4th International Conference on Sustainable Water Environment:

Innovative Technologies and Energy Efficient Solutions

Singapore, 17 – 19 November 2008

ROOF-TOP HARVESTING OF RAINWATER

− A SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCE IN S.E.ASIA.

Jitender Dev Sehgal

B.Sc.(Hons); B.Ch.E; M S (MIT, USA)
Member, International Water Association
Contact: email: jdsehgal@tm.net.my

ABSTRACT
The Paper has been written with a view to promote harvesting of
rainwater from roof tops, as a sustainable resource. The paper provides
relevant information on rainfall patterns, techniques applied and
equipment used to harvest rainwater from a roof top, its handling, storage
and subsequent supply for end use. Issues relating to rainwater quality
and its improvement are addressed. Benefits to be derived by users, the
environment, and by the authorities responsible for establishing and
managing water supply infrastructure are highlighted.

Frequent and relatively intensive occurrence of rainfall in South East

Asian Countries of Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and The
Philippines, and relevance of rainwater harvesting in these Countries is
reviewed. Data on long term average monthly rainfall on cities and
regions in these Countries is provided. A list of references for the various
sources of information is included.

Keywords: Rainwater Harvesting; Sustainable Water Resource;

Rainwater Storage; Rooftop Harvesting of Rainwater; Rainwater
Disinfection.

1. INTRODUCTION: that recycles through the evaporation/

Water is seemingly abundant on earth and
we take it for granted. When in scarcity however, it
becomes our most precious resource. Ask any
desert dweller about water to understand its real
value.
condensation cycle, that rains down on the earth,
flows into the rivers and lakes, to be used by
mankind. Here again, most of the rain falls directly
onto the oceans due to the large proportion of our
planet surface being covered by oceans.

Water Water Everywhere....... Continuously increasing world population and a

We are literally surrounded with it. Our oceans,
lakes, rivers and streams are full of it. We have
water underground, in the air and in the clouds
overhead. Indeed, we may assume that we have
abundance of water for our needs.
But let us not be fooled by this abundance.
Although 70% of our earth is covered with water,
only 3% is fresh water. Out of this, 2% is locked
up in the form of ice, and it is only the balance 1%
global rise in standard of living, has resulted in a
disproportionate rise in per capita consumption of
fresh water and consequently on demand for clean
water supply. The impact of this change is felt more
in the developing parts of the world, in particular in
Asia. With increasing environmental pollution,
clean water is already becoming a scarce resource
in many parts of the world. The problem is further
exacerbated by the fact that the cost for adding
infrastructure, and energy consumed to collect,
process and deliver clean water via municipal

