BIOCHEMICAL D!A!

GENETIC ENGINEERING I N M A R I N E AQUACULTURE:

THE ROLE OF MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY I N THE PRODUCTION OF FOOD FROM THE OCEANS

Daniel E. Morse
DepartmentofBiologicalSciencesandthe
ParineScienceInstitute,UniversityofCalifornia,
SantB
a a r b a r aC, a l i f o r n i a 93106 USA

Summary .Introduction

I n t e n s i f i c a t i o no fp r o d u c t i o n m , o d e r n i z a t i o no f To improvetheeconomicefficiency and y i e l d of
techniques,andimprovementofcultivars are needed t c m a r i n ae q u a c u l t u r ien d u s t r i e s , and t oa d a ptth e s e
i n c r e a s et h e economic e f f i c i e n c yo fm a r i c ea q u a c u l t u r e i n d u s t r i e st ot h e economicandenvironmental realities
i n d u s t r i e si nt h eU n i t e dS t a t e sa n d many o t h e r a n dc o n s t r a i n t sp r e s e n t l yo p e r a t i v ei nt h eU n i t e d
c o u n t r i e st, o make t h e s ien d u s t r i ecs o m p a t i b l w e ith S t a t e as n do t h e dr e v e l o p e dn a t i o n ss, i g n i f i c a n t
c o n t e m p o r a reyc o n o mri ec a l i t R y .e c e n t dl ye v e l o p e d i n t e n s i f i c a t i o no fp r o d u c t i o n m , odernization of
methodsofbiochemical and g e n e t i ce n g i n e e r i n gc a n be technology,andimprovementofcultivarsareneeded.l-3
a d a p t e df o rc o n t r o l of thosebiologicalprocesseswhich Recentlydevelopedmethodsofbiochemical and g e n e t i c
i n t r i n s i c a l l y limit t h e f f i c i e n c ya n d y i e l d of engineeringcan be adaptedfortheimprovedcontrolof
a q u a c u l t u r ep r o d u c t i o n ,t oh e l pa c h i e v et h e s en e c e s s a r y t h o s be i o l o g i c apl r o c e s s e s which i n t r i n s i c a l l y limit
improvements. As i l l u s t r a t e d by r e s u l t so b t a i n e dw i t h t h e f f i c i e n c ya n dy i e l do m f a r i n ea q u a c u l t u r e
a b a l o n e as n do t h e cr o m m e r c i a l l yv a l u a b l m e arine production,tohelpachievetheserequiredchanges. As
m o l l u s cds e s c r i b e h d e r ec, r i t i c alli f e - c y c l set a g e s i l l u s t r a t e di nr e c e n tr e s e a r c h and development with
whichthus f a r haveprovedamenable t o improved c o n t r o l abalones and a number ofothercommerciallyvaluable
by t h e sme e t h o di ns c l u d er e: p r o d u c t i o nl a, r v a l m a r i n em o l l u s c ss, u c hc r i t i c apl r o c e s s e isn c l u d i n g
s e t t l e m e n tm , e t a m o r p h o s i sa, n tdh ae c c e l e r a t i o on f r e p r o d u c t i o nd,e v e l o p m e n tl ,a r v as le t t l e m e n t ,
e a r l y growth . m e t a m o r p h o s i sa, n dt h ae c c e l e r a t i o nogf r o w t h a v e
p r o v e adm e n a b lteiom p r o v e cdo n t r o l by t h e s e new
A n a l y s i s o f t h e p h y a i o l o g i c aal n d molecular methods. 1-3
mechanismw s h i c hc o n t r orl e p r o d u c t i o ni nm o l l u s c s
r e v e a l s a protaglandin-dependent regulation of spawning I d e n t i f i c a t i o no ft h eu n d e r l y i n gm o l e c u l a r
i n abalones and c e r t a ioct h esrp e c i e s . Spawning of m e c h a n i s mcso n t r o l l i n rge p r o d u c t i o nd, e v e l o p m e n t ,
g r a v i d a d u l t s c a n b e i n d u c e d by t h ea d d i t i o no f metamorphosis,andgrowth i n a b a l o n e s and o t h e r s p e c i e s
p r o s t a g l a n d i ntstohseu r r o u n d i n g seawater, or, more h a sr e v e a l e ds e v e r a le s s e n t i a lp r o c e s s e s whichcan be
r e l i a b l y a n idn e x p e n s i v e l y , by a c t i v a t i o no tfh e c o n t r o l l e de a s i l y and e f f i c i e n t l y by p r o v i s i o no ft h e
endogenousenzymaticsynthesis of p r o s t a g l a n d i n - r e l a t e d required b i o c h e m i c arle g u l a t o r y substances or their
s p a w n i n gt r i g g e r si nr e s p o n s et oa d d e dh y d r o g e n i n e x p e n s i vnea t u radn a l o g s . 4 ~T5h e sbei o c h e m i c a l
p e r o x i dPe .e r o x i daec t i v a t i o n of the prostaglandin- methods are r e l i a b l es,a f ea, n cd o n v e n i e n t , making
d e p e n d e nstp a w n i n gr e a c t i o nh abs e e nf o u n dw i d e l y possiblethelow-costimprovementofmass-production
usefulforobtainingsynchronous and copious release of and efficiency.1,68 Such methods have proved widely
fullycompetentgametesin a l a r g e number o f s p e c i e s o f a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e improvedproductionof a l a r g e number
a b a l o n e so, y s t e r ss,c a l l o p s , mussels, clams and
other of s p e c i eosaf b a l o n e so, y s t e r ss,c a l l o p s , mussels,
valuablemolluscs; a number o tf h e s es p e c i e sh a dn o t clams, and o t h evr a l u a b l m e o l l u s cus n d ecr u l t i v a t i o n
been successfully spawned by o t h e r methods. f o r f o o d and otherproductsworldwide.1

