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The prevention of emotional and

behavioural difficulties in schools:
Teachers suggestions
Maria Poulou
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Demokriteio University of Thrace, Greece

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 Educational Psychology in Practice,
Vol. 21, No. 1, March 2005, pp. 3752

The Prevention of Emotional and

Behavioural Difficulties in Schools:
Teachers suggestions
Maria Poulou*
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Demokriteio University of Thrace, Greece

Taylor and Francis Ltd
CEPP103501.sgm

(Submitted May 2003; accepted after revision October 2004)

10MariaPoulou
PO
00000March
Educational 6912
2005
10.1080/02667360500035181
0266-7363
Original
Association
2005
21 Box 400
Article 310 Agia
(print)/1469-5839
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Educational BarbaraAthensGreecemariapoulou@yahoo.com
in Practice
Psychologists
(online)

Teachers are highly concerned about students with Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties
(EBD). Lately, much emphasis has been given to the field of prevention in schools, through the
Competence-Enhancement Perspective. Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Social and Emotional
Learning (SEL) provide the necessary skills to be acquired by students. The current study
explored Greek in-service teachers perceptions of the most important cognitive, emotional and
social skills students should possess, in order to prevent the occurrence of EBD. It was found that
teachers emphasised the importance of emotional skills. The study acknowledges teachers signifi-
cant role in childrens social and emotional learning and advocates their involvement in the
design of skills programmes for EBD pupils.

Introduction
Internationally teachers concerns about their students behaviour has been an area
of continuing research interest for the past century. An exploration of these concerns
reveals that teachers are highly concerned about pupils who present Emotional and
Behavioural Difficulties (EBD) (Department of Education and Science and the
Welsh Office, 1989; Gesten, Cowen, DeStefano, & Gallager., 1978; Merrett &
Wheldall, 1984, 1987). Dealing with behaviour management in the classroom can
be frustrating and takes a great proportion of teachers time (Gray, Miller & Noakes,
1996; Gray & Richer, 1995; Swift & Spivack, 1976). On the other hand, it has been
estimated that one in six students presents with behavioural problems (Esser,
Schmidt, & Woerner, 1990; Offord, Boyle, & Racine, 1991). Childrens behavioural

*PO Box 400 69, 12 310 Agia Barbara, Athens, Greece. Email: mariapoulou@yahoo.com

