . Ignored in the conventional approach to management of people.
33
McGregor X and Y Theory
The bulk of current managerial principles, according to McGregor, has been directly
derived from the first set of assumption, theory X. These assumption are :
1. The average human being has an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it if he
can.
2. Because of this human characteristic of dislike for work, most people must be
controlled directed or threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort
toward the achievement of organizational objectives.
3. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility,
has relatively little ambition and wants security above all.
The assumptions of theory x and the approaches to motivation and supervision which
result from it may indeed be what exists in many organizations. Pressure through the use of
rewards and the threat of punishment has been used to achieve company objectives.
Pressure has bred counter pressure, and subordinates have reacted in way detrimental to
organizational efficiency. To achieve the desired behaviour, management hashed to impose still
more restriction, a vicious cycle has been set up and the assumptions of the theory seems to
have been confirmed. Management has regarded employees as indolent, without ambition and
resistant to change and responsibility.
But theory X does not reflect mans inherent nature , rather such behaviour in man in
part the result of management philosophy and practice. McGregor himself regarded theory X
as an extreme and as an unacceptable set of assumptions about human being.
Theory Y
The accumulation of knowledge about human behaviour from many specialized field,
has lead to further research regarding the validating of conventional managerial assumptions.
34
From these date McGregor derived a new set of assumptions what he called theory Y These
assumptions of McGregor provide a better example of human nature and therefore indicated
the need for different managerial strategy in dealing with people.
1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as lay or rest.
The average human being does not inherently dislike work Depending upon controllable
conditions, work may be a source of satisfaction or sources of punishment.
2. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing
about effort organizational objectives. Man will exercise self direction and self control in the
servi9ce of objectives to which he is committed.
3. Commitment to objectives is a result of the rewards associated with their
achievement. The most significant of such rewards e.g. the satisfaction of ego and self
actualization need can be direct product of effort directed toward organizational objectives.
4. The average human being learns under proper conditions not only to accept but
to seek responsibility. Avoidance of responsibility, lack of ambition and emphasis on security
are generally consequences of experience, not inherent human characteristics.
5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and
creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly distributed in the
population.
6. Under conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the
average human being are only utilized.
According to theory Y many managers should near range their assumptions, thinking
of methods so that organizational and individual goals are compatible. Management should
adopt policies that promote on the job satisfaction, individual development and expression.
35
Unbridled individual freedom is neither compatible with organization goals nor is it
desirable. Sometimes it may prove detrimental. In some new nations sudden freedom from
colonial control causes virtual anarchy. Several authors like Erick from, Maslow etc. agreed
that complete individual freedom is not the answer but freedom with limits varying in intensity.
The other criticism is that over implication of work has reduced job satisfaction. Though
it is true in mass production job, work satisfaction has undoubtedly increased may work
situations in modern industry.
The old concept of motivation was based on fear, chiefly relied upon negative sanction
based on fear and punishment to get the result. The workers either teed the line or faced the
consequence of losing the job. The situation however changes as organized labours gained
influence, besides organizations become larger and spread in complexity. The current emphasis
is on human relations and positive incentives.
Positive Incentives :
Motivation and morale : By inducing the workers to work and creating interest in
them for the work, ineffective time wastage may be reduced. This is usually done by upholding
morale of the workers and motivation them for higher production. The basic principle is that
every individual kikes to stand well in his own eyes and also in the eye of those whose
appreciation he values. The workers are favourable affected by a boss who treats them as
36
human being and they are motivated to work for a company where there is confidence in
fairness of the top management. The output and moral both increase when the policy of the
company is employee centered and not production centered.
Although the right to fine or demote an employee under certain circumstances remains a
tool in the hands of management for disciplinary purposes, it has now been replaced by
positive incentives and morale. This is due to growing realization that positive incentives are
more conducive to the welfare of the enterprise then negative sanctions based on fear of
demotion or dismissal. This does not mean that negative sections should be discarded entirely.
It seems neared the truth to say that as positive incentives are made effective, there is less need
to apply negative sanctions and they in any case a sanction should be reserved for individual
cases and rarely if ever used on a group. However, the complete elimination of sanction would
quickly get the administration into trouble.
Probable Questions :
BIHRM
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
INDUSTRIAL MORALE
The terms employee attitude Job satisfaction and industrial morale are in many
instances used interchangeably. But according to Blum they are not synonymous. An attitude
may contribute to job satisfaction since the latter is comprised of a number of attitudes.
Similarly job satisfaction is not the same as industrial morale although it may contribute to
morale.
37
Job attitude is the felling the employee has about his job, his readiness to react in one
way or another to specific factor related to his job. Job a satisfaction or dissatisfaction is the
result various attitudes the person holds toward his hob, toward related factors and toward life
in general. Industrial morale is generated by the group. For the individual it is a feeling of
being accepted by and belonging to a group of employees through adherence to common goals.
In a company industrial morale is the composite expression of the attitudes of the various
individuals working there.
From the standpoint of management, the state of employees attitudes toward their
company and its mode of operation is a foremost issue and is commonly included under the
subject morale. According to the definition morale is the attitude of employee toward
management members, toward their jobs, and toward each other Other stress the identification
of the employees objectives with those of the company. Thus morale concerns the state of
employees, attitude toward their company and its mode of operation.
