Unit 1

Essential Knowledge
I. Animal Behavior
A. Explain how organisms respond to changes in their external environment.
Animals respond to stimulus (info about the environment that a sensory receptor has detected).
Different species of an animal can respond to different stimuli because of crossbreeding,
genetics, enzymes, and hormones. Plants respond to changes by chemical changes, while animals
respond by movement (hibernation/migration). Shivering and sweating are also responses to
changes in environment.
B. Timing and coordination of physiological events are essential to the correct functioning of
organisms.
Timing mechanisms include sleeping at night and waking up during the day, synchronized
blooming cycles and etc. These actions directly relates to the stimuli received from the
environment. Plants responding to environmental stimuli is photoperiodism. The environmental
stimulus a plant uses to detect the time of the year is the photoperiod. This photoperiod means
the relative lengths of day and night. Phototropism is the response to light, and photoperiodism is
the response to change in length of the night. In animals, pheromones are chemical cues that are
used to communicate. Also, certain displays communicate reproduction. In fungi and bacteria,
cells communicate by quorum sensing (using signals to enable a single cell to sense cell density)
and also fruiting bodies.
C. Explain why timing and coordination or behavior are regulated by various mechanisms and
why they are important in natural selection.
Innate behaviors are behaviors that are inherited. Learning occurs through interactions with the
environment and other organisms. Responses to information and communication of information
are vital to natural selection. Behaviors in animals are triggered by environmental cues and are
vital to reproduction, natural selection and survival (hibernation, migration, courtship).
Cooperative behavior within or between populations contributes to the survival of the
populations.
D. Explain how cell communication processes share common features. Communication involves
transduction of stimulatory or inhibitory signals from other cells, organisms or the environment.
Correct signal transduction processes are under strong selective pressure. In single cell
organisms, quorum sensing is an example of this. In multicellular organisms, signal transduction
pathways coordinate the activities within individual cells that support the organism as a whole.
II. Cells
A. Explain how eukaryotic cells maintain internal membranes that split the cell up into
specialized regions.
Internal membranes create compartments that isolate competing chemical reactions, hold
enzymes in the correct sequence, and determine structure/function. Prokaryotes do not have
nuclei or membrane-bound organelles, but have vesicles and an outer membrane. Eukaryotic
cells have nuclei, organelles, and cytoskeleton. They are more complex and grow larger. Inside
the eukaryotic cells, there are several different organelles that carry out a specific function. The
mitochondria makes ATP by sugar breakdown. Chloroplasts make sugars only in plants. The
nucleus is protecting and also controls the DNA. Ribosomes are responsible for assembling
polypeptide chains. The Golgi body modifies new polypeptide chains and also sorts and ships
proteins and lipids. The endoplasmic reticulum, or ER, is an extension of the nuclear envelope
(two lipid bilayers folded together to form the membrane of a nucleus). It forms a continuous
compartment that folds over and over into flattened sacs and tubes. The cell membrane binds
around eukaryotic cells and is selectively permeable. The cell wall surrounds the plasma
membrane of nearly all prokaryotes. It is permeable and consists mostly of peptidoglycan.
Lysosome acts as the intracellular digestion and contains powerful digestive enzymes. And
finally, vacuoles are the storage of the cell, where the dispose of waste.
B. Explain the structure and function of subcellular components, their actions, and essential
cellular processes.
ER occurs in two forms: smooth and rough. Rough endoplasmic reticulum functions to
compartmentalize the cell, serves as mechanical support, provides site-specific protein synthesis
with membrane-bound ribosomes and plays a role in intracellular transport. In most cases,
smooth ER synthesizes lipids. Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed sacs that contain hydrolytic
enzymes, which are important in intracellular digestion, the recycling of a cells organic
materials and programmed cell death. A vacuole is a membrane-bound sac that plays roles in
intracellular digestion and the release of cellular waste products. In plants, a large vacuole serves
many functions, from storage of pigments or poisonous substances to a role in cell growth. In
addition, a large central vacuole allows for a large surface area to volume ratio.