ISSN 0266-7363 (print)/ISSN 1469-5839 (online)/05/01003716

2005 Association of Educational Psychologists
DOI 10.1080/02667360500035181
 38 M. Poulou

problems tend to be associated with other aspects of social adjustment such as poor
academic performance (Hinshaw, 1992), early drop-out (Parker & Asher, 1987),
drug abuse (Farrington, 1991), juvenile criminality (Zigler, Tausser, & Black, 1992)
or later psychopathology (Rutter & Giller, 1983). There are increasing numbers of
students who find it difficult to adjust to school demands, rebel at adult authority,
and who are confused and easily distracted. The incidence of violent and assaultive
behaviour in school settings is continuously growing (Croll & Moses, 1985; Gray &
Richer, 1995; Laing & Chazan, 1987; Lawrence & Steed, 1986; Rutter, Tizard, &
Whitmore, 1970).
As a consequence of the above, the need to find effective ways of promoting
childrens welfare on the one hand, and helping teachers to deal with their students
emotional and behavioural difficulties on the other, became urgent and compelling.
An immediate response to this was the development of studies on teachers coping
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strategies and methods of intervention with students with emotional and behavioural
difficulties. For students with EBD, disciplinary practices aimed mainly at modifying
their behaviour by using positive or reinforcing interventions, counselling and
support (Brophy & Rohrkemper, 1981; Elliot, Witt, Gavlin, & Peterson, 1984;
Poulou & Norwich, 2000). In the USA. in particular, school personnel viewed
punishment as the only resource in dealing with students misbehaviour. As students
get older, suspension was increasingly used. Indeed, suspension still remains one of
the most common disciplinary responses for secondary students (McCaslin & Good,
1998; School Mental Health Project, 1997; Wheelock & Dorman, 1988).
Effective coping strategies could, at the very least, reduce the occurrence of EBD
in classrooms. What is needed is to take a step backwards and intervene before the
situation becomes frustrating for both teachers and students. Instead of looking for
magical prescriptions, we could better adopt prevention strategies and equip our
students with the skills appropriate to deal with the stressful situations they encoun-
ter. According to Bierman et al. (2000), any serious attempt to reduce youth and
adolescent behavioural difficulties must prioritise prevention efforts with the group
presenting early warning signs of problematic behaviour. Lately, much progress
has been made in the field of prevention, while schools have a long history of serv-
ing as sites for prevention efforts (Price, Cowen, Lorion, & Ramos-McKay, 1989).
Gensheiner, Ayers, and Roosa (1993) contend that, although the importance of
prevention is self-evident, it is sometimes necessary to persuade people of the value
of prevention, since our society tends to be more reactive and crisis-oriented than
proactive to conditions that bring about negative effects. Greenberg and Weissberg
(2001) stressed the importance of intervention goals in preventive-intervention
research and practice. These goals must include both the prevention of difficulties
and the promotion of positive developmental outcomes, through the enhancement
of competency mediators, that is competencies that are presumed to be media-
tors of the intervention (e.g., effective self-cognitions as a mediator for oppositional
behaviour). Prevention through the Competence-Enhancement perspective has
been supported by a considerable number of researchers (Cicchetti, Rappaport,
Sandler, & Weissberg, 2000; Weissberg & Caplan, 1998). In an attempt to define
 Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties 39

social and emotional competence, Elias, Hoover, and Poedubicky (1997) asserted
that any definition must include skills such as self-awareness, control of impul-
sivity, co-operation and caring about oneself and others. These skills enable
children to form healthy relationships, solve their problems and respond to the
challenges of daily life. Cowen (2000) emphasised the role that prevention activities
play in promoting wellness in children. Cowen further elaborated specific compe-
tencies of childhood, including the acquisition of age-appropriate cognitive-behav-
ioural skills, exposure to settings that facilitate adaptation, autonomy, support and
empowerment, and the ability to cope with stress. The acquisition of emotional
competencies has become widely known through the idea of Emotional Intelli-
gence literacy. The basic emotional competencies described by Goleman (1995,
1998), expression of emotions in an appropriate manner, management of emotions,
empathy with others perspectives, motivation of oneself and others, and exercise of
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social skills, are crucial for healthy interactions and relationships. Emotional
Intelligence supporters argued that the occurrence of academic process is not
incompatible with childrens emotions (Goleman, 1998). Emotional learning is as
important as reading or maths. Teaching emotional intelligence in school serves as
a preventive function for aggression, depression and violence while, at the same
time, enhances empathy, impulsivity and anger control, resolving differences, self-
awareness, decision making, and so on. Perry, Kelder, and Komro (1993) argued
for the enhancement of competence across social, psychological, physical, and spiri-
tual domains via the development of school-based life skills and social-competency
curricula.
There is evidence that Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) is related to educa-
tional goals and provides the necessary skills to be acquired by students (Cohen,
1998; Elias, 1997; Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2001). Elias, Bruene-Butler,
Blum, & Schuyler (2000) defined Social and Emotional Learning as:

The process through which children enhance their capacity to recognise and manage
their emotions, appreciate the perspectives of others, establish pro-social goals and solve
problems, and use a variety of interpersonal skills to effectively and ethically handle
developmentally relevant tasks. (p. 254).