The concept is that the extent to which an employees attitudes enable him to realized
maximum satisfaction of his desires with the fulfillment of the companys objectives, the
higher the morale.
Attitudes, therefore, are very vital to morale. While many attitude influence morale,
those pertaining to the following areas are of tap importance :
38
values must be essential agreement with those of his group and there must be in essential
agreement with those of his group and there must be a co-ordination of effort in attaining
objectives. Good morale is resistance to frustration.
Low morale indicates as attitude of apathy or resignatice. Without goal interest is absent
or the obstacles between individual and the goal are regarded unsurmountable.
The general picture of the morale of various work groups may compared on the basis of level
of morale as shown below :
LEVEL Zest
OF Activity Co-operation
MORALE Satisfied
Job O.K
Passive Co-operation
Job Unimportant
Work a Burden
Hostility
From the comparison it follows. Zest being the tope value and apathy the lowest value
because if implies a complete absence of effort. It must not be assumed that all members of the
group would feel the same way in any situation. Individual difference are always present.
39
Nevertheless. It is possible to think in terms of group as unit describe the way group works.
Groups have personality of their own and one can think of a groups motivation, attitude and
adjust.
Physical Factors :
The degree of high or low morale differs from person to person depending upon his mental and
bodily conditions. Inborn personality differences which brings out differences in energy,
determination emotional stability, influence stamina. Like-wise bodily conditions good health,
proper food and adequate rest also have a direct influence on stamina. Acquired personality
qualities derived from environment has a direct hearing on good morale.
Such factors as company attitude to employees and society in general, the type of foreman, the
sanitary facilities, lighting, ventilation and attractiveness of the shop and many other conditions
which constitute the environment influence the morale of the workers.
Job satisfaction demonstrates high morale among those who are satisfied with the job some of
the important psychological Factors influencing high morale are :
a) Mutual sacrifices;
b) Participation in group activity;
c) Experience of progress toward goal;
d) Tolerance and freedom within group; and Confidence in leaders.
The first step in a moral building is to instill proper attitudes in the minds of all
employees. This is easier said than done As already mentioned, an attitude is the result of many
complex forces and to change an existing attitude requires persistent, continuous, and well
planned efforts over a long period of time, but the task can be done.
40
Second step is to measure morale to determine are areas where improvements can be made,
especially those of irritation and trouble, if any. Employee attitudes can be catalogues by
various means including by an intuitive basis, interviews, surveys, and analysis of employees,
records showing number of grievances, absenteeism, rate of labour turnover, and the like.
Some of the questions used in a survey are show below as examples:
The Next step is evaluate carefully the results obtained in step No.2 In this way, the
areas requiring immediate attention can be pinpointed and definite plans for correcting these
trouble sports can be evolved and put into action. Some managers advocate publishing the
results of the survey along with what corrective measures will be taken. In contrast, other
executives oppose such a practice. The decision must be based on the individual circumstances
of each case.
In the final analysis good morale is a by-product of competent management. Morale can
not be sought for directly; it must be improved by indirect means, that is, by improving
management. More specially the effort must constantly be toward the end that the managerial
organizing work should be the very best possible, capable leadership emphasized and
41
developed to all employees, and proper emphasis given to the human element in managerial
decisions.
BIHRM
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
INDUSTRIAL FATIGUE AND BOREDOM
Most people are familiar with such terms as fatigues tiredness boredom and
monotony These terms are used to describe feelings. There is, however, no clear cut
measures of boredom or fatigue. Psychological means for evaluating the effort expended in
work are less precise than are the physiological measures, but the reports of out feeling may
actually be more relevant than the physiological measures especially for work of non-physical
nature.
FATIGUE
Feelings of fatigue, feelings of tiredness are subjective or psychological states that may
accompany prolonged work. We might suppose that work decrements, the actual decreases in
proficiency over time, lead directly to such subjective feelings. This is not true.
Feelings of tiredness are, of course, related to physiological changes. But here are
different kinds of tiredness related to different kinds of work. A emotional upset may involve a
kind of tiredness different from that resulting from a hard day of physical labour free from
frustration. Although we have good measures of tiredness, the descriptions we can give of it
are useful in certain practical situations. One personnel Manager reports the case of a worker
who frequently complained of feeling tired on the Job. Following up on the supplication that
the man was not being accepted in his particular work group, he had the man transferred to a
similar job with a different group of workers. Here he soon came to feel that he belonged and
he made fewer complaints.
Another case reported by a University Counselor was that a newly married student of
twenty-four, was having difficulty with his courses. He complained of being tired each night
42
when he sat down to study. Though he fought the impulse, he could invariably fall asleep over
his books; finally giving up, he would retire with his lessons unprepared. His scholastic
performance brought him before the counselor. He and his wife moved out of his mother-in-
laws home and in two weeks the symptoms of fatigue were completely gone. He was working
quite effectively.
It is known that beyond a certain point a mans production rate gets lower the longer he
works at a job. He may get less work done for each operation, it may take time longer to
complete some piece of work or the quality of his work may be affected. It is also known that
efforts in work and lack of precision and co-ordination occur as a result of fatigue on phycho-
metor tasks.
