Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

What were the recycled potsherds used for? Use-wear analysis of

Early Neolithic ceramic tools from Bulgaria (6100e5600 cal. BC)

*
Julien Vieugue
French Research Centre in Jerusalem (CRFJ), 3 Shimshon Street, B.P. 547, 91004 Jerusalem, Israel

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Many potsherds recycled as tools have been discovered in the Early Neolithic ceramic assemblages of
Received 27 July 2014 south-western Bulgaria (6100e5600 cal. BC). Their large quantity has raised the issue of the role of this
Received in revised form industry in the economy of the rst farming societies in the Balkans. The scarcity of use-wear analyses on
7 March 2015
the ceramic tools has required the development of an observation protocol adjusted to archaeological
Accepted 11 March 2015
recycled potsherds coupled with the construction of a wide experimental reference. The study method
Available online 23 March 2015
has allowed the determination of the macro- and microscopic characteristics of use-wear that are
diagnostic of worked materials, kinematics and use-time of ceramic tools. It has highlighted their
Keywords:
Use-wear analysis
technical functions which prove to be extremely diversied in the Early Neolithic of south-western
Ceramic tools Bulgaria: spindle whorls, tokens, hide scrapers or potter's ribs and smoothers. The broad use-range of
Recycling ceramic tools, as well as their large quantity, shows the recycled potsherds were not occasional sub-
Early Neolithic stitutes of bone and lithic objects. On the contrary, they were fully integrated in the Neolithic toolkits for
South-eastern Europe carrying out certain technical productions.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ceramic tools: hide deeshing and softening (Skakun, 1977;

The Neolithic corresponds to the emergence of a new economic
system based on the production of food resources (eg Vigne and
Helmer, 2007; Vigne, 2008; Willcox, 2013). This period e a major
turning point in the history of human societies e sees the intro-
duction of a new range of tools (Goodale et al., 2010; Boll, 2012).
Alongside the emblematic polished axes and sickle blades, recy-
cling potsherds as tools formed part of the industries that appeared
with the Neolithic way of life (Spoor and Collet, 1996; Godon, 2010).
The populations from the 7th and 6th millennium cal. BC took
advantage of the waste caused by the breakage of their red clay
containers in order to produce implements that as yet have rarely
attracted the attention of prehistorians (Perles, 2001).
The large quantity and variety of ceramic tools found in the Early
Neolithic settlements of south-western Bulgaria (6100e5600 cal.
BC) has raised the issue of the role of this industry in the economy
of the rst Balkan farming societies (Salanova, 2007). This question
is all the more relevant as the few use-wear studies performed on
the recycled potsherds have shown the diversity of possible uses of
* Tel.: 33 674898478.
E-mail addresses: archeojulien@hotmail.com, julien.vieugue@mae.u-paris10.fr.
Korobkova, 1997; Shamanaev, 2002); plant processing (Sullivan
et al., 1991; Korobkova, 1997); preforming and scraping of pottery
wall (Binder et al., 1994; Lopez Varela et al., 2002; Hameau, 2005;
Van Gijn and Hofman, 2008) and ochre processing (Skakun, 1977).
The functional study of the Early Neolithic ceramic tools from
south-western Bulgaria required, however, important methodo-
logical developments. Use-wear analyses of this type of prehistoric
industry remain rare. Only about ten works had hitherto been
devoted to the use of recycled potsherds as tools. The research is
often conned to the ceramic tools from one or two sites. They
have, furthermore, been carried out on limited assemblages that
generally consist of less than 50 tools. This restricted number of
pieces hinders the establishment of a systematic observation pro-
tocol of use-traces on ceramic tools, similar to what has existed for
a long time for bone and stone tools (eg Plisson and Van Gijn, 1989;
Gutierrez Saez, 1993; Maigrot, 1997; Side
ra and Legrand, 2006). It
did not encourage the construction of a large experimental refer-
ence collection allowing an objective interpretation of use-wear on
the recycled potsherds, as exists for lithic industries (see Semenov,
1964; Vaughan, 1985).
This article partly lls the gaps in the eld of use-wear analysis
of ceramic tools. The development of an observation protocol
suitable for recycled archaeological potsherds, coupled with the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2015.03.016
0305-4403/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
90 J. Vieugu
e / Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102
construction of a large experimental reference, has enabled the
determination of macro- and microscopic characteristics of use-
traces that are diagnostic of the worked materials, kinematics and
life-span of ceramic tools. It has, by this way, provided information
on the function of recycled potsherds dated from the Early Neolithic
in south-western Bulgaria. The use-range of ceramic tools has
changed our view of the role of these industries in the daily life of
the rst Neolithic societies in the Balkans.
2. Historical context: the Early Neolithic in Bulgaria
The Neolithic transition in the Balkans occurs at the end of the
7th millennium cal. BC (Reingruber and Thissen, 2005). It corre-
sponds to the beginning of a production economy. Due to its
geographic position, Bulgaria represents a key area for better un-
derstanding the very onset of Neolithic period in the region
(Lichardus-Itten et al., 2002).
2.1. Economic aspects
The data on the economy of Early Neolithic communities in
Bulgaria primarily come from the analysis of faunal and botanical
remains. The large predominance of domesticated animals (Capri-
nae and Bovinae) and plants (cereals and pulses) shows that the
economic system was primarily based on agriculture and hus-
bandry (Benecke, 2006; Marinova, 2009). The toolkit that charac-
terises the Neolithic way of life (pottery, polished axes, grinding
stones or sickle blades) is effectively present at the sites
(eg Lichardus-Itten et al., 2002).
This new economic model was not, however, uniformly adopted
in the Balkans. Regional variations exist. Thus, goats and sheep
greatly predominate in south-western Bulgaria while cattle are
more frequent in Thrace (Benecke, 2006). Chickpeas seem to have
been consumed more at the Early Neolithic settlements in the
former region than in the latter (Marinova, 2009). The patchwork of
economic systems is explained, at least in part, by the various ori-
gins of the rst Neolithic populations in Bulgaria (Salanova, 2009;
Salanova et al., in press).
2.2. Ceramic remains: neglected evidences of the economic sphere
Potsherds are by far the most abundant and best preserved
archaeological remains at Early Neolithic sites in Bulgaria. They
therefore provided key evidence for characterising the way of life of
prehistoric groups. Although the potsherds may inform on the
economy of these communities, the functional aspects of pottery
production were hitherto the subject of any thorough analysis.
The extensive excavation of the Kova cevo site (Figs. 1 and 2)
directed by Jean-Paul Demoule, Marion Lichardus-Itten, Vassil
Nikolov and Lilijana Perni ceva (y) has provided a huge ceramic
assemblage (Demoule and Lichardus-Itten, 2001; Lichardus-Itten
et al., 2002) whose excellent state of preservation allowed thor-
ough research on the function of pottery productions (Salanova,
2007). The analysis of this large corpus was conducted by L. Sala-
nova, who has developed a new study method of Neolithic ceramic
assemblages (Salanova, 2009; Salanova et al., 2010). The investi-
gation began with a comprehensive characterization of pottery
remains that served as the basis for the development of specialized
analyses on the manufacture and the use of red clay containers.
The research performed on the function of pottery productions
focused on all human practices, from the rst use of ceramic vessels
to the nal decay of potsherds, through the recycling of potsherds
as tools (Vieugue
, 2014). The systematic search for such ceramic
tools, conducted by L. Salanova and her team during the
comprehensive characterization of the assemblage, has revealed
the existence of a genuine industry made from potsherds.
The research initiated on the pottery production at Kovacevo was
then extended to the whole of south-western Bulgaria for compar-
isons. Within this regional program led by M. Grebska-Kulova and L.
Salanova, the other six large Early Neolithic pottery assemblages
from the Struma valley were analysed (Grebska-Kulova and
Salanova, 2011). They respectively come from the settlements of
Ilindentsi, Brezani and Drenkovo excavated by M. Grebska-Kulova
(Grebska-Kulova et al., 2011) as well as Vaxevo, Kranitsi and
Gal  
abnik investigated by S. Cochad 
ziev, A. Bakamska and J. Pavk

