The

Structure
Of
Singin
 g CHAPTER I

The Coordinated Vocal Onset

and Release
Establishing Dynamic Muscle Equilibrium Through
Onset and Release

The way a singer initiates vocal sound is crucial to the subsequent

phrase. A good beginning to the singing tone is of prime considera t i o n
regardless of the achievement level of the singer. Whether one has been
an established performer for years or is about to begin vocal study, every
singer should begin the daily vocalizing session with exercises in onset
and release. Only if the onset of each phrase demonstrates the principle
of nonstatic (that is, dynamic) laryngeal muscle balance and elasticity is
the singer assured of freedom. Briess (1964, p. 259) has termed such
flexible muscle balance in phonation dynamic equilibrium In the absence of
such dynamic, adjustable coordination, hyperfunction (excessive activity)
characterizes the action of some muscle or muscle group, with
corresponding hypofunction (deficient activity) occurring in some other
muscle or muscles. In either case, muscle equilibrium will have been
replaced by muscle rigidity. (See Figure 1.1 for positions of the vocal folds
during quiet breathing, deep inhalation, normal phonation, one form of
whispering, and falsetto. For a description of laryngeal structure and
function, see Appendix I.)

THE VARIETIES OF ONSET

There are three types of vocal onset that result from differences in
vocal-fold positioning (Luchsinger and Arnold, 1965, pp. 84-85).
Although described by various terms, they are best designated as (1)
the soft onset; (2) the hard attack; and (3) the balanced onset. (The
term attack is often used synonymously with onset. Because of the
connotations of the word attack, it may best be used to describe only
the hard attack.)

Techniques of singing bring attention, directly or indirectly, to the

position the vocal folds assume before onset of sound. Such
prephonatory positioning is supported by the findings of electromyog-
raphy (EMG), the study of electrical activity in muscle. Faaborg-
Anderson (1964, p. 115) reports:

The action-potential amplitude rises before phonation, both

in the crico-thyroid and in the vocal muscles. This means that
the intrinsic laryngeal muscles assume the position and
degree of tension necessary for production of a tone of a
certain pitch even before actual phonation.

Wyke (1974, p. 296) reviews some of the conclusions based on

electromyographic studies of laryngeal neuromuscular behavior in
both speech and singing just before the onset of phonation and during
subsequent utterances:
 Electromyographic studies of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles
of normal subjects during phonation (including singing) by
numbers of workers have shown . . . that motor unit activity
increases briefly but substantially in all the vocal fold
adductor muscles just prior to each phonemic utterance
(accompanied by an equally brief decrease in the activity of
the abductor posterior cricoarytenoid muscles) with an
interval that varies (in different individuals and circum-
stances of utterance) from 50 to 500 msec. Other aerody-
namic studies of subjects speaking and singing . . . have
shown that the expiratory airflow commences, and that the
subglottic air pressure begins to rise, also just prior to each
audible utterancebut some 50-100 msec after the pre-
phonatory changes in laryngeal muscular activity described
[here] have commenced.

Keeping in mind the activity of the muscles of the larynx before

and after onset, we will now view several forms of initial phonation
with regard to their ability to induce efficient function (dynamic
muscle equilibrium) in singing.

The Hard Attack

Glottal attack, glottal catch, glottal click, glottal plosive, stroke of the
glottis, coup de glotte, colpo di glottide (also colpo della glottide),
Glotisschlag, Knacklaut, Sprengeinsatz, are terms used to describe the
resultant vocal sound when the vocal folds are adducted
(approximated) prior to phonation. Electromyography (EMG) shows
that in the glottal attack, activity begins early in the vocal muscles
and is

Significantly greater than in the two other forms of onset. Because the
glottis firmly closes before phonation in the hard attack, there is a greater
degree of pressure below the folds. When phonation begins, the
suddenness of the release of this pressure produces the auidible catch, the
glottal plosive, which is represented by the phonetic symbol [?].
(International Phonetic Alphabet symbols are used in this book. Those
symbols are illustrated in Appendix VI.)

The Soft Onset

A singer who consciously feels the flow of breath before vocal sound, is
making use of the aspirated onset. Such a sound is represented by the
symbol [h]. When this sound is prolonged, the vocal folds are adducted to
the paramedian line without firm closure of the glottis (see Figure 1.1 d.)
Luchsinger and Arnold (1965, p. 85) inform that, in the breathy onset,

Laryngoscopy reveals an open triangle with the base at the

posterior commissure. This intercartilaginous triangle is also
known as the whispering triangle. The audible impression is that
of a soft blowing sound, which is transcribed as the sound [h], A
fraction of a second following the aspirate noise the vocal cords
begin gradually to vibrate, until the full tone of phonation is heard.
This speech sound is not customary in Romance languages.

