BAHASA INGGRIS 2

Dosen : Ricky Perdana

Disusun Oleh :

NABILLA AGUSTIANA ( 15216234 )

1EA12

FAKULTAS EKONOMI

UNIVERSITAS GUNADARMA

2016

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 Contents

Chapter 1

A. Some and Any.................................................................................................

B. Much and Many..............................................................
C. A lot of and A few.............................................

Chapter 2

A. Articel a, an, and the.............................................

Chapter 3

A. Active and Passive sentence in Present Simple.............................................

B. Active and Passive sentence in Present Continous.............................................
C. Active and Passive sentence in Present Perfect.............................................

Chapter 4

A. Active and Passive sentence in Past Simple.............................................

B. Active and Passive sentence in Past Continous.............................................
C. Active and Passive sentence in Past Perfect.............................................

Chapter 5

A. Indefinite Pronoun (some-, any-, no-) .............................................

B. Reflexive Pronoun.............................................

Chapter 6

A. Have Something Done.............................................

B. Causative Have............................................. .............................................

Chapter 7

A. Determiner: all, each, every, few, little.............................................

Chapter 8

A. Question tag.............................................

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Chapter 9

A. So and Such.............................................
B. Third Conditional.............................................

Chapter 10

A. Direct And Indirect Speech...................................................

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 CHAPTER 1
A. Some/any

The words some and any are used when the speaker cannot specify or does not need/want to
specify a number or an exact amount. Compare the following sentences:

- I saw seven deer when riding my bike in the forest yesterday. (It is important that you know
how many deer I saw.)
- I saw some deer when riding my bike in the forest yesterday. (I don't know exactly how many
deer I saw. Or: It is not important that you know exactly how many deer I saw.)

The "rules" that follow apply also to words

containing some and any: somebody/anybody, something/anything, etc.

In general, some is used in positive sentences:

I got some nice presents for Christmas this year.

This job is going to take some time.

Look! There are some large black birds on the roof of the church.

You have some butter on your chin.

If you are hungry, there are some biscuits in the cupboard.

I'm sure I'll return to Japan some day.

There is somebody on the phone for you.

I'd like to go somewhere hot this summer.

In general, any is used in negative sentences and questions:

I didn't get any nice presents for Christmas this year.

I looked in the cupboard but I couldn't find any biscuits.

I don't need any help.

She's so rude. No wonder she doesn't have any friends.

I don't have anything to wear to the dance.

I'm not hungry. I don't want anything to eat.

Do you have any brothers or sisters?

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 Did you catch any fish?

Have you seen any good films recently?

Does anyone know the answer?

Are you going anywhere this Christmas?

In fact, the use of some/any is a little more complicated. Following are two common occasions
when the above "rules" are "broken":

1. We can use some in questions when offering/requesting:

Would you like some more tea?

Could I have some milk, please?

Do you want something to eat?

2. We use any in positive sentences when we mean it doesn't matter which ..:

You can come and ask for my help any time.

Which book shall I read? - Any one. It's up to you.

You can sit anywhere but here. This is my seat!

B. Much vs Many

Much and many they can be a bit confusing. Many people would use them properly, but most
likely based on intuitive judgment. Yet, there are definite rules on how to use the words
correctly.

Both much and many are determiners, and have the same or similar definition. They mean a
lot of, or in great quantities, or a great amount. They may mean the same, but their usage
differs.

These are the rules regarding the usage of much and many in the English language:

If a noun is an uncountable noun (which is often in singular form), the much determiner should
be used.

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Examples:

How much money will it cost me?

This is what I get for drinking too much coffee.
How much sleep do you get every night?

On the other hand, the determiner many should be used with countable nouns, or plural nouns.

Examples:

How many brothers and sisters have you got?

There are many empty chairs in the event.
How many fruits are there on the table?
Many children are impoverished in that region of the world.
There are many challenges that lie ahead.

In affirmative sentences, much is not usually used. A lot of, or lots of, is usually preferred.

Examples:

I have a lot of work to do. (NOT much work)

I do not eat a lot of rice because I am on a diet. (NOT much rice)

When much is preceded by so, too, or as, it can be comfortably used in affirmative
sentences.