It is known from experimental studies that a subject can become so tired from lifting a
weight that he can no longer move his arms until he has had a given period of rest. Recovery,
thought quite rapid at first, is followed by a long slow period of come-back. The more fatigued
we are, the longer it takes to recover.
From labor4atory studies under ideal controlled conditions and from less controlled
industrial situations has come practical principles of work which says in effect, fatigue should
be prevented by taking rest periods before the fatigue gets in.
It is generally recognized that rest pauses improve worker performance. It formal rest
pauses are not allowed, employees take unauthorized ones. It has been found in some instances
that these are just as effective in combating fatigue as are those scheduled by management. Just
when to schedule rest period veries from situation to situation. One way to get at the problem is
by plotting production records throughout the working period and observing drops in
production. It is important to schedule rest periods before the drops occur. It is also important
43
to keep an eye on production records routinely, because not all drops in production are caused
by fatigue or corrected by rest.
Rest on the job can be obtained in a number of ways. One way is to slow down activity.
Here the worker actually rests while he works. Some people resort to pacing their activities, as
most workers on a piece-rate learn to do. Day dreaming may be thought of as form of rest
which allows the person to leave his job mentally. Late starts and early quits, with interruptions
in between, are other forms of work stoppage. An of course, physical departure from the work
scene is a possible form of rest.
An important part of rest is change of deviation from the usual or routine course of
work. Deviation involves turning something away from its course, and it is most important in
combating mental stress. We know that worry can sometimes be lessened by putting something
in the place of the worrisome thoughts. It has been found through several studies that rest
pause during work are beneficial to production. In one study it was found that the introduction
of 12 minute rest pause in the MIDDLE OF THE MORNING AND A SIMILAR PAUSE IN
THE MIDDLE OF THE AFTERNOON increased the output by 29%. It also decreased the
length of voluntary rest pauses 60%. This study showed that rest pauses should be introduced
just before production to fall from its maximum.
The introduction of rest pauses which result in increased work output have been found
to have a beneficial effect both physiologically and psychologically; they improve the attitudes
of the employees toward the working situation.
The attitude of a person ahs toward his work determines to a large extent his need for
rest.
44
The two factors determining boredom are the amount of repetition in work and the
degree of attention demanded by the work. Jobs which require continuous attention tend to be
interesting, and those which require little or no attention leave the individual free to talk his
neighbors or to think of other things.
A practical way to remove boredom is to change ones activity. If such a change is not
possible in the job situation itself, then a change of pace may be accomplished by taking a
hobby. The important thing involved here is the change of activity.
The bored worked is inclined to over estimate the duration of time Although a repetitive
task may not be attention demanding, the worked may have varied and discordant thoughts
during which he keeps coming back to the amount of time still to be worked. This where the
work is automatic, where there is a little or no chance for conversation and where there is little
or no personal interest in the final production its destination.
Wyatt suggests that the additional incentive and satisfaction which accompanies a pieces
a piece-rate system of payment tends to retard the onset of boredom. Quantities which take
about an hour to complete give more satisfaction than an endless flow along a conveyer,
because of the interest associated with awareness of achievement.
Human beings wants many things to make lives meaningful, comfortable and worthy of living.
They need food, shelter, status, power, recognition, love, affection and a feeling of
belongingness etc. But all needs are not fulfilled always and easily. Some are more difficult ot
satisfy.
45
Attempts to obtain satisfaction of needs and desires frequently meet with obstacles,
regardless of ones status or job. Many times these blockages are only temporary and overcome
easily. At other times, however, attempts to attain a goal are blocked time and time again with
the result that there is an accumulation of tension within the individual. This frustration occurs
because individuals have desires or motives which they want to satisfy, but these desires or
motives get blocked in some way or other. In short, it is the blocking of an organisms path
towards a goal. This will be more clear if you look at the basic closed circuit model of
behaviour, showing relationships between causality, motivation and goal direction
(Demonstration with Transparency).
AGGRESSION :
Aggression behaviour occurs when one resents interference but does not react to it as a
problem. There are three forms of aggression viz: Elementary Aggression, Displaced
Aggression and organized Aggression.
The symptoms of aggression commonly found in industrial employees are (1) Excessive
criticism of management, (2) Constant Voicing of grievances, (3) Damaging of equipment, (4)
Inability to get along with others, (5) Absenteeism and (6) Joining of militant unions. The
management expresses its aggression by (1) Enforcing stricter discipline, (2) Imposing
penalties of all sorts, (3) Attaching labour legislation and (4) Opposing labour organization.
RESGESSION :
46
responsibility, (3) Unreasoned fear and (4) Responsiveness to rumour (5) Following the leader
etc. The management too show sings of regression when (1) Bosses refuse to delegate
responsibility (2) Do not distinguish between reasonable and unreasonable requests and (3)
Form blind loyalties for particular persons or organizations.
FIXATIONS :
The terms fixation is used designate a compulsion to continue a kind of activity which
have no adoptive value. An action is respected over and over again despite the fact that the
person knows it will accomplish nothing examples of fixation commonly meet in industry are
to be found in (1) Individuals who are unable to accept change old methods seem best and are
defended whether they concern the nature of the method of work or the nature of industrial
relations economic outlook.
who are unable to accept change old methods seem best and are defended whether they
concern the nature of the method of work or the nature of industrial relations economic
outlook.
