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3) 3) Why has there been all the interest in OFDM in the past few years?
Ans: OFDM has been adopted as the modulation method of choice for practically all the new
wireless technologies being used and developed today. It is perhaps the most spectrally
efficient method discovered so far, and it mitigates the severe problem of multipath
propagation that causes massive data errors and loss of signal in the microwave and UHF
spectrum.
Ans: The list is long and impressive. First, it is used for digital radio broadcasting. It is used in
TV broadcasting.You will also find it in wireless local-area networks (LANs) like Wi-Fi. The
wideband wireless metro-area network (MAN) technology WiMAX uses OFDM. And, the almost
completed 4G cellular technology standard Long-Term Evolution (LTE) uses OFDM. The high-
speed short-range technology known as Ultra-Wideband (UWB) uses an OFDM standard set by
the WiMedia Alliance. OFDM is also used in wired communications like power-line networking
technology. One of the first successful and most widespread uses of OFDM was in data
modems connected to telephone lines. ADSL and VDSL used for Internet access use a form of
OFDM known as discrete multi-tone (DMT). And, there are other less well known examples in
Ans: OFDM is accomplished with digital signal processing (DSP). We can program the IFFT and
FFT math functions on any fast PC, but it is usually done with a DSP IC or an appropriately
programmed FPGA or some hardwired digital logic. With todays super-fast chips, even
complex math routines like FFT are relatively easy to implement. In brief, we can put it all on
a single chip.
6) 6) What are the benefits of using OFDM?
Ans: The first reason is spectral efficiency, also called bandwidth efficiency. What that term
really means is that you can transmit more data faster in a given bandwidth in the presence of
noise. The measure of spectral efficiency is bits per second per Hertz, or bps/Hz. For a given
chunk of spectrum space, different modulation methods will give you widely varying maximum
data rates for a given bit error rate (BER) and noise level. Simple digital modulation methods
like amplitude shift keying (ASK) and frequency shift keying (FSK) are only fair but simple.
BPSK and QPSK are much better. QAM is very good but more subject to noise and low signal
levels. Code division multiple access (CDMA) methods are even better. But none is better than
OFDM when it comes to getting the maximum data capacity out of a given channel. It comes
close to the so called Shannon limit that defines channel capacity C in bits per second (bps) as
C = B * log2(1 + S/N)Here, B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz, and S/N is the power
signal-to-noise ratio. With spectrum scarce or just plain expensive, spectral efficiency has
Ans: OFDM is highly resistant to the multipath problem in high-frequency wireless. Very short-
wavelength signals normally travel in a straight line (line of sight, or LOS) from the transmit
antenna to the receive antenna. Yet trees, buildings, cars, planes, hills, water towers, and
even people will reflect some of the radiated signal. These reflections are copies of the original
signal that also go to the receive antenna. If the time delays of the reflections are in the same
range as the bit or symbol periods of the data signal, then the reflected signals will add to the
direct signal and create cancellations or other anomalies. The result is what we usually call
Raleigh fading.
Ans: Like anything else, OFDM is not perfect. It is very complex, making it more expensive to
implement. However, modern semiconductor technology makes it pretty easy. OFDM is also
sensitive to carrier frequency variations. To overcome this problem, OFDM systems transmit
pilot carriers along with the subcarriers for synchronization at the receiver. Another
disadvantage is that an OFDM signal has a high peak to average power ratio. As a result, the
complex OFDM signal requires linear amplification. That means greater inefficiency in the RF
Ans: The A stands for access. It means that OFDM is not only a great modulation method, it
also can provide multiple access to a common bandwidth or channel to multiple users. You are
probably familiar with multiple access methods like frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) and
time division multiplexing (TDM). CDMA, the widely used cellular technology, digitally codes
each digital signal to be transmitted and then transmits them all in the same spectrum.