Examples:

I have so much work to do!

Thats too much rice for me to consume.
Train as much as possible, so you can be the best you can be.

However, many can be used in affirmative sentences extensively. It can be substituted with a
lot of, or lots of, as well.

Examples:

There are many things that we can do with this. (lots of things is also correct)
Many animals are migrating south in this time of year. (lots of animals is also correct)

Summary:

1. Much should be appropriately used with uncountable nouns, while Many should be
used with countable nouns.

2. Much is most likely used with singular nouns, while Many is used with plurals.

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 3. Much is awkward in affirmative sentences, if not preceded by so, too, or as,
while Many can be used extensively in affirmative sentences.

C. A lot of and A few

A lot

The words a lot must be written as two words. The phrase has the same meaning as
both many and much and can be interchanged with either one.

A lot is followed by of when the meaning is general or by of the when the meaning is specific:

Example Meaning

A lot of people have done research on General

discrimination practices among employers. meaning
People
A lot of the people at the meeting disagree with Specific
the market strategy presented. meaning

A lot of money is spent on the battle against General

AIDS. meaning
Money
The committee used a lot of the money Specific
surveying the population. meaning

Sometimes, a lot can also end a sentence, but it is considered an informal expression:

We laughed a lot.
The budget for the universities in the state of Minnesota has grown a lot.

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 A Few

A few and a few of the focus on the number of students, implying that some students did
something (positive meaning). Few and few of the focus on the low percentage of students who did
something (negative meaning).

POSITIVE MEANING

A few students chose the take-home test.

A few of the students want to be lawyers.

NEGATIVE MEANING

Few students approve of the decision.

Few of the students decided to transfer.

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 CHAPTER 2
A. Article

a. The Indefinite Article a /an is used

1) . before a singular countable noun mentioned for the first time.

He has a blue suit.
Betty saw an owl last night.

2) when the listener does not know which particular person or thing we mean.
Please give me a pen, Mary.

N.B. a is used before a noun beginning with a consonant sound.

o a boy
o a one-way road
o a European
o a uniform

an is used before a noun beginning with a vowel sound.

o an egg
o an hour
o an MTR train

b. The Definite Article the is used

a) to refer to a noun that has been mentioned before or that is known to both the
speaker and the listener.
He has a dog and a cat. The dog is friendly, but the cat is not.
The man you met just now is my uncle.

b) before a comparative or superlative adjective.

Paul is the fatter one.
Compare: Paul is fatter than David.
Andrew is the fattest boy in our class.

c) before an ordinal number.

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 The second chapter is very interesting.

d) before a noun that is unique.

The sun rises in the east.

e) with some adjectives to talk about a specific group of people.

We should be more concerned with the poor and the sick.

f) before musical instruments.

I started playing the piano when I was six.

g) before names of buildings, mountain ranges, seas, rivers, certain countries

which start with UNITED or end in s, and groups of islands.
The Lee Theatre has been pulled down.
I really want to climb the Himalayas.
The Atlantic Ocean separates the United States from the United Kingdom.

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 CHAPTER 3

A. Present Simple Tense

Use the simple present tense to make a generalization, to present a state of being, or to
indicate a habitual or repeated action.

a. Active
base form or -s/-es form

example :

Professor Brown teaches at Hunter.

All humans are equal.
Maria eats in the cafeteria

b. Passive

am/is/are + past participle

example :

Sonia is taught by Professor Brown.

All humans are created equal.
The cafeteria is cleaned

B. Active and Passive sentence in Present Continous

Use the present progressive to describe an ongoing activity or a temporary action.

a. Active

am/is/are + -ing

example :

The students are learning Spanish.

I am working at McDonalds until I finish school.

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 b. Passive

am/is/are + being + -ed/-en

Classes are being conducted in Spanish.

He is being hired to work at McDonalds.

C. Active and Passive sentence in Present Perfect

Use the present perfect to describe an action occurring in the past but relevant to the
present, or extending to the present.

a. Active

has/have + -ed/-en

example :

Hunter has opened a language institute in East Harlem.