The researchers view was that these skills are essential for positive relationships and
functioning within a school environment.
On the other hand, teaching social and emotional learning challenges the current
paradigm of school-based learning. The emphasis on the development of cognitive,
emotional and social skills at a time when academic standards are attracting more
and more interest undoubtedly poses a profound challenge to the educational
community. Many teachers would argue that the responsibility for such learning
lies with parents/carers. The vast majority of children with emotional and behav-
ioural difficulties do not access professional services. In contrast, access to inter-
ventions provided at schools could be uniform and convenient (Coie, Underwood,
& Lochman, 1991). Such interventions could avoid stigmatisation of EBD
children, lessen the severity of behavioural problems in some pupils, prevent the
 40 M. Poulou

development of behavioural problems in others and promote social competence in

all (Weissberg, Caplan, & Sivo, 1989). The educational system offers the most
efficient and systematic means of enhancing the positive development of large
numbers of young people (Elias et al., 1994). Schools could promote childrens
success to the academic and social domain and at the same time prevent the devel-
opment of unhealthy behaviours. Goleman (ONeil, 1996) asserted that the litera-
ture on resilient children, those who have grown up in the worst circumstances
shows that what made the difference was not the terrible circumstance of their
chaotic home, but the fact that one caring adult got involved in their lives and
helped them out. Often-times that person is a teacher (p. 10). Thus, it seems that
intervention within school settings tends to be the only promising support for these
children. Schools could further enhance emotional, cognitive and social compe-
tence by teaching such skills across subjects and by promoting extracurricular
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activities. Teaching these skills however, requires them to be taught in the same
way as maths, science and reading, that is, in a continuous and comprehensive
manner.
The question arises at this point as to what skills should then be taught in schools.
Given the broad range of skills and resources that contribute to social and emotional
adaptation on the one hand, and the limited school time and educational resources
on the other, investing in one set of skills is likely to detract from investing in others.
Thus, how should educators choose the skills on which to turn their attention?
Goleman (1995, 1998) presented a list of suggested skills. Amongst others, he
suggested self-awareness (being able to recognise feelings and put a name on
them), managing emotions (the ability to realise what is behind feelings), empa-
thy (being able to take others perspective), communication (developing quality
relationships), co-operation (the art of helping people work together on common
goals) and resolving conflicts.
A number of social, cognitive and emotional skills programmes for use with
EBD children in schools have been developed (Dupper & Krishef, 1993; Eddy,
Reid, & Fetrow, 2000; Elias et al., 1997; Greenberg, Kusche, & Riggs, 2001;
Hughes & Sullivan, 1988; Netolicky, 1998; Reed, Feibus, & Rosenfield, 1998;
Schneider, 1992; Schloss, Schloss, & Harris, 1984; Walker et al., 1998; Weissberg
& Caplan, 1998; Zaragoza, Vaughn, & McIntosh, 1991). These programmes
aimed to enhance both social and cognitive skills by combining cognitive-
behavioural strategies with behavioural techniques (Dupper & Krishef, 1993).
They mainly adopted an ecosystems perspective, according to which EBD
students behaviour is considered as the result of the interaction of individuals and
their environment and, consequently, as a discrepancy between the skills required
by students and the skills they currently possess (Schinke & Gilchrist, 1984).
Although the provision of social skills to EBD pupils in schools has produced
initial gains, there is not enough evidence for the generalisation of its effect. This
may be due to the lack of involvement by school personnel in the design and deliv-
ery of the social skills programmes (Rose, 1982). Educators must perceive their
role as more than that of academic instructors. Educators make a difference in
 Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties 41