(Pavk and Cochad  
ziev, 1984; Cocha 
ziev and Bakamska, 1990;

Cocha 
ziev, 2001) (Figs. 1 and 2). The investigation was conducted
according to the study protocol established on the ceramic assem-
blage from Kova cevo (Salanova et al., 2010). It has conrmed the
presence of ceramic tools at all the Early Neolithic settlements in
south-western Bulgaria (Salanova et al., in press).
In Kovacevo, where the contextual data are the most precise, the
ceramic tools come mainly from the archaeological layers dated in
the rst half of the 6th millennium cal. BC. They were discovered in
various archaeological features including settlement layers (62%),
buildings (15%), pits (11%) and pavements (4%).
2.3. Main characteristics of ceramic tools
Potsherds recycled as tools have proven to be frequent at the
seven main Early Neolithic settlements in south-western Bulgaria.
Indeed, 2920 pieces have been identied in the ceramic assem-
blages (Table 1). This collection of ceramic tools is extremely
extensive. Up to now, the studied ceramic industries were
composed of at most one hundred archaeological potsherds (Lopez
Varela et al., 2002; Godon and Lepe re, 2006).
In addition to their quantity, the Early Neolithic ceramic tools
from south-western Bulgaria display a large range of shapes and
sizes. Two main classes of objects make up the industries (Fig. 3).
The rst one includes all the potsherds that have been retouched in
a circular form (1947 pieces, that is 67%). They can be subdivided
into ve main categories: rounded potsherds with rough (57%) or
abraded edges (12%), pottery fragments with abraded surfaces and
edges (1%) and perforated potsherds with rough (15%) or abraded
edges (14%) (Fig. 3a). The second includes all the ceramic tools that
have not been retouched in a circular form (973 pieces, 33%). They
are divided into three main categories: fragments with abraded
edges (71%), potsherds with grooved surfaces (1%) and fragments
with abraded surfaces (1%) (Fig. 3b). Compared to the other ceramic
toolkits already published, the Early Neolithic recycled potsherds
from south-western Bulgaria present great typological diversity.
The quantity and diversity of ceramic toolkits has raised the
question of their technical functions during the 7th and 6th mil-
lennium cal. BC (Vieugue
, 2010). In other words, what were they
used for? To address this question, the ceramic tools from the seven
main Early Neolithic settlements in south-western Bulgaria have
been the subject of use-wear analysis.
3. Method: a use-wear approach
The observation of ceramic tools has so far been mainly carried
out at macroscopic scale (from 2x to 50x) (eg Skakun, 1977; Binder
et al., 1994; Shamanaev, 2002; Lopez Varela et al., 2002; except
Van Gijn and Lammers-Keijsers, 2010). The worked materials using
the recycled potsherds have generally been determined from one or
two criteria: the outlines of abrasions and the polish (Skakun, 1977;
Lopez Varela et al., 2002). The functional interpretations have often
been based on a restricted experimental reference programme that
consisted of testing the processing of a single raw material (hide or
 J. Vieugu
e / Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102 91