S e t t l e m e n t and metamorphosis of a a n ym o l l u s c a n O t h em r e t h o d fs o trh ea c c e l e r a t i o no gf r o w t h ,

s p e c i e cs a n be b r o u g hutn d e r similar b i o c h e m i c a l i m p r o v e m e notffo o d - c o n v e r s i o n e f f i c i e n c ya, n d
the
control. Most e f f i c i e n t layni dn e x p e n s i v e l y , the enhancement of t h er e s i s t a n c eo fc u l t i v a r s which are
n a t u r a lb i o c h e m i c a lr e q u i r e m e n tf o ri n d u c t i o no ft h e s e presentlyunderdevelopmentinvolvetheuseofgenetic
c r i t i c a dl e v e l o p m e n t a pl r o c e s s e sc a nb e met by e n g i n e e r i n gf o rt h ea m p l i f i e dp r o d u c t i o no f hormones
p r o v i d i n gc o m p e t e nlta r v a w e i t hu n i q u ae m i n oa c i d andrelatedgrowth-regulatingmolecules,productionof
c o n s t i t u e n t as s s o c i a t e dw i t h hti n a t u r a l l yr e q u i r e d vaccines,manipulation of g e n e t i cc o n t e n t , and c l o n a l
inducing molecules. Thus, y-aminobutyric acid (GBBA) production. These and similar m e t h o disn, c l u d i n g
can be usedsimply,safely and i n e x p e n s i v e l yt oi n d u c e t e c h n i q u e sf o cr o n t r o l l e dg e n ea m p l i f i c a t i o na n d
complete and r a p i dl a r v a ls e t t l e m e n t and metamorphosis t r a n s f e r ,a r eu n d e ri n v e s t i g a t i o nf o rt h e enhancement
- w i t hm i n i m a m l ortality - i n many c o m m e r c i a l l y of production of
animal s p e c i e s .
a number of important marine plant and
i m p o r t a na tb a l o nsep e c i e T s .h iasn d similar
n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r - r e l a t e d , amino acid-derived compounds
are p r o v i n gc o m p a r a b l ye f f e c t i v ef o tr h er e l i a b l e
i n d u c t i o n of s e t t l e m e n t andmetamorphosis i n a number ControlofReDroduction
of other valuable molluscan species.
Absolute control of reproduction i s one of the most
Recentanalysesoftherequirementsforrapidearly c e n t r a l and b a s i cp r o c e s s e sr e q u i r e df o er f f i c i e n t
j u v e n i l eg r o w t hi na b a l o n e sr e v e a l s a mechanism of a q u a c u l t u r eA. n a l y s ecso n d u c t eiodnul ar b o r a t o r y
g r o w t h - c o n t r ow l hich i s s u s c e p t i b l et oe x o g e n o u s r e v e a l e dt h a rt e p r o d u c t i o ni na b a l o n e sa n d a large
h o r m o n a lc c e l e r a t i o nG.e n e t iccl o n i nagn d number of o t h e rc o m m e r c i a l l yv a l u a b l em o l l u s c s is
a m p l i f i c a t i o no f recombinant-DNA t e m p l a t e fs o trh e c o n t r o l l e d by hormones known as prostaglandins.1,4,697
e f f i c i e n pt r o d u c t i o no fe s s e n t i a gl r o w t h - r e g u l a t i n g I n a number o ft h e s es p e c i e s ,p r o s t a g l a n d i n sr e l e a s e d
h o r m o n e sa, n sdu b s t a n c erse q u i r e fdoer n h a n c e d i n t h e spawn ofone a n i m a l will t r i g g e r t h e spawning Of
n u t r i t i o n a l e f f i c i e n c y and r e s i s t a n c e o f c u l t i v a r s , a r e othergravidanimalsnearby.Takingadvantage of t h i s
now i n progress. Genetic engineering f o r t h ed i r e c t f i n d i n g , we d i s c o v e r e d t h a t we couldinducespawning in
improvementof c u l t i v a t e d . s p e c i e s soon will be w i t h i n g r a v i d male or femaleabalonessimply by addingvery
reach. low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of p r o s t a g l a n d i n s t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
seawater.4 However, t h i sp r o c e d u r e w a s dependentupon
t h eu s e of r a t h e re x p e n s i v e hormones,andproved less
t h a n p e r f e c t l y reliable.