RESIGNATION :
Resignation is frustratingly resign ones lot to the guidance of some superior brain. All
forms of activity seem to be closed to the individual, so he surrenders. This is a frame of mind
which the oppressive rulers may desire to create. Resignation is probably a dormant condition
in which all aggression has been temporarily blocked. People in this state of mind obviously
have low morale and will remain socially neutral unless their mental condition changes. In
industry the resigned individual is one who has lost hope of bettering his conditions. He
becomes apathetic regarding his future.
47
Frustration-instigated social movement-Any important social movement can transform
the social, political and economic structure of the country. This social trend should not be
ignored by the industrial organization.
A group of frustrated people may become organized and since aggressive behaviour
tendencies are present in such people, they may take the pattern of aggression. The study of
riots and mob behaviour also reveals the attractiveness of destructive behaviour to certain
groups of people. Frustrations and tensions on a wide scale procede these outburst and are the
underlying causes. The leader of the movement determines the form of the aggression.
The other types of behaviour which are characteristic of frustration lend support to an
organization build around frustration. Regressive tendencies make people suggestible and
easily led. The tendency to fixate makes their behaviour stereotyped that they can be made to
persist in any activity in which they started. Whether or not they will sweep away these things
which are good evil in cociety depends upon the circumstances themselves, and the leader is
the most important factor to determine the directive of the activity. The frustration instigated
movement develop into militant labour organization develops. The manner in which frustration
influences the character of a social organization may be found out from a comparative study of
the communistic and socialistic movements. Though the economic beliefs are almost similar,
the character of the two movements are different. The former is militant in nature and places
great emphasis on the overthrow of capitalism, while socialism emphasizes the bette3r life. It
seems reasonable to regard communism as primarily a frustration instigated type of movement
and socialism as largely a goal motivated type. Communism gives the frustrated people an
aggressive pattern of action rather than a promise of better things.
Because labour then frustrated is highly susceptible to being organized into a strong labour
movement, it is desirable that industry avoid creating frustrating circumstances. If it opposes
unions which have goals, it frustrated them and thus encourage the formation of militant labour
movement. The objective examination of industrial strike shows that labour movement become
more militant as attempts are mode to frustrate their activities. In industries where unions do
not have to struggle for recognition, they actually co-operate with management. In other cases
conciliation is the rule rather than the exception. Since the unreasonable people are frustrated
people, frustrating them further merely increases their destructive potentialities. To force them
48
into submission in the hope that they will eventually become resigned and give up is
psychologically unsound and dangerous.
2. Prior consultation with the employees on any matter, which affects their interests, and
thereby winning over their confidence.
3. To keep the worker organized when the workers are recognized without any hindrance,
it naturally extends co-operation with the management.
BIHRM
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
VORKING ENVIRONMENT
A person is what he is because of his nature and his heredity and environment Mans
biological evolution changes his nature, cultural evaluation changes his nature. The
contributions of both heredity and environment are important though it may vary in degree in
different circumstances.
By environment, in its broadest sense is meant all factors or groups of factors,all forms of
energy or energy other fores internaor external that invoke activity , behaviour response from
the individual.
In industrial enterpries working environment is the most important factor for sustaining
and improving the efficiency of the worker. It is a well known fact that productivity is the
effect of individual ability and his motivation and the influence of environment in which his
performs the job. Schematically we may say that
49
A = Ability M = Motivation and E = Environment.
Therefore, the unhealthy and unhappy workers doing their jobs under conditions of physical
and mental strain are inefficient producers.
The total environmental factors that influence human performance my be grouped under the
following heads:
a) Physical factors.
b) Organizational factors.
c) Psychological factors.
d) Living condition factors.
1. Cleanliness . Cleanliness is essential to both physical and mental health. The working
place must be kept clean of accumulated dirts and debris. Rooms, passages and must be
cleaned every day. Spittoons should be provided in sufficient number and must be cleaned and
disinfected at least once in every day.
2. Ventilation . Ventilation is required for the health and comfort of the workers which
increases efficiency. Ventilation may be natural. artificial or a combination of both. In some of
our mills and factories little have been done to mitigate the effects of heat by proper
ventilation. The workers are to go outside to recover from the unbearable heat, which affects
their efficiency.
Although the most comfortable working temperature may be around 65 0F, one study showed
that the performance did not begin to deteriorate until around 90 0F. In high temperature more
50
errors occur and production drops. In low temperature production decreases and accident rate
increases.
4. Lighting or Illumination
Good lighting speeds production. It is essential to the health, safety and efficiency of
workers. Insufficient light affect eye-sight. It has been found that glare causes discomfort in
workers and affects performance.
5. Noise :
Noise has been defined as unpleasant sound. while there are indications that noise
reduces work performance, there is no clear- cult evidence in support of such a contention. If
there is high morale in a group, it may well stand grand greater noise levels without complaint
that with another group with low morale, Very high tones and extremely low tones are more
irritating than those in the middle ranges.