Fig. 1. Map of Early Neolithic sites in the Struma Valley (Updated from Cocha  ziev, 2007). Stars stand for the settlements whose the ceramic tools were studied; 1. Kovacevo; 2.
Ilindentsi; 3. Brezani; 4. Drenkovo; 5. Vaxevo; 6. Kranitsi; 7. Ga
la
bnik. Dots represent other known Early Neolithic sites e 8. Toumba; 9. Vinogradi; 10. Ba lgarcevo; 11. Kocerinovo;

12. Mursalevo; 13. Sapareva Banja; 14. Saparevo; 15. Kamenik; 16. Dupnitsa; 17. Delistovo; 18. Nevestino; 19. Cetirci; 
20. Piperkov Ciik; 
21. Siskovci; 22. Bersin; 23. Negovanci; 24.
Priboj; 25. Pernik; 26. Gabrov Dol; 27. Divotino.

clay) under different states (fresh and dry hide versus wet and
leather-consistency clay) (Skakun, 1977; Shamanaev, 2002; Lopez
Varela et al., 2002; Godon and Lepe re, 2006). Unfortunately, the
descriptions provided in the previous studies were not able to clarify
the function of Early Neolithic ceramic tools in south-western
Bulgaria. The development of a multi-scale observation protocol of
use-traces on the ceramic tools, coupled with the construction of a
large experimental reference, has succeeded in identifying different
criteria which are diagnostic of the worked materials, kinematics
and lifespan of archaeological recycled potsherds.
3.1. Elaboration of a large experimental reference collection
The issues surrounding the function of Early Neolithic ceramic
tools from south-western Bulgaria encouraged the construction of a
large experimental reference. The fact that research performed in
other historical contexts has shown the diversity of potential uses
of the archaeological recycled potsherds (Skakun, 1977; Korobkova,
1997; Lopez Varela et al., 2002) was a further encouragement. The
experiments aimed to clarify the various aspects of the use of
abraded potsherds, including the worked materials, the kinematic
and the lifespan of ceramic tools.
The preliminary observation of abraded potsherds had provided
no information regarding the range of materials worked with the
ceramic tools. The experiments have, therefore, consisted of vary-
ing the type and the state of processed materials. The ve tested
matters are the main raw materials used by the Early Neolithic
communities of south-western Bulgaria. The two experimented
states e or humidity e correspond to the main states in which the
raw materials could have been worked. Within the framework of
this initial reference, the tests have concerned: (i) Hide processing.1
1
The tests were performed with goat hides. This animal is by far the main
species consumed during the Early Neolithic in South-western Bulgaria (Benecke,
2006).
92 J. Vieugu
e / Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102
Fig. 2. Dating of the seven main Early Neolithic settlements in the Struma Valley
determined from the decorated pottery (see Salanova, 2011; Salanova et al., in press).
This raw material was widely exploited by Early Neolithic societies
in south-western Bulgaria, as the use-wear analysis of lithic in-
dustries has shown (Gurova, 2006). Experiments were conducted
on fresh and dry hides. The recycled potsherds could have been
used for hide deeshing or softening (Skakun, 1977). (ii) Wood
working.2 This raw material was in particular used in the con-
struction of Neolithic houses (Lichardus-Itten, 2006; Jaulneau,
2008). Green and dry wood were tested. (iii) Clay processing.3
This raw material was widely exploited for the manufacture of
red clay containers that have been discovered in huge quantities
at Early Neolithic settlements in south-western Bulgaria (Salanova,
2009; Salanova et al., in press). Wet and leather-consistency clays
have, in this case, been worked. The abraded potsherds could,
indeed, have been used for the preforming or the scraping of pot-
tery walls (Binder et al., 1994; Lopez Varela et al., 2002; Godon and
Lepe re, 2006). (iv) Bone working.4 This raw materials was used for
the manufacture of equipment during the Early Neolithic in south-
western Bulgaria (Side
ra, 2012). The processing of fresh and dry
bones using recycled potsherds was tested. (v) Marble working.5
Marble was exploited for the manufacture of bracelets
(Bonnardin, 2008). The experiments were conducted on wet and
dry materials. Such a hard rock could have been worked in both
these states during the rst half of the 6th millennium cal. BC.
If the preliminary observation of recycled potsherds had pro-
vided no indication regarding the worked materials, it had never-
theless succeeded in approaching the kinematics of ceramic tools
(Vieugue
, 2010). The ndings on the use direction and the incli-
nation of Early Neolithic recycled potsherds from south-western
Bulgaria have guided the choice of parameters tested. With few
exceptions, the abrasions on recycled potsherds were located at
their edges. Some of the ceramic tools showed, in addition,
scratches whose orientation was always perpendicular to the
length of abraded edges. All the experimental potsherds have,
2
The tests were made with oak wood. This taxon is the most exploited species by

bault, 2007).
the rst Balkan farmers (Marinova and Thie
3
The tests were carried out using industrial clays which were tempered with
sand (up to 10%). Thus, clays worked with experimental ceramic tools presented
characteristics similar to those commonly used by the Early Neolithic potters in
south-western Bulgaria (Niellini, 2006).
4
The tests were performed on beef bones. The latters were favoured for the
manufacture of bone tools during the Early Neolithic in south-western Bulgaria