1
systems, is rising continuously. The need to create ranging between 155 – 270 mm, and peaking
additional catchment areas to increase availability during the monsoon periods (Nov-Jan).
of fresh water, also adversely impacts on the
ecology of the environment. It is estimated that almost 86% of the 4.56 million
population in the Island State lives in high rise
There is thus an urgent need to look at alternative, buildings. A recent study carried out under the
cost effective methods to obtain clean water for TABLE 1
use, in particular for household needs, and Pattern of Rainfall on prominent locations in South East Asia
overcome these limitations. All figures as average mm rainfall per month
Cum
In the tropics, rain is the primary source of water. Location Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Annual
All the fresh water, with the exception of a small Thailand
proportion pumped out from deep aquifers on some Chiang Mai 8 113 208 65 1185
locations, comes to us via rainfall. Songkhla 48 97 108 425 2035
Phuket 33 237 321 182 2318
Widespread rainwater harvesting from roof tops, Bangkok 23 145 232 133 1598
that delivers clean water to our households, without
Indonesia
relying on municipal systems of water supply,
Bali 283 80 38 179 1740
offers one such solution. This paper discusses the Banda Aceh 116 118 114 190 1605
various aspects of rain water harvesting, in the Bandung 245 120 58 190 1839
context of some of the rain fed countries in South Bengkulu 328 243 225 420 4016
East Asia, namely Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Lumut 328 320 324 455 4277
Thailand, and The Philippines. Medan 109 155 185 240 2032
Padang 300 318 329 485 4298
Pakanbaru 209 204 174 274 2588
2. RAINFALL PATTERN IN SOUTH EAST Palembang 260 194 105 268 2464
ASIA: Pontianak 243 262 209 354 3211
Countries in South East Asia are blessed with Surabaya 259 102 19 137 1471
abundant rainfall spread more or less evenly Tanahmerah 404 378 324 368 4425
Yogyakarta 333 142 32 221 2182
throughout the annual cycle, with peaks during the
monsoon periods. Historical month-wise rainfall Singapore
data for prominent locations in each of these Singapore 215 180 164 243 2407
Countries is published by the respective
Meteorological Departments and also by other Philippines
responsible international agencies [1.2.3.4,5]. Manila 13 150 412 158 2200
Table-1 presents an abstract of rainfall data for
some of the prominent locations in the Countries P Malaysia
under reference. Perlis 64 173 228 191 1970
Kedah 70 192 227 212 2103
Trengganu 140 120 153 479 2676
It is to be noted that annual rainfall in these Kelantan 159 192 240 422 3038
Countries, ranges between 1500 mm and 2500 mm, P. Pinang 92 176 219 237 2172
with certain highlands experiencing rainfall in Pahang 178 166 155 313 2434
excess of 4000 mm. Seasonal variations inevitably Johor 188 168 156 264 2327
occur, with high monsoonal rainfall in the last Selangor (*) 145 172 153 237 2121
quarter of the annual cycle, and seasonal low Negeri Sembilan 153 162 137 241 2077
rainfall in a few regions, mostly in the first quarter Perak 128 161 144 211 1933
Melaka (*) 102 145 175 139 1684
of the year. Overall monthly average rainfall ranges
from 176 mm to 260 mm.
E. Malaysia
Considering a typical household rooftop catchment Kuching 530 232 223 396 4147
area of 50 sq m, approximately 8 – 15 cu m of K. Kinabalu 87 210 267 288 2555
rainwater is received on the roof of such dwellings
in a month corresponding to a supply of auspices of United Nations Environment
approximately 80 litres per capita per day for five Programme [6], concludes that a potential of saving
residents. of 4% of water consumed in such housing estates,
can be achieved by the harvesting of rainwater from
3. ROOF-TOP RAINWATER HARVESTING roof tops . Roof-top harvesting of rain from single
IN SOUTH EAST ASIA: and double storey dwellings, therefore, has a
limited but not insignificant potential benefit in the
Republic of Singapore: Republic.
The Republic of Singapore receives an average
annual rainfall of 2400 mm, with monthly rainfall The Republic has created an acute awareness in the