1009 $1.00 0 1983 IEEE

CH1972-918310000-1009
 I n s e a r c h i n g f o r a more r e l i a b l e and less expensive n a t u r a l l yr e q u i r e di n d u c i n gm o l e ~ u l e s . 5 ~ ~ Thus, GABA
m e t h o dt h act o u l db eu s e d f o r t h ec o n t r o ol f canbeusedsimply,safely and i n e x p e n s i v e l yt oi n d u c e
r e p r o d u c t i o n i n a l a r g e number of species, we found complete and r a p i dl a r v a ls e t t l e m e n t andmetamorphosis
t h a tt h ee n z y m a t i cs y n t h e s i so fp r o s t a g l a n d i n si nt h e - w i t hm i n i m a m l ortality - i n many c o m m e r c i a l l y
r e p r o d u c t i v et i s s u e o
smf o l l u s c (s a n dc e r t a i no t h e r important abalone species.
s p e c i e s ) w a s n a t u r a l l yd e p e n d e n t upon - and l i m i t e d by
- t h e r a t e ofsynthesisofminuteamounts of hydrogen The c o n t r a s t i n r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by t h e u s e o f
and by c u l t i v a t i o ni nt h ea b s e n c eo ft h i sn a t u r a l l y
GABA
p e r ~ x i d e97 . ~ This hydrogen peroxide i s madeby the
b i o s y n t h e t i c enzyme which c a t a l y z e st h er a t e - l i m i t i n g r e q u i r e di n d u c e r i s dramatic. WhenGABA i s added i n
reactioninthebiosynthesisoftheprostaglandins;the l o wc o n c e n t r a t i o nt oc o m p e t e n at b a l o n el a r v a e ,
peroxide i s thenused by t h i s enzyme as a no b l i g a t o r y v i r t u a l l y all of t h el a r v a e s e t t l e , a t t a c ht on a t u r a l
or r e q u i r e dc o - s u b s t r a t ei nt h ep r o s t a g l a n d i n o r a r t i f i c i a l s u b s t r a t e sp r o v i d e d ,a n dr a p i d l y commence
biosynthetic reaction. t h e i rg e n e t i c a l l y programmed metamorphosis t ot h e
j u v e n i l e form.Following t h i s synchronousinductionof
Basedupon t h i s f i n d i n g , we developed a convenient metamorphosis, the resulting h e a l t h yj u v e n i l e s grow
andinexpensive method f o r r e l i a b l y i n d u c i n g spawning, r e l a t i v e l rya p i d l w
y i t vh e r hy i g shu r v i v a lI .n
simply by adding a small amount ofhydrogenperoxide to c o n t r a s t ,l a r v a ec u l t i v a t e di n t h e absenceof GBBA o r
t h e s e a w a t e r s u r r o u n d i n gt h ea n i m a l st ob e o t h ear d d e di n d u c e r show a v e r yl o wp e r c e n t a g o ef
r e p r o d u ~ e d . ~ r 6 , 7T h i s method conveniently and r e l i a b l y s e t t l e m e n t r, e t a r d a t i o no cr o m p l e t ef a i l u r eo f
activates the synthesis of the endogenousprostaglandin metamorphosis, and slow a n da s y n c h r o n o u jsu v e n i l e
spawning trigger, and t h e n c ien d u c etsh e animals t o development and growth, with very high m0rtality.l-3
spawn. Copious spawning ofboth males and females is T y p i c a l l y s, u r v i v a l of j u v e n i l e os n m e onth after
inducedsynchronously. The eggs and sperm obtained by metamorphosisinducedwith GABA is observed t o be i n
t h i sm e t h o dp r o v ef u l l yc o m p e t e n ft o nr o r m a l t h er a n g eo f 90-100%, w h e r e as u r v i v a l of s i b l i n g s
f e r t i l i z a t i o n and development.6*7 c u l t i v a t e d i n p a r a l l e l w i t h o u t GABA i s t y p i c a l l y I lg.1

T h i s method f o rt h ed i r e c tm o l e c u l a rc o n t r o lo v e r It shouldbenotedherethatprovisionof GABA o r

t h ep r o d u c t i o n of t h en a t u r asl p a w n i n g trigger has similar neurotransnitter-related, amino acid-derived
proved t o b er a p i d r, e l i a b l e i, n e x p e n s i v e , and widely compounds a l s o is p r o v i n gu s e f u l f o r i m p r o v i n gt h e
a p p l i c a b l e t o many s p e c i e s ( i n c l u d i n g a growing number e f f i c i e n c y o f i n d u c t i o n of s e t t l e m e n t andmetamorphosis
whichcouldnotreliablybe spawned by othermethods). of a number o of t h e vr a l u a b l em o l l u s c a ns p e c i e s as
As a result, t h i s method has beenwidelyadopted in ~e11.115
r e s e a r c h and i n d u s t r i aal p p l i c a t i o n sf,oirm p r o v e d
control of reproduction of a l a r g e number of species o f
a b a l o n e so, y s t e r ss,c a l l o p sm
, ussels, clams and o t h e r A c c e l e r a t i o n of Growth. ImDrovement
commercially valuable molluscs under cultivation in the of N u t r i t i o n a n d R e s i s t a n c e
U.S. andabroad.1 Through Genetic Engineering