ra, 2012).
(Side
5
The tests were made on white marble similar to those worked by the rst
farmers of south-western Bulgaria (Bonnardin, personal communication).
Table 1
Number of potsherds and ceramic tools recorded per site. The quantity of pottery
remains depends particularly on the excavated surface area and the thickness of
archaeological layers.
Sites Potsherds recorded Potsherds recycled as tools
Kova cevo 930 505 2588
Ilindentsi 1751 32
Brezani 3152 21
Drenkovo 1064 24
Kranitsi 573 7
Vaxevo ? 50
G bnik
ala ? 198
Total 937 045 2920
therefore, been used in a transverse linear direction. The abraded
edges of recycled potsherds showed, furthermore, complex cross-
sections that were either rounded or bevelled. The experimental
pieces have, therefore, been used in oblique or perpendicular po-
sitions. Beyond assessing the differences in efciency between the
wire and the ridge of abraded edges, the two tested positions aimed
to determine to what extent the inclination of ceramic tools inu-
enced the development of use-traces.
As in the case of the worked materials, the lifespan of ceramic
tools could not be estimated from the preliminary examination of
Neolithic recycled potsherds. Thus, the experiments varied this
parameter. The ceramic tools have been used for 1, 5, 10, 15 and
30 min. Although limited, these use-times have proved sufcient to
determine the lifespan of Neolithic recycled potsherds.
Each experiment was repeated three times. The replicas aimed
at identifying the use-traces that are diagnostic of worked mate-
rials, kinematics and lifespan of recycled potsherds on a minimum
of recurrences. In the current state of data, the experimental
reference is made up of 300 pieces (Table 2). After completing the
experiments, the ceramic tools were the subject of a detailed
examination.
3.2. Observation of use-traces
The observation of use-traces began on the experimental tools.
In addition to identifying the diagnostic criteria of the worked
materials, kinematics and lifespan of recycled potsherds, the pre-
liminary examination of 300 experimental pieces offered the op-
portunity to develop a systematic observation protocol of ceramic
tools. The observation of use-traces has subsequently been
extended to Early Neolithic recycled potsherds from south-western
Bulgaria. It has been able to rene the methodology previously
developed on the experimental pieces.
The abrasions of ceramic tools were observed at both macro-
and microscopic scales. This multi-scale approach has for a long
time demonstrated its effectiveness on knapped stone tools
(Semenov, 1964; Keeley, 1980; Anderson-Gerfaud et al., 1987; 1993;
Longo and Skakun, 2008). However, the protocol developed here
differs somewhat from those commonly applied to lithic industries,
because of the heterogeneous matrix of tool blanks. In the pre-
sented case study, the examination of recycled potsherds has sys-
tematically begun with the naked eye. It has focused on the
different surfaces and edges of pottery fragments. The objective
was to assess the state of preservation of the archaeological objects
(erosion and concretions) and identify their different worn parts.
The post-depositional alterations and use-wear of ceramic tools
have been distinguished on the basis of their specic extent and
location. As several studies on taphonomic processes have shown
(Schiffer and Skibo, 1989; Beck et al., 2002), the rst display a
ubiquitous distribution while the second is concentrated on specic
parts of the potsherds. The observation of potsherds recycled as
 J. Vieugu
e / Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102 93

Fig. 3. The main categories of potsherds recycled as tools: (a) retouched pieces, (b) unretouched fragments.

tools has continued under a stereomicroscope (from 2x to 90x). It tools has been systematically compared to those in the unworn
focused on the use-traces that were visible on the ne fraction and parts. This comparison has enabled the discrimination of traces
the mineral inclusions in the clay paste. The appearance of the from the natural erosion of mineral inclusions and from the use of
mineral inclusions within the different abraded areas of ceramic prehistoric ceramic tools. The use-wear analysis of recycled

Table 2
Synthesis of experiments aiming at reconstructing the function of potsherds recycled as tools. The gure in parenthesis refers to the number of tests performed per criteria.