pupils lives through their work, and through creating a safe and collaborative
classroom environment. McCaslin and Good (1998) argued that teachers can and
should promote the goal of students developing the capacity for self-regulation.
Despite the fact that there are no prescriptions for successful management, they
can help students become more self-regulated by encouraging them to adopt
problem-solving behaviours for both academic and social goals, and to develop
strategies to co-ordinate their goals.
The current study acknowledges the importance of the teachers role in pupils
social and emotional learning and further advocates the involvement of teachers in
both the design and implementation of social, emotional and cognitive skills
programmes in schools. A review of studies on skills programmes revealed a lack
of research on teachers perceptions or attitudes to the development or implemen-
tation of social, cognitive and emotional skills programmes within school settings.
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This is rather surprising since it is assumed that the active participation of school
personnel and teachers especially is a prerequisite of the successful implementa-
tion of these programmes. Instead, the role of teachers was found to be limited in
the completion of questionnaires or rating scales on the performance of students
under investigation. Teachers contributions lay in their co-operation with
psychologists or consultants on the implementation of ready-made programmes
for their at-risk students and reports on their progress. This study emphasises
teachers active participation from the very beginning. The first part of the study,
as described in this paper, aims to explore teachers perceptions of the appropriate
social, emotional and cognitive skills which students should possess, in order to
prevent emotional and behavioural difficulties. The assumption is that if pupils
have emotional or behavioural difficulties, they also have social or cognitive skills
deficits, and thus a skills intervention programme is warranted. Zaragoza et al.
(1991), by reviewing social skills intervention studies, came to the conclusion that
further information regarding the social skills deficits of pupils with behavioural
problems is needed. They argued that future research needed to delineate the
types of social skills deficits associated with subgroups of children with behavioural
problems. In accordance with these assertions, Lopes and Salovey (2001) under-
lined the need for research to identify which components of social and emotional
learning programmes are most important and effective, and whether it is the
programmes that lead to improvement or the quality of the teachers who deliver
the programmes. Early intervention of EBD children results in more adaptive
behaviour in schools. Rather than awaiting the EBDs to reach the point where
teachers experience feelings of frustration while children experience negative
messages from school life, we need to teach students a number of cognitive,
emotional and social skills necessary for the amelioration of their relationships.
Following the exploration of skills to be adopted by students from the perspective
of teachersthe subject of this papersubsequent research will attempt to iden-
tify teaching activities in accordance with school curriculum for the enhancement
of the most appropriate skills as indicated by teachers, with reference to all
students in general and EBD students in particular.
 42 M. Poulou

Method
This research attempted to explore teachers perceptions of the most important skills
students need to possess in order to prevent the occurrence of emotional and behav-
ioural difficulties. The exploration of teachers perceptions is the initial step for the
successful implementation of prevention programmes in schools. As a next step,
prevention programmes should be devised in order to cultivate these skills in
students, beginning with the ones rated by teachers as the most important.
A list including 17 basic emotional, social, and cognitive skills, which were consid-
ered to be the most essential elements of an ideal prevention programme, irrespec-
tive of the type of difficulty (Grant, 1992), was used for the purpose of the study.
Teachers were asked to rate the degree of significance they attributed to these skills,
for the promotion of students well-being and healthy relationships. The content
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validity of Grants list for designing a social competence curriculum for teachers was
examined along with an earlier study of Greek teachers who were asked to name the
emotional, social, and cognitive skills students should possess in order to prevent the
occurrence of emotional and behavioural difficulties. The correspondence in Grants
criteria and Greek teachers responses to an open question, with regard to the type as
well as categorization of skills for EBD prevention provided evidence for the validity
of Grants inventory.

Results
The sample for the study consisted of 427 in-service primary teachers. The majority
were female, taught the first grade of elementary school, had 1620 years of teaching
and were mainly teaching in schools in the Athens area (Table 1).
Teachers were asked to rank all the 17 skills included in Grants list, using 1 as the
most important skill and 17 as the least important skill to be possessed by
students. Results of their ratings are presented in Table 2.
Table 2 presents the four most prevalent rankings for each statement, the
frequency of each one, as well the frequency of the four rankings. According to the
table, teachers high frequency answers were mainly concentrated in the first three
and last two items in the list. With regard to the rest of the items, teachers responses
were spread evenly across the four most frequent ratings. Specifically, the most
important skills rated by teachers were the following: recognize and identify
emotions, which took first place (28.2%), expression of emotions, which took
second place (15.9%) and assessment of emotional intensity, which took third
place in their answers (15.2%). At the same time the majority of respondents consid-
ered these three skills as the most important, since the first four ranks for each item
received high percentages (56.7% for recognize and identify emotions, 53.9% for
expression of emotions, and 44.8% for assessment of emotional intensity).
The skills from numbers 4 to 15 cannot be ranked in an absolute order. The skills
manipulations of emotions, impatience control and impulsivity control, were
mainly concentrated in the 6th and 7th ranks, although high percentages were found
 Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties 43

Table 1. Teachers demographic characteristics, their teaching grades and areas of their schools
(N=427)