Hunter has offered E.S.L courses for twenty years.

b. Passive

has/have + been + -ed/-en

The language institute has been opened to relocate students off the main campus.
E.S.L. courses have been offered since the beginning of Open Admissions

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 Chapter 4
A. Active and Passive sentence in Past Simple
Use the simple past to indicate a general or habitual action occurring in the past or
at a specific time in the past.
a. Active
base + -ed or irregular form
example :
Our family bought all our clothes at Sears when I was young.
On my fifteenth birthday, my uncle gave me one hundred dollars
When I was in high school, my friends and I drove to the mall on weekends.
b. Passive
was/were + -ed/-en
example :
The clothes were bought by my mother
The money was given to me to buy new clothes
We were always driven to the mall by my friend's older brother.

In informal conversation, speakers of English often express habitual behavior in the past
using the modal would.

a. Active

would + base

example :

We would usually eat burgers in the food court.

b. Passive

would + be + -ed/-en

example :

o Most of the french fries would be eaten before we got to the table.

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 B. Active and Passive sentence in Past Continous
Use the past progressive to indicate an ongoing action in the past or an action
continuing through a specific past time.
a. Active
was/were + -ing
example :
o Mary and Paul were dating in those days
a. Passive
was/were + being + -ed/-en
example :
One afternoon, Mary was being kissed by Paul when her mother passed by.

C. Active and Passive sentence in Past Perfect

Use the past perfect to indicate an action completed prior to a particular time or before
another action in the past.

a. Active

had + -ed/-en

example :

Mary's mother was shocked because she had forbidden her daughter to date

b. Passive

had + been + -ed/-en

example :

Mary had been cried many times before that day.

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 Chapter 5
A. Indefinite Pronoun (some-, any-, no-)
As the name suggests indefinite pronouns are pronouns that are not definite in
meaning. In other words they are not specific in which noun they replace. They may be singular
or plural, and must match the verb in number.

There are two categories of indefinite pronouns. The first category includes pronouns
that refer to a nonspecific noun. These pronouns are:

Person Place Thing

All everyone everywhere everything

everybody

Part (positive) someone somewhere something

somebody

Part (negative) anyone anywhere anything

anybody

None no one nowhere nothing

nobody

Indefinite pronouns with some and any are used to describe indefinite and incomplete
quantities in the same way that some and any are used alone.
Indefinite pronouns are placed in the same location as a noun would go in the
sentence.

Noun Indefinite pronoun

I would like to go to Paris this summer. I would like to go somewhere this summer.

Jim gave me this book. Someone gave me this book.

I won't tell your secret to Sam. I won't tell your secret to anyone.

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Noun Indefinite pronoun

I bought my school supplies at the mall. I bought everything at the mall.

B. Reflexive Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun is a type of pronoun that is preceded by the adverb, adjective, pronoun, or
noun to which it refers, so long as that antecedent is located within the same clause.

In English grammar, a reflexive pronoun indicates that the person who is realizing the action of
the verb is also the recipient of the action. While this might seem strange at first glance, the
following examples of reflexive pronouns and the accompanying list of reflexive pronouns will
help you gain thorough understanding. In fact, you will probably notice that you yourself use
reflexive pronouns frequently when speaking or writing.

The reflexive pronouns are:

Singular: myself - yourself - himself - herself - itself

Plural: ourselves - yourselves - themselves

When we use a reflexive pronoun

We use a reflexive pronoun:

as a direct object when the object is the same as the subject of the verb:

I am teaching myself to play the piano.

Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself.

We can use a reflexive pronoun as direct object with most transitive verbs, but these are the most
common:

amuse blame cut dry enjoy help

hurt introduce kill prepare satisfy teach

Some verbs change their meaning slightly when they have a reflexive pronoun as direct object:

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 Would you like to help yourself to another drink?
= Would you like to take another drink.

I wish the children would behave themselves.

= I wish the children would behave well.

He found himself lying by the side of the road.

= He was surprised when he realised that he was at the side of the road.

I saw myself as a famous actor.

= I imagined that I was a famous actor.

She applied herself to the job of mending the lights.

= She worked very hard to mend the lights.