2
public, of the importance of conserving water.
Clean water supply has been augmented, by
developing alternative sources, by desalination of
sea water and purification of effluent water.
The potential of rooftop harvesting in individual
dwellings awaits to be exploited in the Republic.
Thailand:
Thailand has a population of 61.5 million with 10
million residing in Bangkok. 68% of the population
lives in rural areas.
Awareness of rainwater harvesting in the Country is
high. A large proportion of the rural population
obtains water for its needs from this source. Use of
Thai Jars for water storage, an innovation dating
back many years, has been a highly successful
approach to enable the rural residents to harvest
rainwater from their roof tops. Under a Government
promoted Rainwater Programme, over 10 million
jars were made during 1985-91. In rural
N.E.Thailand, nearly every house has at least one
huge jar for rainwater storage [7]. Typically, a
2,000 litre jar is used to store rainwater. Hygienic
storage in the jar permits the water quality to be
potable for extended periods of up to six months.
Indonesia:
Most of the islands in Indonesia receive rainfall
ranging from 1600 mm to more than 4000 mm of
rainfall annually, with higher rainfall occurring at
higher elevations.
Over two thirds of the population of 245 million
people in Indonesia lives on the island of Java.
Over 41 % of the population lives in urban areas,
mostly in individual dwellings with tiled or sheet
covered rooftops. A large proportion of rural homes
also have similarly covered roof tops. Harvesting
clean rainwater from these surfaces is thus possible.
Recognising the incidence of ground water
depletion in cities, the Indonesian Government
introduced a regulation requiring that all buildings
have an infiltration well to promote ground water
recharge using rainwater. The regulation applies to
two-thirds of the territory, including the Special
Province of Yogyakarta, the Capital Special
Province of Jakarta, West Java and Central Java
Province. This approach has resulted in diverting
rainwater from roof tops of houses into ground
water resource. However, rainwater harvesting in
rural areas is sparingly practised.
Direct harvesting of rainwater from roof tops into
storage tanks in residences has been gaining
popularity, in particular in regions removed from
easy access to clean water from wells and rivers.
However, incentives from the government, for
promoting this activity need to be provided to the
3
public to popularise rainwater harvesting.
The Philippines:
The Philippines archipelago made up of 7,107
islands has a population of 92.68 million people.
Roof-top rainwater remains a largely untapped
resource, with most of the population depending
upon piped water supply. Awareness on the benefits
of rainwater harvesting, such as access to free soft
water, mitigating of floods, alarming depletion of
ground water resource etc., has gone unheeded. It is
estimated that “77 percent of the country’s
population fetch(es) water several meters,
sometimes kilometres, from a source outside their
homes and sometimes of doubtful quality.” [8].
4. ROOFTOP AS A CATCHMENT SURFACE:
Catchment area is the surface area from which
rainwater can be collected as clean water. Usually,
this comprises the roof over a house, and any
associated covered portions of the dwelling,
including sheds, factory roofs etc. that are situated
above ground level.
The covering material as well as shape of roofs
varies widely. Any material that can be laid out as a
covering; has a light weight; and is resistant to
deterioration by extended exposure to the elements;
has been used as a roof covering. The range is
wide, and varies from the very basic materials such
as leaves, thatch, and wood, through Asphalt
shingles, Zinc sheets, interlocking tiles made of
terracotta and ceramic materials, cast concrete,
galvanized iron, plastic materials and slate, to
sophisticated designs of interlocked panels in metal
and plastics in attractive colours, laminated with
insulating materials. Amongst these, metal sheets as
well as interlocking tiles made from terracotta and
ceramics, are the most popular materials, used on
urban homes. Almost all of the materials, with the
exception of leaves & thatch, are considered
suitable surfaces to harvest clean rain water.
The most popular shape of rooftops in homes in
Asia, is a sloping roof in inverted 'V' shape in
varied designs and architectural features. Often, the
roof is also fitted with gutters to divert rainwater
into drains, to prevent erosion of ground surface
directly below the edge of the roof as well as
diverting the flow into storm water drains.
By and large, the rooftops on dwellings in South
East Asia, both in urban and rural areas, are well
suited to harvest largely un-contaminated rainwater.
However, in order to ensure that clean rainwater
falling on the catchment roof does not get
contaminated with extraneous matter that normally
collects on roof tops, it is advisable to ensure that
there are no overhanging tree branches over the
roof tops that may allow accumulation of fallen
branches and leaves as well as excreta from birds
and fauna perching on the rooftop.
5. RAINWATER HARVESTING METHOD:
Rainwater is harvested using an installation of
pipes and tanks in an arrangement that allows for
automatically or manually diverting the first flush
of rain that is contaminated with dirt etc. deposited
on the catchment’s area followed by collection in a
storage tank for further use. The installation also
includes some equipment to supply water into
consumption outlets via pumping or gravity flow
depending upon the arrangement. Provision may