Studies in progress at the University of Florida, Gainesville, indicate

that varying glottal configurations, in addition to the "whispering triangle,
may be present in whispering. In some whispering, a lower sound pressure
level prevails, with a higher rate of breath flow. Just as the hard attack
produces conditions favorable to hyperfunction on the part of certain
participating muscles, so the soft onset may result in hypofunction in the
same muscle group.

3
 Neither the hard attack nor the soft onset may be endorsed as
pedagogical practices for standard use. They result from two opposing
errors in phonation, and may be described simplistically as the "grunt and
the whisper.

When an adult engages in heavy physical activity such as lifting,

pulling, or shoving, or even in throwing the arms backward from the torso
in an attempt to swing the hands behind the back, an involuntary grunting
noise results. One grunts because glottal closure has been extreme and the
sudden release of pressure becomes audible with the expulsion of air. The
grunt, introduced into phonation, represents reversion to primordial action
in laryngeal function (Luchsinger and Arnold, 1965, pp. 118 -119).

It can be easily demonstrated that one can go gradually from

whispering to speech, controlling the degree of glottal closure. One can
whisper softly; one can use a loud stage whisper; one can speak lazily with
just sufficient breath mixture in the tone to make speech audible; one can
eliminate breath almost entirely, speaking cleanly and firmly. Or one could
go a step further and indulge in pressed phonation.

The Balanced Onset (Dynamic Muscle Equilibrium)

If a singer or speaker avoids both the whisper posture and exaggerated
vocal-fold closure (the grunt posture), a more balanced laryngeal action is
present throughout the phrase. "Prephonatory tuning of the instrument
takes place, and this "tuning occurs with great rapidity throughout the
changing utterances of spoken or sung phonation. It occurs not only during
vocal onset, but also during continuous speech or song. According to Wyke
(1974, p. 297), "this prephonatory tuning of the laryngeal musculature ... is
the principal voluntary contribution to the control of the larynx during
speech and singing, . . Wyke (1974, p. 300) further points out that

this prephonatory tuning process involves not only the intrinsic

laryngeal muscles, but also the intercostal and abdominal muscles
and the external laryngeal muscles ... as well as the middle ear ...
and the oropharyngeal musculature ... and is set in train
immediately after each voluntary inter-phrase inspiration.

Although Wykes comments refer not only to the vocal onset but to
subsequent utterances within a phrase, "prephonatory tuning is present
in the good onset for singing. Such an onset is accomplished by avoiding
either the grunt or the whisper. Glottal closure is modified in the balanced
onset by a narrow slit before phonation. This "even onset is
physiologically midway between the hard attack and the soft onset.
Without this narrow slit in the glottis just before phonation, the buildup of
subglottic pressure results in the glottal plosive, a sound similar to a light
cough.

EXERCISES FOR ACHIEVING THE BALANCED ONSET

The desirable condition of balanced muscle equilibrium can be established
through the use of several simple exercises.

EXERCISE 1.1

REPEAT THE SPOKEN SEQUENCE "HA, HA, HA, HA, HA" SEVERAL TIMES,

SLOWLY AND DELIBERATELY AS A PHRASE UNIT, LINGERING OVER THE INITIAL ASPIRATED
[h] OF EACH SYLLABLE. IT IS POSSIBLE TO SENSE WHEN BREATH PASSING OVER THE
VOCAL FOLDS IS FOLLOWED BY SOUND THAT RESULTS FROM VOCAL-FOLD
APPROXIMATION (THAT IS, WHEN ACTUAL TONE COMMENCES).

EXERCISE 1.2

REPEAT THE SPOKEN SEQUENCE "UH, UH, UH, UH, UH" SEVERAL TIMES,

SLOWLY AND DELIBERATELY AS A PHRASE UNIT, LINGERING OVER THE INITIAL GLOTTAL
PLOSIVE [?]. ONE CAN SENSE THE MOMENT AT WHICH THE GLOTTIS HAS BEEN
SUFFICIENTLY RELEASED TO PRODUCE PHONATION.

EXERCISE 1.3

REPEAT THE SPOKEN SEQUENCE AH, AH, AH, AH, AH" SEVERAL TIMES,

SLOWLY AND DELIBERATELY AS A PHRASE UNIT, IMAGINING A BRIEF [h]

BEFORE EACH SYLLABLE BUT NOT ALLOWING IT TO TAKE ON AUDIBILITY.