Gender Frequencies

male 168 (39.8%)

female 253 (60.0%)
Teaching experience
15 years 104 (24.5%)
610 years 81 (19.1%)
1115 years 89 (21.0%)
1620 years 135 (31.8%)
2125 years 4 (0.9%)
2630 years 9 (2.1%)
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3135 years 1 (0.2%)

Grades
first grade 68 (16.0%)
second grade 66 (15.6%)
third grade 61 (14.4%)
fourth grade 59 (13.9%)
fifth grade 61 (14.4%)
sixth grade 57 (13.4%)
School areas
Athens 327 (77.1%)
Rest of Greece 97 (22.9%)

(36 teachers comprised school directors, music, English and special teachers)

in the 4th, 5th, 8th, and 9th rank. The skills anxiety reduction and acknowledg-
ment of differences between emotions and actions, although the highest percentages
were concentrated in a certain rank, similar percentages were spread between other
ranks randomly. Thus, for anxiety reduction, the majority of teachers (10.5%)
ranked the development of this skill in the first rank, while similar percentages of
teachers ranked the development of this skill in the 3rd, 5th and 6th ranks (8.1%,
8.3% and 8.6%, respectively). 10.1% of teachers rated acknowledgment of differ-
ences between emotions and actions 8 in order while, at the same time 7.4%, 8.4%,
and 7.7% of teachers rated the skill as 5th, 9th and 12th respectively in their priorities.
Concerning the skills dialogue with oneself/internal monologue, perception and
interpretation of social signs, use of problem-solving stages, understanding of
others views, understanding of behavioural rules, adoption of positive and asser-
tive behaviour in life and self-awareness development, although the highest
percentages were accumulated in a certain rank, high percentages were also spread
between the nearest ranks as well. For example, for the skill dialogue with oneself/
internal monologue, 10.3% of teachers rated it as 13th, while 35.6% of them rated
it as 9th, 11th, 12th and 13th respectively. For the skill perception and interpretation
 44 M. Poulou

Table 2. Frequency of in-service teachers ratings on Grants (1992) list of skills

Rank Rank Rank Rank Total

Emotional Skills f% f% f% f% f%

1. Recognize and identify emotions 1 2 3 4 56.7

28.2 12.7 7.2 8.6
2. Expression of emotions 2 3 4 53.9
1
15.9 12.8 10.5
14.7
3. Assessment of emotional intensity 2 3 4 5 44.8
10.1 15.2 10.6 8.9
4. Manipulations of emotions 4 5 6 8 40.3
9.4 10.1 11.0 9.8
5. Impatience control 4 6 7 9 35.8
9.6 9.1 9.6 7.7
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6. Impulsivity control 4 5 6 7 36.2

8.6 9.1 8.9 9.6
7. Anxiety reduction 1 3 5 6 35.5
10.5 8.1 8.3 8.6
8. Acknowledgment of differences between emotions and 5 8 9 12 33.6
actions 7.4 10.1 8.4 7.7

Cognitive Skills
9. Dialogue with oneself/ internal monologue 9 11 12 13 35.6
8.2 8.2 8.9 10.3
10. Perception and interpretation of social signs 14 15 16 17 41.4
(acknowledgment of the effect of social influences on 7.3 9.0 7.3 17.8
behaviour)
11. Use of problem solving stages 11 12 13 14 38
10.1 9.6 9.9 8.4
12. Understanding of others views 8 10 11 12 35.6
8.1 8.8 10.2 8.5
13. Understanding of behavioural rules 1 9 10 12 32.8
9.0 7.1 9.3 9.3
14. Adoption of positive and assertive behaviour in life 14 15 16 17 45
13.0 10.6 8.9 12.5
15. Self-awareness development 10 13 14 15 34.5
7.9 7.9 10.3 8.4