III. The Internal Environment

A. Explain how all living systems require a constant input of energy.
Life requires a highly ordered system. Order is maintained by constant free energy input into the
system. Loss of order or free energy flow results in death. Increased disorder and entropy are
offset by biological processes that maintain or increase order. Living systems do not violate the
second law of thermodynamics, which states that entropy increases over time. Order is
maintained by coupling cellular processes that increase entropy (and so have negative changes in
free energy) with those that decrease entropy (and so have positive changes in free energy).
Energy input must exceed free energy lost to entropy to maintain order and power cellular
processes. Energetically favorable exergonic reactions (ATP --> ADP), that have a negative
change in free energy can be used to maintain a positive free energy change. Energy-related
pathways in biological systems are sequential and may be entered at multiple points in the
pathway (i.e. Krebs cycle, glycolysis). Organisms use free energy to maintain organization, grow
and reproduce. They use various strategies for body temperature and metabolism. Reproduction
requires free energy beyond that used for growth. The smaller the organisms, the higher the
metabolic rate. Changes in free energy availability can change population size, disruptions to
ecosystem
B. Organisms must exchange matter with the environment to grow, reproduce, and maintain
organization.
Molecules and atoms from the environment are necessary to build new molecules. Carbon moves
from the environment to organisms to build carbohydrate, proteins, lipids or nucleic acids.
Carbon is used in storage compounds and cell formation in all organisms. Nitrogen moves from
the environment to organisms where it is used in building proteins and nucleic acids. Phosphorus
moves from the environment to organisms where it is used in nucleic acids and certain lipids.
Living systems depend on properties of water (polarity and hydrogen bonding). Cohesion is
when molecules resist separating from one another. Water also absorbs more heat before
becoming hotter. The temperature of water stays stable. Surface area-to-volume ratios affect a
biological system's ability to obtain necessary resources or eliminate waste products. As cells
increase in volume, the relative surface area decreases and demand for material resources
increases; more cellular structures are necessary to exchange materials and energy with the
environment.
C. Know why cell membranes are selectively permeable to the internal environment because of
their structure.
Selective permeability is a feature or the membrane structure (fluid mosaic model). Cell
membranes consist of phospholipid molecules, embedded proteins, cholesterol, glycoproteins
and glycolipids. Phospholipids give the membrane hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. The
hydrophilic phosphate portions of the phospholipids are oriented toward the aqueous external or
internal environments, while the hydrophobic fatty acid portions face each other within the
interior of the membrane. Embedded proteins can be hydrophilic, with charged and polar side
groups, or hydrophobic, with nonpolar side groups. Small, uncharged polar molecules and small
nonpolar molecules freely pass across the membrane. Hydrophilic substances such as large polar
molecules and ions move across the membrane through embedded channel and transport
proteins. Water moves across membranes and through channel proteins. Cell walls provide a
structural boundary, as well as a permeability barrier from some. Plant cell walls are made of
cellulose and are external to the cell membrane.
D. Explain how growth and dynamic homeostasis are maintained by the constant movement of
molecules across membranes.
Passive transport does not require the input of metabolic energy; molecules high concentration to
low concentration. Membrane proteins play a role in facilitated diffusion of charged and polar
molecules through a membrane (sodium/potassium pumps). External environments can be
hypotonic, hypertonic or isotonic to internal environments of cells. Activity transport requires
free energy to move molecules from regions of low concentration to regions of high
concentration. Active transport is a process where free energy (ATP) is used by proteins
embedded in the membrane to "move" molecules /ions across the membrane and to establish and
maintain concentration gradients. Membrane proteins are necessary for active transport.