c t 01 o f
7 A major r e m a i n i n gl i m i t a t i o n t o t h ee f f i c i e n c yo f
and E a r l v P o s t l a r v a l S u r v i v a l a q u a c u l t u r ef o r many animal species i s a complex of
p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y lowfocd-
Seriouseconomicandoperationalinefficiencies and c o n v e r s i o ne f f i c i e n c yw
, i t hc o n s e q u e nht i g hc o s t o
sf
h i g hl o s s e st y p i c a l l y a r e f o u n di nc o n v e n t i o n a l f e e d i n gr, e l a t i v e l y slow growth, and s e n s i t i v i t yt o
a q u a c u l t u r ei n d u s t r i e sr e s u l t i n g frompoor c o n t r o lo f trauma, stress and disease.l-3 Through t h ea b i l i t yt o
processes dependent upon l a r v a l metamorphosis.1-3 By inducethesynchronous start ofjuvenilegrowthunder
a n a l y z i n g , t h e n a t u r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s for t h e i n d u c t i o n o f d e f i n e dc o n d i t i o n s ( a s describedabove), i t h a s become
l a r v a sl e t t l e m e n t and metamorphosis i n a number of possible t o d i s s e c t h i s problem by a n a l y s i s of t h e
a b a l o n sep e c i e s , we f o u n dt h atth e s ep r o c e s s e s are hormonalrequirementsforoptimalgrowth,nutritional
s t r i c t l y d e p e n d e n t upon s p e c i f i c b i o c h e m i c a l s u b s t a n c e s e f f i c i e n c y a, n dr e s i s t a n c e o f a b a l o n e as n do t h e r
which t h el a r v a en o r m a l l yc o n t a c to n l y a t t h e surfaces molluscs icnu l t i v a t i o nP.r e l i m i n a rsyt u d i erse v e a l
of c e r t a i n a l g a e i n t h e i r c a t u r a l environment.519This t h a gt r o w t hc a nb es i g n i f i c a n t l ya c c e l e r a t e d by
p r o c e s se n s u r e st h es u b s t r a t e - s p e c i f i cr e c r u i t m e n t of p r o v i s i o no f exogeno,ys i n s u l i n and r e l a t e dp e p t i d e
a b a l o n el a r v a e t o s u i t a b l e h a b i t a t s i n c o a s t a l waters. growth hormones.1'3
I nc u l t i v a t i o nh, o w e v e r , i f t h en a t u r a l l yr e q u i r e d
i n d u c i n gm o l e c u l e s are n oat d e q u a t e l yp r o v i d e d , the These s t u d i e s , and t h o s eo of u cr o l l e a g u e s in
l a r v a e show verypoorsuccess a t metamorphosis,with E u r o p eh, a v e s t a b l i s h e tdh aat b a l o n eas n o dther
s u b s e q u e n t l yr e s u l t i n gv e r y low s u r v i v a l and poor molluscsproducetheir own i n s u l i n andgrowthhormones.