Behavioural SkillsEffective Communication

16. Non-verbal skills (eye contact, facial expressions, 13 15 16 17 49.8
gestures, voice tone) 7.7 14.5 17.9 9.9
17. Verbal skills (adequate expression of demands, careful 14 15 16 17 54
listening, resistance to negative influences, help to 7.7 9.7 17.2 19.4
others, participation in peer teams)

of social signs, although the highest percentage (17.8%) was found in the 17 rank,
41.4% of teachers rankings were spread between the 14th, 15th, 16th and 17th ranks
as well. For the skill use of problem solving stages, the highest percentage was in
the 11th rank (10.1%), but the majority of teachers answers was also spread between
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Table 3. Spearman correlations for in-service teachers ratings on Grants (1992) list of skills

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

1 0.37** 0.60** 0.25** 0.02 0.03 0.15** 0.26** 0.07 0.16** 0.05 0.28** 0.32** 0.18** 0.27** 0.28** 0.31**
2 0.37** 0.34** 0.28** 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.09* 0.16** 0.12* 0.06 0.13** 0.19** 0.20** 0.27** 0.14** 0.18**
3 0.60** 0.34** 0.35** 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.20** 0.12** 0.09* 0.02 0.28** 0.31** 0.26** 0.29** 0.31** 0.33**
4 0.25** 0.28** 0.35** 0.12* 0.13** 0.09* 0.11* 0.09 0.14** 0.05 0.22** 0.25** 0.12* 0.28** 0.21** 0.26**
5 0.20 0.00 0.05 0.12* 0.51** 0.27** 0.04 0.13** 0.16** 0.11* 0.19** 0.08 0.25** 0.29** 0.17** 0.17**
6 0.37 0.02 0.05 0.13** 0.51** 0.21** 0.03 0.07 0.24** 0.08 0.17** 0.13** 0.09* 0.20** 0.17** 0.20**
7 0.15** 0.01 0.04 0.09* 0.27** 0.21** 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.10* 0.04 0.12* 0.03 0.12* 0.12** 0.13**
8 0.26** 0.09* 0.20** 0.11* 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.00 0.17** 0.27** 0.13** 0.22** 0.20** 0.25**
9 0.07 0.16** 0.12** 0.09 0.13** 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.21** 0.16** 0.24**
10 0.16** 0.12* 0.09* 0.14** 0.16** 0.24** 0.07 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.01 0.04 0.10* 0.00 0.04 0.02
11 0.05 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.11* 0.08 0.10* 0.00 0.04 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.12** 0.11*
12 0.28** 0.13** 0.28** 0.22** 0.19** 0.17** 0.04 0.17** 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.36** 0.08 0.23** 0.01 0.06
13 0.32** 0.19** 0.31** 0.25** 0.08 0.13** 0.12* 0.27** 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.36** 0.15** 0.21** 0.01 0.12*
14 0.18** 0.20** 0.26**- 0.12* 0.25** 0.09* 0.03 0.13** 0.04 0.10* 0.01 0.08 0.15** 0.28** 0.05 0.04
15 0.27** 0.27** 0.29** 0.28** 0.29** 0.20** 0.12* 0.22** 0.21** 0.00 0.02 0.23** 0.21** 0.28** 0.00 0.01
16 0.28** 0.14** 0.31** 0.21** 0.17** 0.17** 0.12** 0.20** 0.16** 0.04 0.12** 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.60**
17 0.31** 0.18** 0.33** 0.26** 0.17** 0.20** 0.13** 0.25** 0.24** 0.02 0.11* 0.06 0.12* 0.04 0.01 0.60**
Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties 45
 46 M. Poulou