Worked materials Kinematics Use-time

Type State Use-direction Inclination

Hide (60) Fresh (30) Transverse (30) Perpendicular (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Transverse (30) Oblique (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Dry (30) Transverse (30) Perpendicular (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Transverse (30) Oblique (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Wood (60) Green (30) Transverse (30) Perpendicular (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Transverse (30) Oblique (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Dry (30) Transverse (30) Perpendicular (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Transverse (30) Oblique (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Bone (60) Fresh (30) Transverse (30) Perpendicular (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Transverse (30) Oblique (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Dry (30) Transverse (30) Perpendicular (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Transverse (30) Perpendicular (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Clay (60) Humide (30) Transverse (30) Oblique (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Transverse (30) Perpendicular (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Leather-consistency (30) Transverse (30) Oblique (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Transverse (30) Perpendicular (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Marble (60) Fresh (30) Transverse (30) Oblique (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Transverse (30) Perpendicular (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Dry (30) Transverse (30) Oblique (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
Transverse (30) Perpendicular (15) 1, 5, 10, 15 & 30 min (3 each)
94 J. Vieugu
e / Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102
Table 3
Diagnostic use-traces of the raw material worked with ceramic tools.
Worked Diagnostic criteria
materials
Regularity of abrasions Outlines of use-wears Polish
Hide No Very diffuse Bright
Wood No Slightly diffuse Dull
Bone No Slightly diffuse Without
Clay Yes Clear Without
Marble Yes Very clear Without
potsherds was completed using a metallographic microscope (100x
and 200x). In this instance, the observations are conned to the
abrasion of mineral inclusions that were present within the worn
parts of ceramic tools.6
The thorough observation of use-traces has been able to identify
the macro- and microscopic use-wear characteristics that are
diagnostic of worked materials. It has also informed about the
criteria that are typical of the kinematics and the lifespan of
ceramic tools.
3.3. Identication of diagnostic criteria regarding the use of ceramic
tools
The recognition of diagnostic use-traces was based on the
comparison of abrasions of ceramic tools that were subjected to the
same experimental conditions.
As occurs with lithic and bone industries (Shchelinskij, 1977;
Maigrot, 1997), the use-wear on ceramic tools varies depending
on the type of worked materials (skin, wood, bone, clay, marble).
They can be distinguished on the basis of six criteria: the regularity
of the abraded edges, the outline of use-wear, the polish, the
bluntness of mineral inclusions, the frequency of chipping at the
junction of abraded edges/unworn surfaces and the presence/
absence of large and deep scratches (Table 3 & appendix A). The
diagnostic criteria of worked materials do not seem only viable for
the recycled potsherds dated from the Early Neolithic in south-
western Bulgaria. They correspond to those that have been re-
ported for ceramic tools from the Early Bronze Age in Northern
Caucasus (Korobkova, 1997), showing some recurrences in the type
of use-traces formed.7
The abraded edges of potsherds used in the two positions tested
(perpendicular and oblique) display different sections. Therefore
the inclination of use-wear allows the position of ceramic tools
relative to the worked surface to be identied. Combined with the
orientation of scratches preserved on the active parts of ceramic
tools, this inclination usually indicates the kinematics of recycled
potsherds (Binder et al., 1994; Vieugue
et al., 2010) (Table 4).
The use-wears on ceramic tools are more or less extensive
depending on the use-time of experimental objects (1, 5, 10, 15 and
30 min) (Table 5 & appendix B). The extent of the abraded edges
seems, therefore, to be a relevant indicator of the use-time of
ceramic tools. However, the composition of the worked materials
strongly inuences the use-wear development rate. The use-time
of ceramic tools can, therefore, only be assessed if the materials
worked with the potsherds were previously determined. It is also
6
The examination of prehistoric tools under the microscope was performed only
on a limited number of pieces. The tests conducted on the experimental recycled
potsherds prove, for the moment, to be negative. The detailed observation of
mineral inclusions did not provide any further data regarding the worked materials,
the kinematics or the lifespan of ceramic tools.
7
The state of worked materials remains, however, much more difcult to di-
agnose. Some overlaps were observed in the type of use-traces. Further in-
vestigations are necessary for enlightening this aspect.
Abrasion of mineral inclusions Frequence of chipping Presence of large of deep scratches
Unworn? Absent Absent
Unworn? Absent Absent
Unworn? Absent Absent
Blunt/chipped Absent Present
Levelled Frequent Absent
difcult to determine the use-time of prehistoric ceramic tools
when the abrasions cover the entire edge of the recycled fragments.
The extent of use-wear does not evolve logically, having reached all
the parts in contact with the worked material. Therefore only a
minimum use-time can be suggested for the ceramic tools that
have completely abraded edges.
Once the diagnostic criteria were identied, it was possible to
reconstruct the different aspects of the use of archaeological
ceramic tools.
4. Results: the broad use-range of ceramic tools during the
Early Neolithic in Bulgaria
The function of the Early Neolithic ceramic tools from south-
western Bulgaria was hitherto poorly documented. The typolog-
ical study of industries has shown that some potsherds were used
as spindle whorls and tokens (Vieugue
, 2014). The use-wear
analysis of ceramic tools has revealed other functional categories
whose existence was established from the identication of worked
materials, kinematics and lifespan of abraded archaeological pot-
sherds. The use-traces of the Neolithic ceramic tools were inter-
preted by comparison with those of experimental pieces.
4.1. Identication of worked materials
Through the experiments, the worked materials using the Early
Neolithic ceramic tools in south-western Bulgaria were identied.
The use-wear analysis of abraded potsherds has shown the pres-
ence of two main groups of ceramic tools.
The rst one includes 609 pieces (that is 85%). The facets of
abrasions are regular and clearly delineated. The mineral inclusions
that are pedestalled are very blunt or even chipped. The junctions
between the edges and the adjacent surfaces display no chipping.
Large and deep scratches are also frequently observed (20%). All
these macro- and microscopic use-wear characteristics are similar
to those observed on the experimental potsherds that have been
used for clay processing (Fig. 4). Therefore, the ceramic tools with
abraded surfaces and edges have mainly been used as potter's tools.
Similar fragments are also known to have been used for the
manufacture of red clay containers in other contexts (Lopez Varela
et al., 2002; Godon and Lepe re, 2006).
The second group consists of 6 pieces (that is 1%). This time, the
abrasions follow the original irregularity of the potsherd's edges.
The outline of use-wear appears scattered. The mineral inclusions
are not too blunt. The junctions between the edges and the adjacent
surfaces are not chipped. No scratches have been identied. This set
of characteristics is similar to those observed on the experimental
potsherds that were used for hide processing (Fig. 5). Scrapers
made from potsherds are well known in other prehistoric societies
(Skakun, 1977; Khlopina, 1979; Rakhmanov, 1983; Korobkova, 1997;
Shamanaev, 2002). Their limited number in the Early Neolithic of
south-western Bulgaria is, however, surprising. Few scrapers have
been identied in the lithic industries (Gurova, 2006).
 J. Vieugu
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Table 4
Diagnostic use-traces of the kinematic of recycled potsherds.
Kinematics