growth as j u v e n i l e st y p i c a l l yo b s e r v e di nt r a d i t i o n a l Such hormones prove t ob ee s s e n t i a tl ot h em o l l u s c s
low-technology aquaculture operations. l-33 5, f o r(:at)heef f i c i e nut p t a k e and u t i l i z a t i o n of
n u t r i e n t s from focd; ( b )t h er a p i dc o n v e r s i o no ft h e s e
Although t h en a t u r a l l yr e q u i r e d algae proved t o be n u t r i e n t si n t oe s s e n t i a l enzymes, o t h e rp r o t e i n s , and
u n s u i t a b l ef o rd i r e c ut s ei na q u a c u l t u r eo p e r a t i o n s g l y c o g e n( m e act o n s t i t u e n t s of p r i n c i p a nl u t r i t i v e ,
(specimens collected from t h ef i e l df r e q u e n t l yc a r r y f l a v o r and commercial v a l u e )(;cr)a p i gd r o w t h ; and
many small p r e d a t o r s , and t h e a l g a e grow too slowly for ( d r) e s i s t a n c et ot r a u m ad, i s e a s e and stress under
l a r g e - s c a l e g r o w t ho fp r e d a t o r - f r e es u r f a c e s ) , cultivation conditions.
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o no ft h e s e a l g a e h a s made d i r e c t
b i o c h e m i c aclo n t r ofle a s i b l e . 8 From a n a l y s e s of t h e It shouldbepossible,then,tousethese hormones
n a t u r a l l yr e q u i r e di n d u c i n gm o l e c u l e sa v a i l e b l e at the t o i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e of growth,theeconomicefficiency
a l g a l surface, a number o fs' i m p l e and i n e x p e n s i v e o f f e e d i n g , and t h e n u t r i t i o n a l andcommercialvalue of
biochemicalinducerscapable of s a t i s f y i n gt h el a r v a l t h e meat of s h e l l f i s uh n d ecr u l t i v a t i o n . It is
r e q u i r e m e n t was f o u n d . Most e f f i c i e n t l ay n d i m p o r t a ntton o t et h abt e c a u s et h e s eh o r m o n e s are
i n e x p e n s i v e l y ,t h en a t u r a lb i o c h e m i c a lr e q u i r e m e n tf o r p e p t i d e s and p r o t e i n s ,t h e y are n a t u r a l l y and r a p i d l y
i n d u c t i o n of s e t t l e m e n t andmetamorphosis i n abalones degraded by enzymes,and n o ts t o r e di n animal t i s s u e s
can he met by p r o v i d i n gt h el a r v a e i n culture w i t h as s t e r o i d s are. Thus, i nc o n t r a s t ot h es t e r o i d s ,
y - a m i n o b u t y r i ca c i d (GABA) , or similar, r e a d i l y p e p t i d eh o r m o n e cs a nb eu s e ds a f e l yt o accelerate
a v a i l a b l e amino a c i dc o n s t i t u e n t sa s s o c i a t e dw i t ht h e growth.