also be made for chemical dosing and water
filtration. A brief description of the components,
their functions and inter-connection follows:
The size of a roof catchment area is the building’s
footprint under the roof. The catchment surface is
limited to the area of roof, which is guttered.
Roof Gutters & Down Spouts: These are the
adequately sized, gently sloping transport channels
skirting the roof edges to collect and divert water
into down spouts that drain away the water into
storm water drains. Theese gutters are open top
channels in the shape of half rounds, ‘V’ or ‘U’ .
Coarse wire mesh screens may be installed over the
gutters to avoid clogging of the down spout
Rainwater
Roof Gutter
Down spout
Arrangement of rainwater Catchment
roof with Gutters & Down spouts
Figure 1
attached to the gutters. At suitable intervals
alongside the gutters, adequately sized vertical or
slanting down spouts are installed to drain away the
water into an arrangement of roof washer and clean
water storage tank. A typical arrangement of
catchment area, gutters and down spouts is shown
in Figure-1.
Roof-asher: This consists of a stand pipe (or a
small container) adequately sized to receive at least
30 litres of first-flush dirty water for every 100 sq
m of catchment area, thereby by-passing the first
flow of rain carrying dirt, bird droppings etc.
washed away from the roof at the beginning of a
rain fall incident. It is fitted with an overflow pipe
that starts to deliver clean water after the Roof-
washer is filled with the predetermined quantity of
dirty water. A fine mesh filter vertically placed at
the entrance to the overflow pipe allows for self
cleaning of the trapped material, thus permitting
unhindered flow of filtered water into the rainwater
4
storage tank. The dirty water collected may be
used for watering of plants etc. A typical
arrangement of a roof washer is shown in Figure-2.
Down
Spout Fine mesh
Screen
Roof
Washer
~3 L /Sq M
Catchment
Area
Storage
Tank
Drain
Valve
To Drain
Roof Washer
Figure 2
Storage Tank: The Storage Tank for collection of
water forms a major component of the installation.
It should be constructed out of a cost effective
material and provide for hygienic storage. The
important factors to consider are:
a) Size of Storage Tank: The tank must
provide for adequate capacity to receive
required amount of rain water to maximise
availability of water during dry periods.
Optimal size of a storage tank, should be
determined based on factors such as daily
requirement of water usage, and the
amount of available rainwater based on the
size of catchment area and the rainfall
pattern in the geographical location.
Typically, a 500 – 2000 litre capacity tank
is commonly used, since the replenishment
frequency by rainfall in the S. E. Asian
region is high.
b) Shape and Location of Tank: Tanks can
be built in almost any geometrical shape
desired, such as cylindrical (vertical or
horizontal), spherical, hexagonal,
rectangular, jar shapes etc. Selection of a
suitable shape not only depends upon
location where the tank will be placed, but
also on the ease of fabrication depending
upon the chosen material of construction,
and aesthetics. While conventional shapes
remain horizontal or vertical cylinders,
some very attractive innovative shapes
such as Thai Jars have been produced to
harmonize the storage tank with the
surroundings as well as to fit into tight
spaces.
c) Material of Construction: Selection of
material of construction of a water storage
tank should be made considering costs,
availability of ready built tanks vis a vis
site fabricated tanks. Commercially
 manufactured tanks are often made from
different plastics such as PP, HDPE, GRP,
Galvanised Iron, aluminium, and other
materials. However, site fabricated tanks
made from ferro-cement, concrete, clay
lined with water resistant plastic sheet are
a popular alternative to purchased tanks.
The advantage of building low cost tanks
avoiding transportation costs often
outweighs that of purchasing a ready built
tank, especially for rural locations.
d) Essential Features of a Rainwater Tank:
In order to ensure that the harvested water
remains safe from contamination, the
storage tank should have certain special
features built into its design. Some of
these are:
i. All wetted surface of the tank
should be water resistant for long
periods, and must not
contaminate the contained water.
ii. The tank should be completely
dark inside at all times to prevent
growth of algae.
iii. The manhole and any other
access openings provided should
be protected from ingress of
foreign matter when opened.
iv. Air vent and overflow pipe
pump. Use of vessels to remove
water by dipping into the tank
must be avoided at all times, to
safeguard the water from
contamination.
ix. Provision should be made to add
chemicals required for
disinfection, in case the water is
used for potable purposes.
Caution: Rainwater collected from surfaces
containing lead is considered unsuitable for
potable use. In case treated rainwater is intended to
be used for potable purposes, it should be tested
and certified by an authorised chemical testing
laboratory.
Inter-connection of Rainwater Harvesting
Components:
A scheme of inter connections of the different
components for rainwater harvesting in urban
homes also fitted with municipal supply of water, is
shown in Figure-3. This scheme provides for
automatic operation of rain water supply for
domestic use in toilet cisterns, showers, wash
Analysis of Rainwater collected in Johor Bahru on December 20, 2007
WHO Drinking
Test Parameters Units Sample
Water
Guidelines Remarks
pH - 7–8 6.5 - 8.5
Down pipe
From Water Mains