He busied himself in the kitchen.

= He worked busily in the kitchen.

I had to content myself with a few Euros.

= I had to be satisfied with a few Euros.

We do not use a reflexive pronoun after verbs which describe things people usually do for
themselves, such as wash, shave, dress:

He washed [himself] in cold water.

He always shaved [himself] before going out in the evening.
Michael dressed [himself] and got ready for the party.

We only use reflexives with these verbs for emphasis:

He dressed himself in spite of his injuries.

Shes old enough to wash herself.

as indirect object when the indirect object is the same as the subject of the verb:

Would you like to pour yourself a drink.

Weve brought ourselves something to eat.

as the object of a preposition when the object refers to the subject of the clause:

They had to cook for themselves.

He was feeling very sorry for himself.

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Warning

But we use personal pronouns, not reflexives, after prepositions of place...

He had a suitcase beside him.

and after with when it means "accompanied by":

She had a few friends with her.

We use a reflexive pronoun...

with the preposition by when we want to show that someone did

something alone and/or without any help:

He lived by himself in an enormous house.

She walked home by herself.

The children got dressed by themselves.

I prepared the whole meal by myself.

to emphasise the person or thing we are referring to:

Kendal itself is quite a small town.

especially if we are talking about someone very famous:

Sir Paul McCartney himself sang the final song.

We often put the reflexive pronoun at the end of the clause when we are using it for emphasis:

I baked the bread myself.

She mended the car herself

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 Chapter 6
A. Have Something Done

What someone does for us

We use have + object + -ed form when we talk about someone doing something for us which
we ask or instruct them to do. It emphasises the process/action rather than who performs it:

Were having the house painted next week. (We are not going to paint the house ourselves.
Someone else will paint it. The emphasis is on the fact that the house is being painted rather
than who is doing it.)

Warning:

This pattern is not the same as the present perfect or past perfect.

Compare

I had my hair cut. Someone cut my hair.

Ive cut my hair.

I cut my own hair.
Id cut my hair.

We can also use have + object + -ed form when something bad happens, especially when
someone is affected by an action which they did not cause:

Theyve had their car stolen. (They are affected by the action of the car being stolen but
they did not cause this to happen.)

Hundreds of people had their homes destroyed by the hurricane. (Hundreds of people were
affected by the hurricane, which they did not cause.)

Asking or instructing

We use the pattern have + object + infinitive without to when we talk about instructing
someone (underlined) to do something. We use it to emphasise who performed the action:

Ill have Harry book you a taxi. (I will instruct Harry to book a taxi for you. Emphasis is on
who will do the action more than on the action.)

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He had Kay make us all some tea.

Talking about an experience

We use have + object + -ing form or infinitive without to to talk about an event or experience.
We use the -ing form for an event in progress and the infinitive without to for a completed
event:

We had a man singing to us as we sat in the restaurant having our meal.

We had a strange woman come to the door selling pictures.

We can also use the -ing form to describe an ongoing action that someone or something is
causing:

Her story had us laughing so much. (Her story was making us laugh.)

I just had them doing stretch routines, and after, they got really good at it.

B. Causative Have

We use a causative verb when we want to talk about something that someone else did for us or
for another person. It means that the subject caused the action to happen, but didn't do it
themselves. Maybe they paid, or asked, or persuaded the other person to do it. For example, we
can say:

I cleaned my house. (This means I cleaned it myself).

If I paid someone to clean it, of course I can say:

A cleaner cleaned my house.

But, another way is to use a causative construction. So I can also say:

I had my house cleaned.

In a sense, using a causative verb is similar to using a passive. The important thing is that the
house is now clean. We don't focus on who did the cleaning.

Have + object + past participle (have something done)

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 We usually use 'have something done' when we are talking about paying someone to do
something for us. It's often used for services. The form is 'subject + have + object + past
participle'.

I had my car washed.

John will have his house painted.

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 Chapter 7
Determiner: both, all, each, every, few, little

a. Basic uses of both and all

1. We use both and both the in exactly the same way to refer to two particular people or things
(plural countable nouns):

Both children /both the children are in bed.