Because of their random nature, they just appear as low-level noise to one another. The digital
coding lets the receiver sort the individual signal out later. OFDMA permits multiple users to
Ans: Not right now. What makes OFDM even better is MIMO, the multiple-input multiple-
15. If we have BPSK and BFSK with same average transmit power,
which modulation has low BER
BPSK. Let us denote that the coordinates of BPSK constellation points be
(a,0) and (-a, 0) and BFSK constellation points be (a,0) and (0,a). This shows
that the distance between the constellation points of BPSK is more than that
of BFSK. Hence, BER is low for BPSK.
25. Explain the concept of frequency resuse. Give few more ways of
improving capacity
Instead of using a single high power transmitter, we can use multiple low
power
29. What is delay spread and coherence bandwidth. How are they
related
1) If the channel is realized to be a filter of L taps, cyclic prefix should be at
least L-1 length.
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UNIT I
A fixed station in mobile radio system used for radio communication with
3. What is MSC?
Mobile switching centre coordinates the routing of calls in large service area. It
connects
the base station and mobiles to PSTN. It is also called as MTSO(Mobile telephone
switching office.
station to mobile.
Reverse channel is a radio channel used for transmission from mobile to base
station.
Control channel is used for transmission of call setup, call request, call initiation
&
Control.
6. Define cell
is used
Types : Fixed channel assignment, dynamic channel assignment.
If the channels in each cell is allocated to the users within the cell, it will be
called as fixed channel assignment. If all channels are occupied, the call
Will be blocked.
If the voice channels are not allocated permanently in a cell, it will be called as
the MSC automatically transfers the call from one cell to other cell without any
interference.This is called as hand off.
The time over which the call may be maintained within a cell without handoff is
The interference between the signals from co channel cells is called as co cannel
interference.
It is define as the ratio between the distance between the centers of nearest co
channel
If a channel is not available immediately, the call request may be delayed until a
Cell splitting is the process of subdividing congested cells into smaller cells each
with its own base stations and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and
transmitter power. It increases the capacity of cellular system.
UNIT II
Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary
transmitter
receiver separation distance are useful in estimating the radio coverage area of
a transmitter.
The propagation models that characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received
signal
strength over very short travel distances (a few wavelengths) or short time
duration.
The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength,
when
needed, with an isotropic radiator, to produce the same power density in the
given direction EIRP=PtGt
The path loss is defined as the difference(in dB) between the effective
transmitted power
& the received power, &may or may not include the effect of the antenna gains.
It is defined by the ratio of electric to magnetic field for a uniform plane wave in
the
particular medium. The Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs
in the origin.
When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface , the reflected energy is spread
out in all
Radar Cross Section of a scattering object is defined as the ratio of the power
density of
the signal scattered in the direction of the receiver to the power density of the
radio wave
incident upon the scattering object & has units of squares meters
1.Longely-Rice model
2.Durkins model
3.Okumura model.
32. What is the function of outdoor propagation models?
buildings.
Small scale fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes,
phases, or
multipath delays of a radio signal over a short period of time or travel distance.
2.Multipath propagation
The shift in received signal frequency due to motion is called the Doppler shift.
If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain & linear phase response over a
bandwidth
which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, then the received
signal will undergo flat fading.
If the channel possesses a constant gain & linear phase response over a
bandwidth that is
smaller than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal , then the channel creates
frequency
The channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. This
type of a
The channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the
transmitted
UNIT-III
42 Write the advantages of MSK over QPSK.
1. In QPSK the phase changes by 90degree or 180 degree .This creates abrupt
amplitude
methods overcome these problems , but they have other side effects.
In digital modulations instead of transmitting one bit at a time, two or more bits
are
Sometimes two or more quadrature carriers are used for modulation. It is called
quadrature modulation.
45.What is QAM?
At high bit rates a combination of ASK and PSK is employed in order to minimize
the errors in the received data. This method is known as Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation.
46.Define QPSK?
QPSK is a multilevel modulation in which four phase shifts are used for
representing four
different symbols.
In the non linear modulation the amplitude of the carrier is constant, regardless
of the
Constant envelope
Spectral efficiency
Self-synchronizing capability
OQPSK
52.What are the techniques used to improve the received signal quality?
54.What is diversity?
56.Define STCM.
Channel coding can also be combined with diversity a technique called Space-
Time
wireless communication.