should be covered with a screen Temperature Deg C 22 not specified

Indoor Overhead Tank

to prevent entry of insects, lizards Wire Screen

For toilets, Washbasins, Showers etc

Aquatic life requires >5

and other small animals. Dissolved Oxygen ppm 4
Low Level Switch ppm dissolved oxygen
Roof Washer

v. Water inlet connection should be % Oxygen Saturation % 46

extended inside the tank and Rainwater Storage Tank Power Supply
Exceptionally clear
arranged to discharge water Turbidity JTU* 0 < 5 tube
Level Indicator NTU unfiltered water
upwards, such that the entry of
Pressure
  Switch To outdoor use

Odour nil good

water does not disturb any silt
that may have settled in the tank. Drain Drain
No Detectable Rainwater Supply Pump

Taste Taste   good

vi. Discharge connection from the  
tank should be arranged such that * Jackson Turbidity Units. The test uses a Secchi Disk submerged in a specific container
Rain Water Harvesting System
only clear water is removed from basins, and general cleaning uses. On occasions
near the top preferably with a Figure 3
floating suction assembly using a
flexible hose with its open end when rainwater in the tank runs dry,
covered with a screen and
attached to a float. municipal supply is automatically
activated.
vii. Provision should be made for
determining the level of water in Caution: Installation of the rainwater harvesting
the tank at all times with the aid system should only be carried out by trained
of a level gauge. Use of a dip- persons authorised by local authorities.
stick must be avoided to prevent
possible contamination of water. E. RAINWATER QUALITY:
viii. Discharge of water from the tank Water quality is a term used to describe the
must be carried out either via a chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of
tap attached to it, or using a water, usually in respect to its suitability for a
manual or electric operated particular end use. Although scientific

5
measurements are used to define water’s quality, Kit produced by LaMotte [9]. The results of the test
it's not sufficient to say that "this water is good," or are shown in Table-2.
"this water is bad." After all, water that is perfectly
good to wash a car with, may not be good enough Table 2.
to serve as drinking water. When the average
person asks about water quality, he probably wants Analysis of Rainwater from Johor Bahru
to know if the water is good enough to use at home,
to play in, to drink or cook with etc., or if the
Parameter Laboratory DWQS Remarks
quality of water is suitable for aquatic plants and
animals. pH 5.58 6.5-9.0 Acidic
Ammonia mg/l NH3-N 0.01 0.5 Acceptable
Hardness Mg mg/l CaCO 0.57 150 Soft
Rainwater has a distinct advantage over other water Hardness Ca mg/l CaCO 1.39
sources in that it is one of the purest sources of Turbidity NTU* max. 1 5 Clear
Colour TCU 3.67 15 Acceptable
water available. Droplets of rainwater contain TDS 11.3 1000 Acceptable
mainly the following impurities: BOD 3 days 30 C
1 mg/l 7.2-6.9 Max 6
0.5 mg/l 7.1-6.95 slight pollution
− Dissolved oxygen from the air in
(ref: Water Malaysia Issue No. 10 (August 2005)
contact (beneficial to living beings).
− Dissolved carbon dioxide from the *Nephelometric Turbidity Units