IV. Homeostasis
1. Explain how organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and
respond to external changes.
All living organisms try to maintain homeostasis (the process by which living material seeks to
maintain constant conditions). An organism send signals known as feedback to signal regulatory
molecules as to current state of the organism. All homeostatic mechanisms use negative feedback
to maintain balance. Negative feedback means that whenever a change occurs in a system, this
automatically causes a corrective mechanism to start, which reverses the original change and
brings the system back towards the set point. So negative feedback works to bring stabilization
so that levels would come back to normal or the set point. For example, whenever a heating
system gets too hot, the heating switches off, and when the heating system gets too cold, the
heating switches on again trying to maintain that optimal temperature of the house. Blood sugar
regulation is another everyday example that links negative feedback mechanism to homeostasis.
The pancreas is an endocrine gland which produces hormones which regulate blood glucose
(sugar) levels. An increase in blood sugar level triggers the release of the hormone insulin by the
pancreas. If the blood sugar level is too low, the pancreas releases less of the insulin to regulate
the sugar level.
2. Homeostatic mechanisms reflect both common ancestry and divergence due to adaptation in
different environments.
Organisms have various mechanisms for obtaining nutrients and eliminating wastes. Some
examples of this are digestive mechanisms in animals such as food vacuoles, gastrovascular
cavities, and digestive systems, as well as nitrogenous waste production and elimination in
aquatic and terrestrial animals. Homeostatic control systems in species of microbes, plants and
animals support common ancestry. Examples of these are excretory systems in flatworms,
earthworms and vertebrates, and also circulatory systems in fish, amphibians and mammals.
V. The Nervous System
1. Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments (refer to
Homeostasis)
2. Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance
via chemical signaling.
Cells communicate by cell-to-cell. Cells communicate over short distances by using local
regulators that target cells in the vicinity of the emitting cell. Examples include neurotransmitters
and quorum sensing in bacteria. Signals released by one cell can travel long distances to target
cells of another cell. Endocrine signals are produced by endocrine cells that release signaling
molecules, which are specific and can travel long distances through the blood to reach all parts of
the body. Examples include insulin, human growth hormone, estrogen, etc. Cell communication
between cells allow the body to do certain functions. Cell communication happens by cells
secreting chemical signaling by releasing chemical messages, which are sent from one cell to the
targeted cell. Cells have variety of pathways of sending these chemicals. It depends on whether
the communication is a local signaling or a long distance signaling.
3. Explain how animals have nervous systems that detect external and internal signals, transmit
and integrate information, and produce responses.
The neuron is the basic structure of the nervous system that reflects function. A typical neuron
has a cell body, axon and dendrites. Many axons have a myelin sheath that acts as an electrical
insulator. The structure of the neuron allows for the detection, generation, transmission and
integration of signal information. Schwann cells, which form the myelin sheath, are separated by
gaps of unsheathed axon over which the impulse travels as the signal propagates along the
neuron. Action potentials propagate impulses along neurons. Membranes of neurons are
polarized by the establishment of electrical potentials across the membranes. In response to a
stimulus, Na+ and K+ gated channels sequentially open and cause the membrane to become
locally depolarized. Na+/K+ pumps, powered by ATP, work to maintain membrane potential.
Transmission of information between neurons occurs across synapses. In most animals,
transmission across synapses involves chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. Her are a
few examples: Acetylcholine, Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, Dopamine, Serotonin, and GABA.
4. Organisms exhibit complex properties due to interactions between their constituent parts.
Interactions and coordination between organs provide essential biological activities. Examples
include: stomach and small intestines, and the kidney and bladder.
5. Cooperative interactions within organisms promote efficiency in the use of energy and matter.
Organisms have areas or compartments that perform a subset of functions related to energy and
matter, and these parts contribute to the whole. At the cellular level, the plasma membrane,
cytoplasm and, for eukaryotes, the organelles contribute to the overall specialization and
functioning of the cell. Within multicellular organisms, specialization of organs contributes to the
overall functioning of the organism. Examples include digestion of food and excretion of wastes.
VI. Endocrine System
1. Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to
external environmental changes (refer to Homeostasis)
2. Cells communicate with each other through direct contact with other cells or from a distance
via chemical signaling (refer to Nervous System)
3. Explain how cells communicate by generating, transmitting and receiving chemical signals.
For cells to function in a biological system, they must communicate with other cells and respond
to their external environment. In multicellular organisms, cell-to-cell and environment-to-cell
chemical signaling pathways direct processes (cell and organ differentiation to whole organism
physiological responses behaviors). Chemical signals allow cells to communicate without
physical contact. The distance between the signal generating cell and the responding cell can be
small or large. In this type of signaling pathway, there is often a gradient response, and threshold
concentrations are required to trigger the communication pathway. Chemical signaling pathways
in cells are determined by the properties of the molecules, the concentrations of signal and
receptor molecules, and the fit between signal and receptor. At the cellular level, the receptor is a
protein with specificity for the signal molecule. The receptor protein often is the initiation point
for a signal cascade that ultimately results in a change in gene expression, protein activity, or
physiological state of the cell or organism, including cell. This is an important topic to
understand. An understanding of the human endocrine system, for example, allowed the
development of birth control methods, as well as medicines that control depression, blood
pressure and metabolism.
4. Changes in signal transduction pathways can alter cellular response.
Conditions where signal transduction is blocked or defective can be harmful, preventative or
prophylactic. This can result in many different things (ie. diabetes, heart disease, neurological
disease). Another example is drugs (Hypertensives, Anesthetics, Antihistamines and Birth
Control Drugs).
5. Organisms exhibit complex properties due to interactions between their constituent parts (refer
to Nervous System)