the 11th, 12th, 13th and 14th ranks (38%). Similarly, for the skill understanding of
others views, the percentage of answers (35.6%) was spread between the 8th, 10th,
11th and 12th ranks; for the skill adoption of positive and assertive behaviour to life
45% of teachers gave the ranks 14, 15, 16, and 17; and finally for the skill self-aware-
ness development, 34.5% of teachers answers were spread between the ranks 10,
13, 14 and 15. As for the skill understanding of behavioural rules, the percentage
of answers (34.7%) was spread between the 9, 10th and 12th ranks, as well as the 1st
rank.
Lastly, non-verbal and verbal skills were clearly rated as the least important skills
needed by students. The highest percentage for non-verbal skills was found in the
16th rank (17.9%) and, at the same time, 49.8% were spread between the 13th, 15th,
16th and 17th ranks. The highest percentage for verbal skills was found in the 17th
rank (19.4%), while 54% were spread in the 14th, 15th, 16th and 17th ranks.
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As shown in Table 2, different skills received the same rank order in teachers
answers. For example, both recognize and identify emotions and anxiety reduc-
tion received the first rank, although the frequency rates were different (28.2% for
the former, 10.5% for the latter). Spearman correlations revealed that these items
were significant at p 0.01 (r=0.15) (Table 3). The item understanding of behav-
ioural rules also ranked in the first order of importance for 9.0% of the responses.
Spearman correlations revealed that this item was correlated with the two aforemen-
tioned items at significance level p0.01 (r=0.32 for the item recognize and iden-
tify emotions and r=0.12 for the item anxiety reduction respectively). Similarly,
the items impatience control and impulsivity control received the same rank
(7th) for the same percentage of answers (9.6%). Spearman further confirmed their
strong correlation (r=0.51, p0.01).
The items adoption of positive and assertive behaviour in life and self-
awareness development received the same rank (14th) and similar percentages in
teachers ratings (13% for the former, 10.3% for the latter). Spearman revealed the
correlation of these items (r=0.28) at significance level p0.01. Moreover, the items
use of problem solving stages and understanding of others views also received
the same rank (11th) and similar percentages (10.1% for the former, 10.2% for the
latter). Spearman correlation did not reveal significant correlation between these
items (r=0.02). The items perception and interpretation of social skills and
verbal skills received the same rank (17th) and similar percentages (17.8% for the
former, 19.4% for the latter). In this case, Spearman did not reveal significant
correlation between these two items (r=0.02).

Discussion
The current study attempted to investigate in-service teachers perceptions of the
most important cognitive, emotional, and social skills students should possess in
order to prevent the occurrence of emotional and behavioural difficulties. Teachers
had to rank what they saw as the most essential elements of effective prevention
programmes. They clearly identified the three most important as well as the two
 Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties 47

least important skills. Thus, they emphasised the importance of acknowledgment of

emotions, since they rated the skills recognise and identify emotions, expression
of emotions and assessment of emotional intensity, all of which were categorised
as Emotional Skills, first in their order of priority. On the other hand, teachers
rated as least important non-verbal and verbal skills, which were categorised as
Social Skills. Following this distinction, teachers ratings were then interspersed
between skills categorised as emotional and cognitive, indicating, however, a clear
preference for the emotional skills.
Before completing the discussion of our studys findings, we need to point out
certain weaknesses inherent in the study. The methodological tool used lacks the
psychometric properties of reliability and validity. The only measurement of content
validity to Greek teachers questions the generalisability of the results derived by
Grants inventory. In addition, teachers ratings could not be put into a specific
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order of importance. Rather, different items received the same rank, which might be
due to the inter-correlations of the items, especially those under the same categorisa-
tion. Furthermore, extreme ratings were accumulated mainly at the opposite ends of
the list, which might conceal the bias of extreme response (Rust & Golombok,
1992).
The current study represents an initial step in the development and implementa-
tion of an EBD prevention programme in schools. Based on the assumption that any
intervention programme should take into serious consideration teachers perceptions
if it is to be deemed effective, the study primarily aimed to explore teachers identifi-
cation of the prerequisite skills for healthy students relationships and consequently
EBD prevention. Lopes and Solovey (2001) argued that there are two ways to
address the question as to what skills we should teach to students. One is that SEL
programmes should be tailored to students needs and the problems these students
face at school, at home, and on the streets. The other is to focus on skills that are
likely to be useful across domains and are important for the development of further
abilities. The current study suggests a third way: the identification of the skills teach-
ers perceive as crucial, since these are the people who actually implement SEL
programmes and are aware of the majority of students needs. Grants list provided
the most essential characteristics of effective programmes. Consequently, a reper-
toire of skills to be developed by students is offered, as well as a starting point for the
formulation of programme activities. Current study of the in-service teachers ratings
suggests the skills to begin with. The high ratings accorded to emotional skills such
as recognition, identification, expression of emotions, and assessment of emotional
intensity indicate the need to schedule activities to boost these skills. This assertion
is by no means to downplay the importance of the rest of the skills.
A lack of relevant international studies limits further discussion of the results of
teachers responses. Until now, studies have mainly focused on intervention
programmes, the majority of which yield significant improvements for students with
behavioural problems, alongside a variety of instructional procedures and models
(Schneider, 1992; Zaragoza et al., 1991). The intervention programmes, however,
focused mainly on the at-risk population. The current study supports a need for the
 48 M. Poulou