air (like that in soda water, but to a The microbiological quality of the water
much lesser content). was not tested.
− Nitrogen oxides formed by
lightening (imparts very dilute acidity In another independent study at University
to the water). Technologi Malaysia, rainwater harvested in Johor
− Sulfur dioxide gas contained in the was analysed in detail [10]. The results of this
combustion gases from burning of analysis are given in Table-3.
sulfur bearing fuels on the ground
(imparts very dilute acidity to the
water). Table 3
Analysis of Rainwater collected in Johor Bahru
However, contamination with soluble, insoluble on December 20, 2007
and microbiological impurities occurs when it
WHO
comes in contact with the roof surface and beyond. Drinking
In South East Asian Countries, where most roofs Water
Test Parameters Units Sample Guidelines Remarks
are built from terracotta or ceramic tiles, with a pH - 7–8 6.5 - 8.5
sloping orientation, washed by frequent rainfall, Temperature Deg C 22
Aquatic life requires
the accumulation of debris is minimal, and what Dissolved Oxygen ppm 4 >5
there is, is easily washed away during the first % Oxygen Saturation % 46
Exceptionally clear
flush of rain. By-passing the first flush of water as Turbidity JTU* 0 < 5 NTU unfiltered water
described earlier, minimises any contamination, Odour Nil good
No
and relatively clean water is collected in the Detectable
storage tank. With this arrangement, rainwater Taste Taste good
* Jackson Turbidity Units. The test uses a Secchi Disk submerged in a specific container
quality almost always exceeds that of ground or
surface waters since the water does not come into
contact with soil and rocks where it may dissolve
salts and minerals and also pick up soil borne When compared to the Drinking Water Guidelines
micro-organisms. Further, it is not exposed to issued by the World Health Organisation, the
many of the pollutants that often are discharged analysis showed that the quality of rainwater was
into surface waters such as rivers, and which can superior in respect of almost all parameters
contaminate groundwater. analysed with the exception of pH (marginal). The
chemical analysis also confirmed that the mineral
It should be noted however that rainwater quality content in rainwater was significantly lower, due to
could be influenced by the locality where it falls the fact that this water had not come in contact with
since localized industrial emissions into the the ground to pick up soluble minerals.
atmosphere, will affect its purity. Rainwater falling
in non-industrialized areas will probably be Aesthetic concerns such as colour, taste, smell,
superior to that in cities dominated by heavy comprise the secondary testing criteria used to
industry. evaluate publicly supplied water. When assessed
according to these characteristics, rainwater proves
The author analysed rainwater immediately upon to be of better quality than well or municipal tap
collection in Johor Barhu, Malaysia, using a Test water due to the absence of impurities present such