First , a known fixed length training sequence is sent by the transmitter then the
receivers equalizers may adapt to a proper setting of minimum bit error
detection where the training sequence is a pseudo random binary signal or a
fixed and prescribed bit pattern.
Immediately following this training sequence the user data is sent and the
adaptive
Linear equalizers: If the output d(t) is not used in the feedback path to adapt the
Nonlinear equalizers: If the output d(t) is fed back to change the subsequent
outputs
The linear equalizers are very effective in equalizing channels where ISI is not
severe.
The severity of the ISI is directly related to the spectral characteristics. In this
case that there are spectral noise in the transfer function of the effective
channel, the additive noise at the receiver input will be dramatically enhanced
by the linear equalizer. To overcome this problem non linear equalizers are used.
Rate of convergence
Mis adjustments
computational complexity
The mean square error is a error between the desired equalizer output and the
actual
simple program
1.Fast convergence.
If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent path may have a
strong
signal. By having more than one path to select from, both the instantaneous and
average SNRs at the receiver may be improved often by as much as 20dB to
30dB.
UNIT-IV
68. What are the two types of linear predictive coders?
69. What is the criterion for the selection of speech coders for mobile
communication?
Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share
simultaneously a
finite amount of radio spectrum. It is required to achieve high capacity by
simultaneously
frequencies for every user. The forward band provides traffic from th base
station to the mobile, and the reverse band provides traffic from the mobile to
the base station.
the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus multipath fading does not greatly
vary the
In FDMA, many channels share the same antenna at the base station. The power
amplifiers are nonlinear which causes signal spreading in the frequency domain
and generate inter modulation frequencies. It is undesirable and can result in
interference.
Time division multiple access systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots
and in
If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is greater than the symbol rate,
then the
For a particular subscriber unti, the desired base station will provide the desired
forward
channel while the surrounding co-channel base stations will provide the forward
channel
interference.
79.Define adaptive channel allocation
Vocoders are speech coders that are used for signal compression. Vocoders are
based on
priori knowledge about the signal to be coded, and hence are signal specific.
In narrow band multiple access system, the variable radio spectrum is divided
into a large
82.Define SDMA
Space division multiple access controls the radiated energy for each user in
space. It
* TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user
makes use
*Duplexers are not required, since transmission and reception occurs at different
time
slots.
TDD uses time instead of frequency to provide both a forward and reverse link.
Multiple
users share a single radio channel by taking turns in the time domain.
The second generation systems have been developed to provide higher quality
signals,
higher data rate for support of digital services and greater capacity.
ii)Interim standard
iv)Interim standard-95
i) Telephone services
The NSS managing the switching function of the systems and allows the MSCs
The interface which connects a Base Transceiver Station (BTS) to a Base Station
94.Define A Interface.
The interface between a BSC and a MSC is called the A interface , which is
standardized
within GSM
The VLR is a database which temporarily stores the IMSI and customer
information for
each roaming subscriber who is visiting the coverage area of a particular MSC.
i)Full-rate TCH
ii)Half-rate TCH
The guard period is used to avoid overlapping with other bursts due to different
path
Dummy burst is used as filter information for unused time slots on the forward
link.
Burst formatting adds binary data to the ciphered blocks, in order to help
The pilot channel is intended to provide a reference signal for all MSS within a
cell
The supervisory signals are the supervisory audio tone(SAT) and signaling
tone(ST).
N-AMPS provided three uses in a 30kHz AMPS by using FDMA and 10kHz channel
and
105.Define Piconet.
The simplest Bluetooth networks called piconet can have from two to eight
nodes.
sequence.
106.What is Bluetooth?
Bluetooth is an open specification for the short range wireless voice and data
107.What is Scatternet?
13 comments:
1.
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2.
DOPPLER EFFECT
The relative changes in frequency can be explained as follows. When the source
of the waves is moving toward the observer, each successive wave crest is
emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave.
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3.
COHERENCE TIME
For an electromagnetic wave, the coherence time is the time over which a
propagating wave (especially a laser or maser beam) may be considered
coherent. In other words, it is the time interval within which its phase is, on
average, predictable.
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