VII. Enzymes
1. The subcomponents of biological molecules and their sequence determine the properties of
that molecule.
Polymers can be defined as molecules made up of two or more monomers. These polymers play
indispensible functions in most organisms. Lipids play vital roles. The hydrophobic properties of
lipids stem from the hydrocarbon bonds, which are nonpolar due to the similar electronegativity
between hydrogen and carbon. The insolubility of fats is a factor that plays valuable roles in the
body, for example, in building cell membranes. Directionality is involved when considering
phospholipid bilayers. Phospholipids contain hydrophobic tails and a hydrophilic head, resulting
in an arrangement of the hydrophilic heads turning outwards to shield the hydrocarbon tails
from water. Sugars serve a variety of purposes. One of the most important molecules in the body,
ATP is a cornerstone in in all biological functions. The three phosphate groups bonded to the
nitrogenous base are negatively charged. Their close proximity makes ATP highly unstable,
contributing to the high level of energy release. Glucose has an alpha form and a beta form
(vertical orientation of the hydroxyl groups). Glucose with both hydroxyl groups pointed
downwards bond together to form starch, whereas glucose with hydroxyls pointed in opposite
directions bond together to form cellulose. When cellulose molecules are lined up side by side,
they are always upside down in regards to one another, giving cellulose its stiff properties that
allow it to be used in cell walls. Proteins demonstrate the linkage between sequence and
structure. The primary structure affects the way R-groups bond in the tertiary structure. Because
of their unique shapes, proteins serve a broad range of functions in the body. Enzymes catalyze
specific reactions. Enzymatic reactions are wholly dependent on form. Receptor proteins detect
signals from neuron to neuron. Denaturation occurs when physical or chemical changes occur in
a proteins environment, causing it to change shape and no longer fulfill its original duties. As
can be seen, structure is of paramount importance in maintaining life itself. Nucleic acids makes
reproduction and all life possible. In DNA, sequence is responsible for encoding the genetic
information needed. When mutations occur and the sequence is disrupted, genetic diseases such
as sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, and hemophilia can occur. Nucleic acids, the basic building
blocks of life, have unique properties that rely on special sequences and directionality. Receptors,
much like enzymes, have a specific structure that allows for only certain substances to fit. Drugs
have similar chemical structures to natural neurotransmitters. These drugs trigger the reward
system and cause an excessive amount of dopamine to be released.
2. Variation in molecular units provides cells with a wider range of functions.
Variations within molecular classes provide cells and organisms with a wider range of functions.
3. Cell communication processes share common features that reflect a shared evolutionary
history (refer to Animal Behavior)

Labs/Activities
I. Pillbug Lab
II. Standard Deviation/Chi-square
III. Toothpickase
IV. Enzyme Lab
V. Cell Type Comparison Chart
VI. Gel Cube Lab
VII. Secondary Messengers and Hormone Project
VIII. Dialysis Tube/Veggie Core Lab

Important Processes/Knowledge
I. Different types of animal behaviors
II. Chi-squared and standard deviation
III. Types and functions of macromolecules
IV. Enzyme function and process
V. Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic
VI. Essential organelles
VII. SA:Vol Ratio
VIII. Cell membranes (chapter 5)
IX. Passive and active transport
X. Endocrine function
XI. Osmosis and water potential
XII. Excretory function
XIII. Neural signals and neurotransmitters