Transverse perpendicular (90 )
Transverse oblique (60 )
4.2. Determination of the kinematics of recycled potsherds
In the same way as the worked materials were determined, it
was possible to reconstruct the kinematics of abraded potsherds.
In south-western Bulgaria, the potsherds used for clay pro-
cessing display abraded parts that are located at their edges (97%)
or their outer surface (3%) (Fig. 6). The 590 potsherds with abraded
edges (Fig. 6a) present no use-traces on their inner and outer sur-
faces (see Fig. 4e). This absence suggests that the ceramic tools did
not penetrate the worked materials. The striations observed on the
abraded edges of 123 potsherds (that is 21%) are, furthermore, al-
ways perpendicular to the longer side of the active parts (Fig. 6a).
Such an orientation suggests that the ceramic tools have consis-
tently been used in a transverse linear movement. The use-
direction of recycled potsherds, as well as their low penetration
into the worked materials, testify that the ceramic tools were not
used for cutting clay blocks. To the contrary, they attest the use of
ceramic tools for rubbing the clay surfaces of objects. Moreover, the
recycled potsherds often have concave or convex abraded edges
reminiscent of the curved prole of the Neolithic pots (Fig. 6a).
They were, therefore, used as potter's ribs. Potter's ribs have
abraded edges whose cross-section can vary on the same tool.
Some recurrences can, however, be observed. Schematically, the
section of abraded edges is often slightly curved (89%), and more
rarely bevelled (11%). Most of ceramic tools have, therefore, been
used perpendicularly to the worked surface. Thus, the potters have
used the wire of abraded edges for manufacturing their ceramic
vessels. This choice suggests that the ceramic tools were primarily
used for scraping the wall of red clay containers that were being
manufactured. Such a technical action generally aims at reducing
and homogenising the thickness of pottery walls (see Binder et al.,
1994). A smaller number of potter's ribs was also used in an oblique
position. The potters seem, therefore, to have sought to use the
ridge of abraded edges. This behaviour indicates that some ceramic
tools were used for blending the surfaces of red clay containers.
Such a technical movement aims at enhancing the adhesion of coils
(Binder et al., 1994). According to their kinematics, the ceramic
tools dated in the Early Neolithic in south-western Bulgaria were
involved in different stages of pottery shaping.
The 19 potsherds with abraded surfaces are often worn at their
centre (65%) (Fig. 6b). Therefore, the most prominent part of the
outer surface of recycled potsherds seems to have been preferably
used. Furthermore, the abrasion displays a at section. Ceramic
tools have, therefore, been used tangentially to the worked
Table 5
Diagnostic use-traces of the use-time of ceramic tools.
Use-time Diagnostic criteria
Extent
Hide Wood Bone Clay
1 min x x x Localised
5 min x x x Partial
10 min x x x Partial
15 min Localised Localised x Covering
30 min Partial Partial Localised Covering
95
Diagnostic criteria
Cross-section of the abraded edge Orientation of scratches
Flat or slightly rounded Perpendicular
Bevelled Perpendicular
surfaces. On 6 of the ceramic tools examined, the striations are
multidirectional. This aspect of use-traces certies that the recycled
potsherds were used without preferential use-direction (Fig. 6b).
Such a kinematic is clearly reminiscent of that of potter's smoothers
(Fig. 6b) (Lopez Varela et al., 2002). The potsherds with abraded
surfaces were involved in the nishing of Neolithic pottery. The co-
existence of potter's ribs and smoothers within the industries
shows the complex integration of ceramic tools in the
manufacturing process of pottery dated in the rst half of the 6th
millennium cal. BC.
The ceramic tools were, however, not only used for the manu-
facture of pottery. They were also involved in hide processing. The 6
potsherds that have worked this raw material only display abra-
sions at their edges (see Fig. 5e). The absence of visible use-traces
on the adjacent surfaces shows that ceramic tools have not pene-
trated the worked materials. Therefore, the recycled potsherds have
not been used for cutting hides. In addition, the section of the
abraded edges of ceramic tools shows no inclination. This suggests
that recycled potsherds were not used with a very acute angle for
scraping hides. The most likely hypothesis seems to be that of the
softening of animal skins. The presence of hide scrapers within the
ceramic industries is further evidence of the highly diversied
functions of ceramic tools during the Early Neolithic.
4.3. Estimating the lifespan of ceramic tools
Based on the experimental reference, it was possible to estimate
the use-time of Early neolithic ceramic tools in south-western
Bulgaria.
The potter's ribs display abrasions that do not generally cover
the whole of the edges (in 85% of the cases) (Fig. 7). However, the
experiments have shown how the potsherds wore rapidly in con-
tact with tempered clay. With a few exceptions, the ceramic tools
were completely abraded after working this raw material for
10 min. Therefore, four-fths of the potter's ribs were used for a
shorter period of time. The remaining one-fth was used longer for
the manufacture of red clay containers.
The potter's smoothers have, likewise, few developed abrasions.
Use-traces are often conned to a small area on the outer surface of
the ceramic tools. It has generally not caused signicant reduction
of the potsherd thickness. However, the experiments have shown
how rapidly the potsherds wore out in contact with tempered clay.
Therefore, potter's smoothers identied in the Early Neolithic
pottery assemblages in south-western Bulgaria had a very short
use-time.
Conversely, the potsherds that were involved in the hide pro-
cessing always display a covering abrasion (Fig. 8). This observation
indicates at rst glance a longer period of use. Moreover, experi-
ments have shown that the potsherds from Kova cevo wore slowly
in contact with this raw material. Use-wear signicantly extend
Marble after 15 min. The extent of abrasions found on the hide scrapers
Localised from Kova cevo would, therefore, suggest a relatively long use-time.
Partial The diagnostic use-traces on ceramic tools established from the
Partial experimental reference have proved efcient to decipher the
Partial worked materials, the kinematics and the lifespan of Neolithic
Covering
recycled potsherds. The combination of these three parameters has
96 J. Vieugu
e / Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102