I010
 Houever, i n d u s t r i a la p p l i c a t i o n so ft h e s ef i n d i n g s 6 Morse, D.E., N. Hooker, and A. Morse, Proc. World
will r e q u i r ien e x p e n s i v seu p p l i e s of t h e s e hormones Maricult. SOC., 9:543-547, 1978.
from h o m o l o g o utsi s s u e(si . e .f,r o m t hme olluscs
t h e m s e l v e sB ) .e c a u sme o l l u s c s make o n m l yi n u t e 7 Morse, D.E., H. Duncan, N. Hooker, and A. Morse,
q u a n t i t i eostfh e s e hormones, t h ne e c e s s a r syu p p l i e s United Nations FA0 F i s h e r i e s B u l l e t i n , 200:291-300,
can be producedmost e f f i c i e n t l y and inexpensively by 1977.
a p p l i c a t i o n so fr e c e n t l yd e v e l o p e dg e n e t i ce n g i n e e r i n g
technology, using the cloned molluscan hormone genes as 8 Morse, D.E., N. Hooker, L. Jensen,and H. Duncan,
templates.Forthispurpose, our l a b o r a t o r yh a s begun Proc. World. Maricult. S O C . , 10:81-91, 1979.
experimental work on t h ec l o n i c g and a m p l i f i c a t i o n of
thm e o l l u s c a n( a b a l o n eg) e n e cs o d i n gf ogr r o w t h - 9 Morse, A.N.C., and D.E. Morse, J . Exp. Eiar. B i o l .
a c c e l e r a t i n g hormones. 1 S i m i l a r hormones nou a r e b e i n g Ecol. ( i np r e s s ) , 1983.
p r o d u c e fdr o m t h ce l o n e gd e n eoshf u m a nas n d
t e r r e s t r i a la n i m a l s f, o ru s ei nm e d i c i n e , 10 Morse, D . E . , i nH: a r i nBei o d e t e r i o r a t i o n ,
pharmaceutical production, and a g r i c u l t u r eT. h e r e is J. Costlow ( e d . ) , Naval I n s t i t u t eP r e s sB , ethesda
e v e r rye a s o tneox p e ctth astu c the c h n i q u essh o u l d ( i n p r e s s ) , 1983.
prove equally useful for improvements in aquaculture as
well. 11 Morse, D.E., i nB:e n t h iM
c a r i nI en v e rLt .i f e
H i s t o r i eR s esearch, J. C o s t l o w ( e d . )N, a v a l
I n s t i t u t eP r e s s ,B e t h e s d a( i np r e s s ) , 1983.
Future Prosoects