6. Colour :
The use of colour is an important factor governing the workers feelings of heat or
coldnees. In temperate conditions workers' comfort are influenced by repainting the4 walls and
furnishings of the work place in colours designed to give a feeling of warmth or cold.
Workers are most loyal and co-operative when they have pride in work in their
employers. Management striving to overcome grievances in the job environment in one way of
building up this pride. Clean and adequate toilet and wash room facilities are important factors
for high morale. Company restaurants which are clean, quiet and comfortable are conductive to
workers mind. Attractive physical appearance of the plant provide for good sanitation and
health of the workers.
51
Worker's behaviour usually reflects their material and psychological environment.
Reasonable wages, good human relations inside the factory, good understanding between
management and labour, correct decisions on questions of promotion and at the same time well
cared for work places, sanitary facilities much better than "good enough for a worker"
behaviour and bring about employment stability among the personnel. When relations between
employers and workers are bad. when workers fear dismissal, when workers are dissatisfied
with wages, when working hours are long, the morale of the workers becomes low resulting in
frustration and low output.
Respect of worker's feeling an dignity helps to give him peace of mind. Living
conditions outside the factory also have an influence; living in slum areas have undesirable
moral and physical effects and thereby adversely influences the workers attitude in the factor.
Probale Questions
1. What do you mean by environment? What are the groups into which environmental
factors can be classified.
BIHRM
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
HUMAN RELATION & ITS IMPORTANCE IN ORGANIZATION
A new born human infant is among the most helpless of living organism, What an infant
can perform are only a few limited automatic reflex, swallowing, eliminating, crying and gross
motor movements. For sheer survival, the infant needs other people to behave in ways which
will bring all manner of need objects to him. The mother must provide food and arrange the
environment so that the child will stay alive, relatively free from pain and able to grows. As he
grows physically, he becomes more capable of learning, he needs other people as identification
models so he can become increasingly socialized. He needs, in his early days, a lot of
mothering caressing, holding, and social stimulation. There is evidence that without such close
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mothering, his physical development will be impaired and his social development will be
deviant.
The development of children is impaired by lack of maternal love, they become more
often a social, delinquent, feeble minded, psychotic, or at the least, neurotic in institutions than
in families. The child needs other people to reward punish him, so he can learn to behave in
socially acceptable. He needs to be in contact with persons other children of his age, so he can
learn to compete, co-operate, play games and so on. Contact with other people is thus seen as
crucial for many aspects of Child's healthy development, physical survival and health; learning
of many skills important in the solution of problems and the gratification of assorted needs;
and the learning of attitudes, values, morals and social roles, essential in defining the child's
membership in varied groups.
The adult by virtue of vastly skill repertoire is much more self reliant than an infant or
young child, but still he needs other people for many reasons. Most of the satisfactions which
make life worthwhile , in fact, can be gratified only in relation to, or with co-operation of other
people.
In present day society, no man can ever hope in his life time to encompass all the skills
necessary to solve all his problems and gratify all his wants. Division of labour and
specialization in knowledge and techniques are enormously developed in the present world,
particularly in the west, so each man is dependent upon many other people for the specialized
skill and knowledge.
How this transaction takes place ? Generally the needful individual buys the knowledge
or skill from its possessors with money or anything else that is deemed of value equivalent to
the skill. where scarce the skill the higher the price.
Thus we can see that none can live and grows satisfactorily by himself alone. He needs
others in society for his growth and development. So, also grows the society in mutual
interaction of its members.
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An enterprise is looking upon as a man made system, where a large number of people
work together to achieve established goals. Thereby they satisfy their own needs as well as the
needs of other group members.
It is, therefore, important to keep in mind that all enterprises are built to serve people
within and without the enterprise.
One of the fundamental functions of the management is actuating which literally means
the putting or moving into action. We can plan and organize but no tangible output is achieved
until, we implement the proposed and organized activities. Actuating may be defined as
"getting all the members of the group to want to achieve mutual objective because they want to
achieve them.
The actual performance of an individual depended upon his willing less and capacity to
perform. Therefore an understanding and application of human relations is basic to successful
actuating. Human relations may be defined as the integration of the manpower resources for
effective and maximum utilization by means of satisfying human wants and maintaining of
satisfactory relationships among the members seeking these human wants.
The study of human relations is important because in organizational set up, people work
to achieve certain goals. By accomplishment of the work and achievement of the goal, a person
hopes to satisfy his individual wants/needs and to meet the mutual interest of the participating
group, as none can satisfy all his needs/ wants by himself. Individuals needs / wants are
however numerous and they differ widely among people.
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5. Interesting work.
6. Efficient leadership.
7. Recognition of good work.
8. Acceptance as member of work group.
The relative importance of these wants differ from individual to individual from one
occasion to another. They are influenced by individual characteristics, background, beliefs,
place in the organization etc.