Fig. 4. Comparison of use-traces between archaeological (left) and experimental (right) potsherds having worked clay. The photos show (a) the regularity of abraded edge, (b) the
clear outlines of use-wear, (c) the absence of polish, (d) the abrasion of mineral inclusions, (e) the absence of chipping at the junction between abraded edges and adjacent surfaces,
(f) the presence of large and deep scratches.
 J. Vieugu
e / Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102 97

Fig. 5. Comparison of use-traces between archaeological (left) and experimental (right) potsherds having worked hide. The photos show (a) the irregularity of abraded edge, (b) the
diffuse outlines of use-wear, (c) the altered bright polish, (d) the unworn mineral inclusions, (e) the absence of chipping at the junction between abraded edges and adjacent
surfaces.
98 J. Vieugu
e / Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102

Fig. 6. Kinematics of the ceramic tools used for the manufacture of pottery: (a) potsherds with convex abraded edge perpendicular scratches, (b) potsherds with at abraded
surface random scratches.

Fig. 7. Comparison of the extent of abrasions between archaeological (left) and experimental (right) tools having worked clay during 5 min (a) and 10 min (b).

allowed the proposal of very precise assumptions on the function of
industries made from potsherds. In addition to the spindle whorls
and tokens, the research has revealed the presence of potter's
smoothers and ribs involved in the manufacture of red clay con-
tainers. They also demonstrated the existence of hide scrapers used
for making objects in organic materials. Thus, the use-wear analysis
of ceramic tools has revealed a use-range that was far more
diversied than those established from only the typological study
of industries. This functional diversity of ceramic tools was hitherto
unsuspected in the Early Neolithic of south-western Bulgaria. It
raises questions about the role of this industry in the daily life of the
rst farming societies in the Balkans.
5. Discussion: the role of ceramic tools in the daily life of the
rst Balkan farming societies
In the absence of use-wear analysis, the role of ceramic tools in
the economic sphere of the earliest agro-pastoral communities in
the Balkans was enigmatic. The information collected on the
function of recycled potsherds, combined with data from other
categories of archaeological remains, has succeeded in clarifying
this under-researched aspect. Only preliminary tests have, for the
moment, been performed regarding the Early Neolithic settlement
of Kovacevo. The techno-functional studies that were undertaken
on all the categories of archaeological remains from the site, are
 J. Vieugu
e / Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102
Fig. 8. Comparison of the extent of abrasions between archaeological (left) and experimental (right) tools having worked hide during 30 min.
ongoing (Lichardus-Itten, 2009). This exploratory work has, how-
ever, opened new perspectives about the integration of recycled
potsherds within the technical systems and the Neolithic toolkits.
5.1. The insertion of ceramic tools in the technical systems
Placing the archaeological recycled potsherds in the different
technical systems has been particularly difcult. Such a task in-
volves knowing the precise characteristics of the nished products.
However, the study of Neolithic objects manufactured with pot-
sherds is not always possible. Those made in leather or plant bre
are not preserved at the Early Neolithic settlements in south-
western Bulgaria. Even when the nished products have survived,
the identication of Neolithic objects that were effectively pro-
duced with ceramic tools has been extremely difcult. This is
particularly the case for the red clay containers. The wide and
deep scratches that are so characteristic of the use of potter's ribs
for the manufacture of pottery were often erased by the slipping
and the polishing of Neolithic pots (Vieugue
et al., 2010). Although
its limits could not be circumvented, the research has provided a
general overview of the red clay containers made with ceramic
tools. It has combined the information from the use-wear analysis
of ceramic tools with that from the technological study of pottery
conducted by L. Gomart (Salanova et al., 2010).
In Kovacevo, 568 potter's ribs have been identied. This gure is
particularly low compared to the Individual Minimum Number of
pottery that is estimated to be 98 447 red clay containers at the
site. Knowing that the lifespan of ceramic tools was quite limited, it
appears unlikely that the abraded potsherds have insured the
entire pottery production at the settlement. This nd raised the
question about the type of red clay containers that were fashioned
with ceramic tools. The abraded edges of the most complete tools
display a curved shape that is more or less pronounced. This
observation gave the impression that ceramic tools were used for
manufacturing various sizes and shapes of pottery. The technical
traces observed on 76 complete red clay containers from Kova cevo
conrm such a trend (see Vieugue
et al., 2010). The wide and deep
scratches that are diagnostic of the use of potter's ribs were
observed on different typological categories, ranging from low-
opened to very high-closed ceramic vessels. They were identied
on various size classes, ranging from 11 to 48 cm in circumference
(Fig. 9). In the current state of the data, the ceramic tools do not
seem to have been used for shaping any particular type of pottery.
Future research should attempt to clarify the factor that has
determined the use of such equipment.
Whatever the case, the recycled potsherds involved in the
manufacture of pottery would probably not have been able to work
99
the entirety of the pottery production. The potsherds were, like-
wise, not able to soften all the worked hides at the site. This nd
raised the question of complementarity with other industries that
were used by the communities during the rst half of the 6th
millennium cal BC.
5.2. The place of recycled potsherds within the Neolithic toolkits
Identifying the place of archaeological recycled potsherds
within the Neolithic toolkits of the rst Bulgarian farmers has not
been an easy exercise. Such an investigation involves knowing the
precise use-range of other industries during the rst half of the 6th
millennium cal. BC. However, the study of different type of tools
was not always possible. The wood industry, suspected of having
held a central place in Neolithic toolkits,8 is not preserved at Early
Neolithic settlements in south-western Bulgaria. Of course, this
taphonomic bias could not be circumvented. However, the com-
parison of the use-range of ceramic tools with those of bone and
lithic industries respectively established by I. Side
ra, (1998, 2012)
and M. Gurova, (2006) has allowed the importance of recycled
potsherds within the toolkits of the rst Balkan farmers to be
approached.
In Kovacevo, 576 potsherds were used for the manufacture of
ceramic vessels. Some several tens of lithic tools were also devoted
to this technical task (Gurova, 2006). On the other hand, the bone
industry was apparently not used for the production of pottery
(Side
ra, personal communication). Likewise, 579 potsherds were
involved in the manufacture of threads. Only a few stone objects
may have been integrated in textile production because their
morphology is identical to that of ceramic spindle whorls. All these
facts indicate that the recycled potsherds are mostly not occasional
substitutes of bone and lithic objects.
The recycled potsherds were fully integrated in the range of
tools used by Early Neolithic communities from Bulgaria. Comple-
mentarities are, by the way, observed between industries (Fig. 10).
In Kova cevo, two categories of tools are systematically involved in
the processing of the same raw materials. Thus, hide processing
was performed with bone and lithic objects. Clay processing
required the use of int and ceramic tools. Such complementarities
can result from a chronological change of the type of blanks used
for the manufacture of prehistoric tools. They may also reect a
synchronous use of different types of tools, as has been proven in
other historical contexts (Side
ra, 1993; Beugnier and Maigrot,
2005). The combination of different use-wear analyses, according
8
Because of the relatively small quantity of stone, bone and ceramic tools found
on the Early Neolithic settlements in the southern Balkans.
100 J. Vieugu
e / Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102
Fig. 9. Sample of red clay containers fashioned using ceramic tools (After Vieugue
to the chronological framework established from the decorated
pottery (Salanova, 2011), will be able to answer this question. Some
divisions also exist (Fig. 10). The ceramic and bone tools do not
seem to have been used in the same technical elds. This opposi-
tion between bone/clay cannot be explained by physical con-
straints. Indeed, bone tools are well-suited for working unred clay.
Indeed, some examples are known in other prehistoric societies
(Yakovleva and Skakun 2008; Maigrot, 2010). Ceramic tools are,
likewise, relatively effective for the processing of dry skin. Scrapers
made from potsherds are also recurrent in some archaeological
cultures (Skakun, 1977; Khlopina 1979). Future research should
attempt to identify the reasons for the preferential use of bone and
ceramic tools in order to perform these technical tasks.
Operating together with bone and lithic industries in a coherent
technical system, the potsherds recycled as tools obviously played
an important role in the economy of the rst farmers in south-
western Bulgaria.
Fig. 10. Complementarities and divisions between lithic, bone and ceramic industries
in the eld of hide processing and pottery manufacture.