6
as dissolved salts, suspended particles of sand, clay
and silt that contribute to turbidity, colour and
smell.
Rainwater is the softest naturally occurring water
available, with a hardness of zero for all practical
purposes. This obviates the need for a water
softener, often an expensive requirement for well
water systems. Water heaters and pipes remain free
of deposits caused by hard water and should last
longer.
F. TREATMENT:
While no further treatment of rainwater is necessry
for its use as a washing medium, certain basic
treatment methods when applied, can upgrade its
quality further, to make it suitable for other
intended purpose of uses.
Suspended solid particles in the rainwater are easily
filtered out using muslin cloth or fine wire mesh as
a filter medium.
The very low concentration of dissolved salts and
minerals found in rainwater allows for minimal
addition of neutralizing chemicals to adjust the pH
to near neutral where necessary. Use of baking
soda (sodium bicarbonate) is recommended, as it is
commonly available and safe to handle in
households. One or two tbsp of baking soda is
normally sufficient to neutralise the acidity present
in 1000 litres of rainwater and buffer it to neutral
pH.
Since the likelihood for the rainwater to be
contaminated with micro-organisms picked up from
rooftops, gutters and pipes is high, treatments to
destroy these pathogens is necessary if the water is
used for potable purposes. Established techniques
of disinfecting water, such as dosing sodium hypo-
chlorite (commonly available domestic use bleach);
boiling before use; or more sophisticated treatments
of ultra-filtration followed by UV light exposure
may be applied. In rural environment, rainwater
filtered through muslin cloth may be chlorinated by
addition of two tbsp of domestic chlorine bleach in
1000 litres of water in the storage tank.
Caution: If it is intended to be used as drinking
water, it is advisable to subject the rainwater to
testing by a Certified Test Laboratory to conform to
potable water standards.
G. BENEFITS GALORE:
A close look at decentralised rainwater harvesting
from rooftops reveals many benefits to all
concerned with the establishing and management of
supply chain of clean water; and to the end user.
These include:
For the environment:
7
− Receiving and consuming water locally, avoids
the use of energy for pumping it through long
distances that are an inherent feature of
centralised water distribution systems (read..
reduced fuel burning / carbon emissions /
global warming)
− Capturing water directly from the roof top,
significantly reduces reliance on supply of
water from storage dams. (read... independence
from municipal supply failures, especially
during natural and man made disasters).
− Reduced dependence on designated catchment
areas, water storage facilities and the need to
expand these or build new ones to meet
increased future requirement of water (read...
prevention of ecological damage).
− Rainwater harvesting lessens local soil erosion
and flash floods caused by the rapid run off of
storm water particularly from impervious cover
such as pavements and roofs as some rain is
instead captured, stored and gradually released
into drains after use (read... reduced soil
erosion, disruptions and property damage from
flash floods).
To the consumer of water:
− Independent and ample supply of clean water
to the dwellings.
− Water received is free of costs. Use of this
water significantly reduces water bills, and also
cost of purchased detergents. Costs incurred
for purifying the water for potable use are
nominal.
To the Water Supply agencies:
− Reduce the burden for new investment to
build, operate and maintain additional water
supply systems such as reservoirs, water
treatment plants and distribution systems
necessary to meet the ever increasing demands
for water (Think ... saving of tax payers
money)
− Save on land area committed to store water in
artificial lakes built for the purpose.
− Lower levels of storm water run-off requires
smaller sized storm water drainage systems.
− Reduced consumption of treated water would
lead to reduction in treatment and distribution
costs, leading to savings in operating expenses.
− Reduced demand for on-tap water supply,
relieves water supply agencies from
maintaining 24/7 supply of water.
− Use of treated water to a high standard of
quality is costly. It is an overkill to use such
water for washing, gardening etc. by the
consumer. Rainwater harvested directly by the
consumer for these uses, would avoid wasteful
expenditure on treating and supplying quality
water that eventually ends up being used for
washing, toilet flushing, gardening etc.
REFERENCES:
1. Thai Meteorological Department's website
www.Metnet.tmd.go.th
2. Water Resource Unit, Hydrology & Water
Resource Division, Department of
Irrigation & Drainage, Malaysia
3. www.weatherbase.com/weather
4. www.worldclimate.com
5. www.worldtravels.com/cities
6. United Nations Environment Programme:
'An Environmentally Sound Approach for
Sustainable Urban Water Management: An
Introductory Guide for Decision-Makers'
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/urb
an/urbanenv-2/9.asp
7. 'Thailand Promotes Rainwater Harvesting'.
Rainwater Harvesting Digest
http://www.rwhdigest.com/download/thai-
jar.pdf
8. Rexel John B. Sorza, 'Collecting Heaven's
Water for the Philippines'.
www.islamonline.net > Health & Science
> nature > ecology.
9. LaMotte , P.O.Box 329-802 Washington
Avenue, Chestertown, MD 21620, USA.
10. Mohammad Afifi Abdul Mukti et al:
Rainwater Harvesting – An Opportunity
Neglected, Water Malaysia issue No. 10,
(Aug 2006)

DISCLAIMER:
Readers are advised to ascertain the accuracy and
reliability of the information contained in this
document independently. The author shall not be held
responsible for any loss or damage that may arise
directly or indirectly from the use of the information
contained in this document.

COPYRIGHT: Author