Since the managements' objective is to achieve the set goal effectively, the are to pay
attention to those human relations factors which influence their effectiveness. It is necessary
for the managers to have some understanding of pattern of behavior involved in human aspects
which facilitate in achieving organizational objects. The people of an organization represent an
aggregate of individuals brought together to do a job. They have different psychological make
up, different experience and different aspirations. Their reactions to one another, to their
surroundings to the jobs and to the supervisor usually show significant variations. These
variations are reflected in a wide variety of individual actions. An individual who is torn in
internal conflicts, who is apathetic and frustrated, and whose relation with other individuals are
disturbing to him, cannot do justice to his work. His seemingly erratic and at times irrational
behaviour stamp from the fact that employees do not shed their responsibilities, moods, and
values when they come to work. Although they may represent a "work force" they bring with
them all the fears, frustrations, hopes, ambitions, disappointments, goals and beliefs that have
shaped their personalities and their life style. Therefore, a manager who thinks in terms of
healthy relations, who attempts to understand what they are and what role they play in
achieving smoothness in operation, is very likely to be more effective than one who pays no
attention to human relations with and among his subordinates.
According to Lawrence A, the president of American management Association:
"Management is the development of people and not direction of things. If this fact were
more generally accepted, many Management difficulties would disappear. The executive or
manager who says that he would rather exhaust himself doing things correctly than expand the
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time and patience necessary to get other people to do them correctly, is admitting that he
cannot manage".
Important of human management is expressed by various statements like:-
1. Everything in management hinges around and involves the human element.
2. Success in management in largely a matter of :-
a) Getting competent people.
b) Giving them responsibility.
c) Telling them what you want to accomplish.
d) Explaining how to do it, and
e) Inspiring them with confidence in their ability to accomplish the objectives.
Normally employees work better and are more satisfied when they know that
management is interested in them and is concerned about their wants and welfare. They
appreciate being viewed and treated as human being and accepted as member of working
group. They participate fully where the performance is duly recognized. Employees work
towards greater accomplishments where there is some incentive always work better under
democratic leadership and they believe in what you do, more than what you say.
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BIHRM
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
ABSENTEEISM AND LABOUR TURNOVER
Definition : Absenteeism is the failure of workers to report on the job when they are
scheduled to work. Workers who quit job without notice are also counted as absentees until
they are officially removed from the pay roll. Excused absences should also be included in
absenteeism figures as well as unauthorized time off.
Turnover is the rate found out by the above formula and is expressed in percentage. Every
plant maintains records of days worked. Some companies keep time cards. A simple count of
unpunched cards or absence in the records may show the number of employees absent.
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For computing the monthly separation rate and accession rate of a plant the following
procedure may be followed.
1. Find the average number of employees by adding the number on pay roll on last days of
two successive months and then divides the result by two for example.
2000 will be the average number of employees for July. Separation Rate : Separation rate can
be found out by dividing the total number of employees separated from pay roll during the
monthly by the average number of employees for the month. 100 is the separation figure then
the rate is:
In other works, for every 100 workers employed in this plant during the particular month 6
new workers were hired.
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The net labour turnover rate is the rate of gain or loss per 100 workers in the average
workforce. It is the accession rate minus the separation rate. The net turnover rate is positive if
accessions exceed separation, it is negative if separations exceed accessions. In the example its
positive. It is (6-5) = +1.
CAUSES OF ABSENTEEISM
i) Personnel factor;
ii) Organization factors; and
iii) External factors.
PERSONAL FACTORS :
i) Old age.
ii) Sex.
iii) Illness.
iv) Personal Habitsalcoholism.
v) Family responsibility and family disturbance.
vi) Housing problems.
vii) Lack of proper transport facility.
viii) Agrarian background.
ix) Frequent visits home.
Old age : In one study made in the Baker chocolate Division of the General Foods company, U.S.A. It
was found that the age bracket 45 to 55 has a decidedly better absence record than either those older or
those younger. The under 35 group has the worst record of all. Distinction between kinds of
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absenteeism was also important. Older workers are absent for longer period (severity rate) but younger
workers are absent often (frequency rate).
Illness : It has been established through studies that emotional illness causes between a quarter and a
third of all absence from work due to illness. The high absence employees were found to have a lower
drive level and to be less emotionally stable than the low-absence group. High-absence group had a
greater number of record instance of emotional disorders and other disorders with an underlying
emotional basis.
Organization factors :
Some of the most important organizational factors contributing to high absenteeism and turnover are as
follows:
Induction of the new worker is the beginning of his on the job training. The induction stage is crucial
in helping to reduce costly employee turnover. about 80% of all turnover takes place during the first
three months of employment. The attitudes which promote individual job satisfaction, as well as group
morale, get established in the induction process.
In one study it was found that the workers with positive job attitudes have less turnover and
absenteeism than worker with negative attitudes.
Lack of employee participation or resistance to change also causes employee turnover.
Loyalty comes with the feelings of oarticippation. Participation in decision making is a major
factor in the morale of all levels of employees.
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External Factors: Similarly some external factors influence the rate of absenteeism and
labour turnover are:
i) Local weather condition.
ii) Political situation - strikes, hartals etc.
iii) Participation in religious festivals.
iv) Easy availability of medical certificates from outside, practitioners.
REMEDICAL MEASURES:
It has been mentioned earlier that absenteeism is a complex problem and complexity renders
solutions more difficult. But it is not totally unsurmountable. Absenteeism may not be eliminated, it is
true but it can however, be minimized. For that a number of measures should be adopted by the
management. The steps may be classified into three groups:-
Individual
(i) Sound selection, proper training & induction and appropriate placement should be
programmed.