From theclonedgene-banks nou underconstruction

frommarinefoodresourcespecies, s t i l l o t h e ru s e f u l
genes and gene products can be convenientlyselected
f o tr h ea n a l y s i s and improved c o n t r o l of n u t r i t i o n ,
g r o w t hr ,e s i s t a n c er ,e p r o d u c t i o n , anddevelopment.
More a d v a n c e da p p l i c a t i o n os gf e n e t i ce n g i n e e r i n g ,
i n c l u d i r gt h see l e c t i v m
e o d i f i c a t i o na, m p l i f i c a t i o n ,
a n d r e i n t r o d u c t i o ni n t ot h e genome o sf p e c i f i cg e n e s
f o tr h ed i r e c t improvement of c u l t i v a t e ds p e c i e s of
m a r i npe l a n tasn adn i m a l s , and t h pe r o d u c t i o oc f
vaccines, soon will be u i t h irne a c hIa.nd d i t i o n ,
variousstrategiesfortheclonalpropagationofmarine
p l a n t s and a n i m a l s p r e s e n t l y a r e u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

The n e w l dy e v e l o p e bd i o c h e m i c aaln gd e n e t i c
e n g i n e e r i n gt e c h n o l o g i e ds e s c r i b e dh e r ef oirm p r o v e d
f o o dp r o d u c t i o na l s oa r eb e i n ga p p l i e dt ot h ea n a l y s i s
and c o n t r o l om f a r i n feo u l i n g ; l 0 , l t1toh e n h a n c e d
production ofmedically and other commercially valuable
compounds fron! marine organisms; and t ot h e improved
p r o c e s s i n g of Eetals, hydrocarbons, and polymers by
marine microorganisms. 11

Acknowledments

The r e s e a r c hr e p o r t e dh e r e w a s supported by t h e
U.S. Department of Commerce (NOAA) -
U n i v e r s i toyf
CaliforniaSeaGrantCollege Program (Grants R/A-43 and
R / A - 5 1 )t ,h e U.S. Navy O f f i coeN f a v aRl e s e a r c h
( C o n t r a c t #N00014-80-C-0310), and c o n t r i b u t i o nfsr o m
C h e v r oU n . S . A .I,n ca. n tdh A
e t l a n t iR
c ichfield
Foundation.

References

Morse, D.E., i n : Developments i n Aquaculture and

F i s h e r i eSs cience, D. Morse, K. Chew and R. Mann
( e d s . ) ,E l s e v i e r , N.Y. ( i np r e s s ) , 1983.

Morse, D.E., Proc. Symp. Coastal Resource Mgmt.,

C a l i fC. o a s t aCl o n m i s s S
. ,a c r a m e n t(oi n press),
1983.
Hooker, N . , and D.E. Morse, in: Invert.
Aquacult.
i nt h e U.S., E. Broun and J. E u n e(re d s . ) , AVI
P u b l i s h i n g Co., Ma
i
m i ( i n p r e s s ) , 1983.

Morse, D.E., H. Duncan, N. Hooker, and A. Morse,

Science,196:298-300,1977.

Morse, D.E., N. Hooker, H. Duncan, and L. Jensen,

Science,204:407-410,1979.