STRIVE FOR THE SUBJECTIVE FEELING THAT WITH THE BEGINNING OF THE PHRASE THE
PROCESS OF INHALATION HAS NOT BEEN ALTERED; THERE

SHOULD BE NO SENSATION OF BREATH EXPULSION (ALTHOUGH, OF

COURSE, AIRFLOW COMMENCES), AND NO SENSATION BEFORE TONE.

IF PREPHONATORY TUNING IS EXACT (THE RESULT OF DYNAMIC MUSCLE

EQUILIBRIUM), THE CORRECT ONSET WILL BE EXPERIENCED. AWARENESS OF THE
MOMENT OF ONSET CAN BE EXPECTED, BUT THE ONSET DOES NOT RESEMBLE THE
GLOTTAL CLICK OF THE HARD ATTACK.

NO VESTIGE OF BREATHINESS OR OF A VOCAL SCRAPE SHOULD BE HEARD.

THERE IS A DISTINCT BEGINNING TO THE TONE, BUT ALL SHOCK IS AVOIDED. TONE CAN
BE AS LOUD OR AS SOFT AT ITS INCEPTION AS AT ITS CONCLUSION.

In singing, the coordinated onset occurs only when the glottis has
been fully opened with the preceding inhalation. This full abduction of the
vocal folds (see Figure 1.1b) is followed by clean and prerise closure (see
Figure 1.1c, and 1.2). A partially opened glotlis, as in normal as opposed to
deep breathing, does not produce the subsequent clean onset demanded
for skillful singing. The onset vocalises drill the quick juxtaposition of the
fully opened and the efficiently closed glottis, in immediate response to
frequency, vowel, and amplitude (see Figure 1.2).

In this regulated onset lies the germ of all good vocalism. Preparatory to
the onset of phonation there must be proper inhalation

5
 Margo epiglottidi Plica
venlricularis Tuberculum
,Plica vocal is Plica ary-epiglollica cuneiforme Tuberculum
corniculalum
Processus voc, carili, aryl., Rimaglolt. (Pars
intercarlilag.)

Plica (Incisura) irlerarytaen

Conus elast., Rima

Facies articul. arytaenoidea cartil.
gioii Processus muscul. carl,
crii. Apex cartil. cric.
arytaen.

Conus el.. Lig. vocale. Rima

glollidis

Crista arcuala. Fovea Iriangul. Cornu sup. c.

Cartlago
Plica
arytaenaoide

Lig. cricothyreoid. a medium

Rima gioii.
(Pars intermembran.
)film votolH, Hinid
(/toll (/'ft
Iniiemtmliran,)
HIIIHI ululi (fill* inli'H uililiiii )
Apex carl,
aryl l ovaa Ir
langui.
Fovea
oblonga

Figure 1.1. The vocal folds viewed by the laryngeal mirror, with a schematic
design beneath, in (a) quiet breathing, (b) deep inhalation, (c) normal phonation,
(d) one form of whispering, and (e) falsetto. (From Eduard Pernkopf, Atlas der
topographischen und angewandten Anatomie des Menschens, ed. by Helmut
Ferner, Vol. 1, 1963. Munich: Urban & Schwarzenberg. By permission.)

then appropriate vocal-fold positioning (not achieved through conscious

effort or laryngeal sensation); breath activates vocal-fold vibration,
which remains relatively constant throughout the duration of the
phrase to be sung; the release terminates the sound as cleanly as it
began; the cycle then resumes. (The release is the new breath.
)

Nothing in technical accomplishment in singing is more beneficial

to the vocal instrument than the proper positioning of the vocal folds
for the clean onset. Such prephonatory tuning of the laryngeal muscles
in combination with the exact degree of subglottic pressure and airflow
provides the basis for good singing.

Should the singer then be permitted only the use of the imaginary
[h], always avoiding the audible [h] and the plosive p] as well? The
answer in both cases is probably negative. Although one of the three
forms of onset is physiologically most efficient (the balanced onset)
and aesthetically pleasing to most, but not all, listeners, pedagogical
benefits may derive from the other two.