(ii) Proper wages, good working condition, career opportunity and appreciation of good
work should be followed as policy matters. Worker's participation should be encouraged and
allowed for creating a sense of belonging.
(iii) Housing and transport facilities recreational facilities and child care and educational
opportunity to the children to the employees should be ensured.
2. Organizational :
Management should give due attention to the problem of absenteeism, find out causes and take
steps to mitigate those causes contributing to high rate of absenteeism and turnover management
should train supervisors who are the keymen in absence control by ensuring proper working
conditions, interpersonal relations and providing necessary motivational factors on the job. He has to
imposes on his workers that unauthorized absence is a serious offence. management has to make the
job more human by creating co-operative atmosphere in the plant. They should follow grievances
handling procedure to dispose off the employee complaints promptly and fairly. Management should
take steps to improve the condition so that the employee may feel that the management is genuinely
interested in their wel-being.
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motivated to avoid absence on avoidable circumstances. The should not subject them selves to external
pressure to absent themselves from duties. They should be motivated to place service before self. The
success of the organization is the success of the employee.
BIHRM
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
SUPERVISION : PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES
Introduction :
The work "Supervision" when considered from the Latin origin of the word, means "Seeing"
Where "Super" means 'over' and 'vision' means seeing. Thus supervision means seeing from above,
seeing the activities of the sub ordinates with authority.
Good supervision increases production and as such a supervisor is the key-man in the
managerial set-up. His method of handling his section can make all the difference between loss of
production and increasing output a good supervisor is a trained supervisor demands more than crafts
skill or work knowledge; it calls for skill in an-management, a skill which can rarely be acquired
without training. Effective supervision helps to maintain congenial working relationships resulting in
increased output of quality standard.
Supervision is the art of working with a group of people, over whom authority is exercised in
such a way as to achieve their greatest combined effectiveness in getting work done. It is best
performed in an atmosphere of good-will and tactful cooperation of the people and the supervisor. It
requires a supervisor to acquire the skill of a democratic leader who encourages employee participation
and treats them as associates.
Experienced supervisors recognize that there are no sure and certain rules for working with
people. Human beings are individually unique and with due regard for the uniqueness of the
individuals, there are certain general principles which are used by successful supervisors as guides.
The general principles of supervision while working with people are laid down as under :-
1. People must understand clearly what is expected clearly what is expected of them.
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2. People must have guidance in doing their work.
3. Good work should always be recognized.
4. Poor work deserves constructive criticism.
5. People should have opportunities to show that they can accept responsibilities.
6. People should be encouraged to improve themselves.
7. People should work in a safe and healthful environment.
Techniques in supervising
The basic knowledge and skill with which a supervisor goes about supervising comes only with
practice.
It should be kept in mind that each individual has some unique experiences that have helped to
make him what he is. By giving due weight age to individual differences, the people should be judged
by what they do, how they think and how they act.
He should judiciously delegate authority to see that he want them to do is done the way he likes
to do it.
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5. How to criticise :
Criticism must be made in private, never in presence of a man's fellow workers. Dignity of
people is important to every man and crition should be constructive.
I. Management Role :
In his scientific management roles, the supervisor is to assume the following:-
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2) Research/analysis : Another scientific Management role supervisors are expected to
perform is that of researcher and job analyst. The employees expect supervisors to design new
job procedures and to implement them when they prove to be effective.
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4) Decision maker: Another important functional role of supervisor is that of decision
maker.
1) Inducting the new worker : The supervisor's tact to in getting the new man to talk about
himself in a free and easy way is essential to good supervisor.
3) Safety : Good safety practice is the responsibility of everyone, but the supervisor goes
the job of checking on the environmental and personal causes of accidents in his department.
4) The handling of grievances : In their initial stages, grievances fall to the supervisor. He
must examine them for cause, whether attributed to work climate, to wrong job placement, to
inadequate job training, to personal causes. The good supervisor soon learns that gripes are often safety
valves, not grievances.
5) Discipline handling : The supervisor acts as an analyst as he seeks the reasons for absenteeism
or lateness to work,. as a problem solve as he interprets facts that lead to correction of behaviour by
encouragement warning, penalty by layoff or demotion or finally dismissed.
6) Managing the budget : The supervisor has the role of budget manager. He must keep records -
material cost, manpower cost. He must have a working understanding of profit and loss.
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7) Communication : The supervisor is a key-man in the communication network whether
communication be up, down or horizontal.
Short-coming in Supervising
The resentment for the short coming of supervisors may be listed as under :
BIHRM
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST
There is considerable agreement, among the critics as to the definition of tests, despite
difference regarding purposes and uses of tests. Most authorities define a standard test as "an objective
sample of some aspect of behaviour"
The term 'objective' refers to the requirement that it's administration, scoring and interpretation
are free from the individual examiner's subjective judgement. Tests are also objectives in the sense that
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reliability, validity and item difficulty level are usually experimentally determined before they are put
to wider use.