implementation of programmes which cultivate and enhance all students emotional,

cognitive and social skills, on the one hand, and consequently prevent the occur-
rence of EBD, on the other. Golemans theory of Emotional Intelligencethat it is
virtually all learned, lends optimism to the statements above. Repeated emotional
lessons shape the childs brain circuits for this purpose. If, for example, a child learns
to manage his/her anger, or to be empathic, he/she already possesses a lifelong
quality. Thus it becomes critical to help children develop the skills of emotional
intelligence. Goleman further stated that since emotional skills can only be learned
through the interaction with other children and adults, it is vital that schools begin to
teach emotional skills to promote emotional literacy. The decline in emotional
well-being is a reality for all groups of children. Therefore lessons should not be
limited to students with behavioural problems (in O Neil, 1996).
Moreover, several types of evidence link students social and emotional competence
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to academic performance. Research studies show that social and emotional skills
relate positively to academic outcomes (Aber, Brown, Roderick, & Lantieri, 2001;
Bloodworth, Wiessberg, Zins, & Walberg, 2001; Elias, 2001; Fleming & Bay, 2001;
Zins et al., 2001). School personnel and parents need to accept social and emotional
development education as a critical part of the schools curriculum and not as a
special programme. Promoting social-emotional goals should be considered as an
integral component of our schools educational programmes, rather than as a good
but not essential aspect of education. Indeed, as Hargreaves (2000) argued:
If we are serious about educational standards, we must become serious about
emotions too, and increase emotional understanding between teachers and students.
By focusing only on cognitive standards and on processes to achieve them, we actually
undermine the emotional understanding which is in fact the foundation in achieving
these standards (p. 825).
In line with this argument, Combs (2001) claimed that the failure of most schooling
to provide support for students basic psychological needs calls for the rebuilding of
learning communities. Social and emotional learning programmes can provide for
students needs. Thus, a focus on personal and motivational outcomes of SEL
programmes, balanced with a focus on high achievement standards, is vital in
todays schools.
At the same time, teacher trainers need to be responsive to the changes affecting
the education of children in general and EBD children in particular, and revise
teacher preparation programmes. If social and emotional learning is to be properly
implemented, preparation of teachers is necessary. Preparation should include field
experience and modelling of positive and supportive classroom environments and
should be grounded in the disciplines of psychology, education, and related fields
(Zins et al., 2001).

Conclusions
Following a review of social skills training over the past two decades, Mathur and
Rutherford (1996) concluded that programmes to improve social skills are having a
 Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties 49

promising effect on both prevention and correction. Although there are some critical
comments about the generalisability and social validity of research outcomes, there
seems to be agreement among researchers that social, emotional, and cognitive skills
training can bring about positive behaviour. For children with emotional and behav-
ioural difficulties in particular, Ogden (2001) advocated that socially competent
students are less engaged in problem behaviour, are better at making friends, have
more effective ways of dealing with authority, and are more able in conflict resolution
and at problem solving than their more disruptive peers. The systematic relationship
between behavioural difficulties and social competence in children has been confirmed
by several studies, and a dual perspective on childrens social behaviour has been
proposed: one focusing on problem behaviour and one on social competence. The
current study focused on both the problem behaviour and social competence of all
students by guaranteeing, as a first step, teachers active involvement in the prevention
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of emotional and behavioural difficulties, since they are the central actors in this effort.

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