USES OF THE ASPIRATED ONSET

Especially among the athletically young there is a tendency toward a
higher rate of muscle activity in the vocal onset than among more
phlegmatic persons, whose psychological and physiological mainsprings
appear less tightly wound. The aggressive personality, whose active
approach to life makes little use of introspection and repose, will tend
to display a greater degree of laryngeal tension and of sub-glottic
pressure than the less visceral personality. Physical aggressiveness in
singing is often an outward expression of a particular category of
human spirit. Especially among the young, it can also be learned in
imitation of some mature artist, in which case aggressive singing may
emerge from an otherwise docile personality

Figure 1.2. Laryngoscopic view for (a) normal phonation and (b) deep inspiration.
(From Vocal Fold Physiology, ed, by Kenneth N, Stevens and Minoru Hirano, 1981.
a
Tokyo: Tokyo University Press, Bv permission.) b
.

Whatever the cause, too much tension in vocal-fold positioning

prior to and during phonation is a common error among singers at all
levels of technical advancement. When the grunt, the initial bite into
the tone, or the scraped attack make habitual appearances, the most
productive antidote is the aspirated onset. By its very fault of
excessive airflow and reduced pressure, the aspirated onset may be
exactly what is temporarily needed to combat tense vocal production.
When a singer begins a phrase with a pressed attack, there will be
some retention of that laryngeal function throughout the remainder of
the phrase. The wisest move, then, is to make use of the short
aspirated onset over a period of time.

USES OF THE GLOTTAL ATTACK

Human personality is delightfully diverse, and vocal instruments mirror

that diversity. The teacher may have to instruct the raw, overly
energized young male voice (and occasionally the female) as well as
the ectomorphic male and the female who, either through genes and
chromosomes or as a result of cultural conditioning, remains physically
somewhat uninvolved during singing. In such cases, breathiness and
physical detachment characterize the vocal sound. It may then be wise
to introduce the slight glottal attack so that excess breath is
eliminated. It surely need not be urged that no exaggeration of glottal
closure should ever be requested. Overcorrection is not in order.

PHYSIOLOGICAL BENEFITS OF THE COORDINATED

ONSET

The coordinated onset, which results from dynamic equilibrium of the

participating musculature and of subglottic pressure, produces healthy
vocalism. The electromyographic (EMG) techniques developed in 1950
at the Phonetic Institute of Zurich (Switzerland) University, make clear
that the balanced onset avoids the irregular wave patterns associated
with the breathy onset and is free of the erratic initial waves that
indicate the explosive character of the hard attack (Luchsinger and
Arnold 1965, p. 86). Similar evidence exists for the several types of
vocal release.
 ONSET VOCALISES WHICH INDUCE DYNAMIC
EQUILIBRIUM

The pitch at which any group of exercises in this book should be

sung is determined by the vocal category and by the registration
events of the individual instrument. For exercises in Groups 1 and 2
In this chapter, the following pitch ranges generally should be kept
in mind1:

Transposition of the vocalises, as necessary, is assumed. They should

be sung in a number of keys. Strict rhythmic adherence is important,
and the final note must be given full rhythmic value.

At each onset, the singer should produce a vibrant tone,

avoiding any straight quality, maintaining vibrancy throughout the
duration of the pitch, no matter how brief it may be (see Chapter 14).
The release must be sudden and clean.

All pitch indications, other than those quoted from other sources, are based on the
system devised by the Acoustical Society of America, endorsed by the U.S.A.
Standards Association, in which middle C is represented as C4, Most international
acoushe research relies on this system for pitch designation, The pitch
designations beneath the U.S.A. Standards Association system indicate the
Helmholtz system, which for many years enjoyed international use, in which
middle C Is represented by c'.
Breath renewal is indicated by a comma ( ') in all of the exercises.

The momentary silence between each release and new onset

should be absolute. We are as interested in the silence as in the sound.
Any noise resulting from the intake of breath between syllables
indicates improper involvement of either the vocal folds or other parts
of the vocal tract. (For example, to portray fear on the stage, one
constricts the vocal tract upon inhalation, creating resistance to the
inspired air. Inspiratory phonation as found in some non-Western
languages and as an occasional expressive device in the Teutonic
languages and in French, no matter how slight, should be avoided by
the singer.)

A common error in executing any onset exercise is the tendency to

gradually draw inward the epigastric-umbilical region (that area
between the sternum and the navel) with each rhythmic impulse or
detached syllable. (For imaginary surface lines indicating areas of the
torso and abdomen, see Figure 1.3)

Right vertical plane Left vertical plane

Figure 1.3. Planes of subdivision of the abdomen proper, with the names of the
nine abdominal regions. (From Cunninghams Manual of Practical Anatomy,
14th ed., ed. by G. J. Romanes, Vol. 2, 1967. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
By permission.)