et al., 2010).
6. Conclusion & perspectives
The research undertaken on the rst pottery productions in the
Balkans has cast new light on the importance of the recycling of
ceramic waste at the beginning of the Neolithic. Tens, hundreds or
even thousands of potsherds recycled as tools were identied at
Early Neolithic settlements in south-western Bulgaria. The issue
surrounding the function of this equipment led us to undertake its
use-wear analysis.
The investigation has required the development of a unique
observation protocol for use-traces on ceramic tools. This protocol,
suitable for the heterogeneous matrix of potsherds, includes the
examination of the ne fraction and the mineral inclusions at both
macro- and microscopic scales. The study has in parallel required
the construction of a large experimental reference (300 tests)
allowing an objective interpretation of use-traces on ceramic tools.
The experimental reference programme is the rst to vary the
worked materials (hide, wood, bone, clay and marble), the kine-
matics (perpendicular and oblique position) and the lifespan (1, 5,
10, 15 and 30 min) of ceramic tools. The research has allowed us to
establish the use-traces that are diagnostic of the various aspects of
the use of ceramic industries that hitherto had remained unclear.
The raw materials processed with potsherds have been deducted
particularly by the regularity of abraded edges, the outlines of
abrasions, the polish, the bluntness of inclusions, and the frequency
and the depth of scratches. Combined with the kinematics and the
lifespan of ceramic tools, they have allowed the proposal of very
precise hypotheses about the function of Neolithic recycled
potsherds.
The investigation has revealed the unsuspected diversity of uses
of Early Neolithic ceramic tools in south-western Bulgaria. Pot-
sherds were not only used as spindle whorls and tokens, but also as
hide scrapers, potter's ribs and smoothers during the rst half of
the 6th millennium cal. BC. The large use range of ceramic tools, as
well as their quantity, shows that Neolithic recycled potsherds did
not constitute occasional substitutes of bone and lithic objects. On
the contrary, they were fully integrated in the toolkits of the rst
Balkan farmers, carrying out certain technical productions.
 J. Vieugu
e / Journal of Archaeological Science 58 (2015) 89e102 101

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