Norms are determined by administering the test to a large representative group of subjects for whom
the instrument is designed. From this administration, 'average' performance as well as estimates of the
degree of deviation above below average are obtained, so that future users may draw conclusions
concerning level of performance of subjects who take the test at a later date.
(I) Prediction : Tests are given to obtain a measure of ability, achievement and/or other
characteristics which will offer a solid basis upon which individuals can make decisions. Decisions
involve prediction-how well individuals will do at a later time prediction based on quantitative data is
likely to be more reliable and accurate and provide a balance against wishful thinking.
(II) Selection : Tests are used by institutions (Such as colleges, employers) and organizations to
accept some individuals and to reject others. The decision to hire an individual is a selection decision
and the decision to admit a student to college is a selection decision.
(IV) Evaluation : Tests are used to assess and evaluate programmes, methods, treatments and the
like.
TYPES OF TEST :
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Tests have been classified in many ways be purpose, content, for procedure and, function as well as in
other ways, A brief description of six ways of classifying tests is given below:
(1) Standardized Versus Teacher Made Tests : Standardized tests are those administered
and scored according to specific instructions. Norms based on large samples of students are available
to comparation a subjects performance with that of others in a similar to comparation a subjects
performance with that of others in a similar population category or group. Teachers made tests are
constructed for informal pupil evaluation within the class room and usually do not have extensive
norms available.
(2) Individual Versus Group Tests : Individual tests are those administered by a trained
examiner to one subject at a time the examiner observes the subjects responses to oral questions and
assigned tasks and in addition, records the subjects responses. On the other hand, group tests are those
that can be administered to more than one individual at a time.
(3) Speed Versus Power Test : A speed test is one in which the examinee completes as m,any
items as possible within specified time limits. A power test is one in which the examinee demonstrates
the extent of his knowledge or scope and depth of his understanding with the time factor either
eliminated or provided in generous amount. Items of a power test usually range from easy to extermely
difficult.
(4) Performance Versus paper and Pencil Test : Performance tests require the subjects to
manipulate objects or assemble parts or actually perform tasks, while paper and pencil tests require the
examinee to mark an answer sheet or to provide written responses.
(5) Objective Versus Subjective Test : Objective tests require little or no judgement on the part
of the scorer, while subjective tests require the scorer to exercise judgment in evaluating the examinees
answers.
(6) Maximum Versus Typical Performance : Maximum performance tests are those which
require the individuals to perform at his best to the best he can to demonstrate his ability. Typical
performance tests are those which seek to determine what the individual usually does or most likely to
do in a given situation. Another way of classifying test is by the purpose for which they disigned or the
aspects of behaviour they sample.
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The are given below :-
1) Mental Ability Tests : Mental ability test were the first standardized
psychological tests to be developed. Ability tests measures the individuals present status
resulting from the modification of potential brought about by contact with environment.
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4) Clerical Attitude Test : Clerical aptitude composite of abilities. Tests designed to assess
clerical aptitude place emphasis upon perceptual speed and accuracy. Rabid observation of numbers
and symbols is an important factor in the work of a clerical workers.
5) Interest Inventories :Interests have been described as one of the main factors in the learning
situation and as being the motivator of learning, It's a fact that without interest very little learning takes
place. A knowledge of the strength and direction of an individuals interests represents an important
area of his personality.
Nature of Interests :
Interests are usually defined as the "likes" and "dislikes" of an individual or the feeling of
intentness, concern or curiosity about some object. Super gives four interpretations to the term interest,
depending upon the formation about the. These are:-
(iv) Inventoried interests : refers to the assessment of one's preference for a large
number of activities and occupations. In such inventories each possible response is given an
experimentally determined weight and weights are added in order to yield a score which
represents not a single subjective estimate, as in expressed interests, but a pattern of interests
which research has shown to be rather stable.
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In appraising vocational interests, the usual approach is by the use of a standardized inventory.
Three such inventories are most frequently used. Tests are :-
(a) The SVIB (Strong Vocational Interest Blank) consists of four hundred items, most of
which are responded to on a "Lite" "indifferent to" or "dislike" basis. These items are broken
down into groups made up of professional occupations, school subjects, amusements, activities
types and/or peculiarities of people and self rating personality inventory. The SVIB comes into
two forms, one for men and one women. Strong has recommended that the inventory not to be
used with individuals below the age of 17 except in the case of unusually mature 15/16 years
olds.
(b) The Juder Preference Reard : is another popular interest inventor. It differs in
approach and scoring of items from the strong. Its major purpose is to indicate relative interest
in ten interest areas rather than specific occupations.
(I) Counseling to help obtain information which will aid in educational and vocational
decision-making, to verify or confirm choice ors to open up new possibilities.
PERSONALITY INVERTORIES
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Personality tests are most frequently designed to measure such characterizes as emotional
adjustment social relations and the motivational aspects of behaviour. They cover measures of social
traits such as relations with other persons including, for example, ascendance submission, introversion
extroversion, and self sufficiency. The number of available personality tests runs into several hundred
and it increasing every year.
Certainly the question of faking and malingering is always present. The behaviour measured by
per4sonality inventories, as contrasted to other kinds of tests, is more changing and fluid. This leads to
complications in determining test reliability and validity. The search for adequate criterion data to
establish validity is still present.
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