2. We use all+noun to refer to things in general (=the whole number or amount):

All children like to play (plural countables).

All advice is useless (uncountable nouns).

3. All the refers to particular people or things:

All the children in our street like to play (=all the+ plural countable nouns)
All the advice you gave me was useless (=all the+ uncountable noun)

Three basic positions of both and all in affirmative sentences

1) . After be when it is the only verb in a sentence:

The girls are both ready (=Both girls/Both the girls are ready)
The girls are all ready (=All the girls are ready)

2. After auxiliaries or the first auxiliary when there is more than one:

The boys can both speak French (=Both boys/Both the boys can speak French)
The committee should all have resigned (=All the committee should have
resigned)

3. Before the main verb when there is only one verb:

The girls both left early (=Both girls/Both the girls left early)
The girls all left early (=All the girls left early)

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b. Basic uses of each and every

1. We often use Each and every to refer to two people or things. When referring to more than to
we can use both each and every. Each suggests one by one , separately; every suggests all
together:

My wife and I each ordered avocado to start with.

Each child at the party had a piece of cake (Every is possible )
Every child in the world loves ice-cream

2. We must use Every after nearly and after not :

Nearly every shop is shut today.

3. We cannot use of after every and we cannot use every at the end of a sentence:

Each of the child received a present. They received a present each.

c. Basic uses of little/a little and few/a few

We use few and a few with plural countable nouns: a few friends, few friends.

We use little and a little with uncountable nouns: a little time, little time.

1. A little means some but not much, a small quantity:

He knows a little French.

2. A few a small number

We are going away for a few days

Compare :
I ve got a little money (=some, but not much)
I ve got little money(= nearly no)
Ive got a few friends (=some, but not many)
Ive got few friends (=nearly no)

We sometimes use only with a few and a little :

Ive got only a little time.

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 Chapter 8
A. Question tag

Question tags are the short questions that we put on the end of sentences particularly in spoken
English. There are lots of different question tags but the rules are not difficult to learn.

Positive/negative

If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative .

Hes a doctor, isnt he?

You work in a bank, dont you?

... and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.

You havent met him, have you?

She isnt coming, is she?

With auxiliary verbs

The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an auxiliary verb
(have, be) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.

Theyve gone away for a few days, havent they?

They werent here, were they?

He had met him before, hadnt he?

This isnt working, is it?

Without auxiliary verbs

If the main part of the sentence doesnt have an auxiliary verb, the question tag uses an
appropriate form of do.

I said that, didnt I?

You dont recognise me, do you?

She eats meat, doesnt she?

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With modal verbs

If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence the question tag uses the same modal
verb.

They couldnt hear me, could they?

You wont tell anyone, will you?

With I am

Be careful with question tags with sentences that start I am. The question tag for I am is
arent I?

Im the fastest, arent I?

Intonation

Question tags can either be real questions where you want to know the answer or simply asking
for agreement when we already know the answer.

If the question tag is a real question we use rising intonation. Our tone of voice rises.
If we already know the answer we use falling intonation. Our tone of voice falls.

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 CHAPTER 9
A. So and Such

SO and SUCH often have the same meaning : 'very' or 'to this degree'.

So is used before an adjective or an adverb (without a noun after it):

so big

so carefully

Such is followed by 'a' or 'an', + an adjective + a singular noun :

such a long time

such an incredible story

Such is used without a, an before plural nouns, mass nouns (luggage, furniture)
and abstract nouns (advice, courage, generosity, kindness ... )

such fools

such (beautiful) furniture

such generosity

Compare the following sentences:

This book is so interesting.

This is such an interesting book.

Such interesting books are hard to find.

I was amazed that the crowd was so big.

I was amazed that there was such a big crowd.

Such big crowds can be frightening.

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 The story was so complicated.

It was such a complicated story.

Such complicated stories are difficult to follow.

You are so intelligent.

You are such an intelligent person.

A person of such intelligence is a pleasure to meet.

So ... that and such ... that are used to describe reasons and results.

So + adjective + that :
The hotel was so comfortable that we decided to stay another night.

Such + adjective + noun + that :

It's such a comfortable hotel that we'll definitely stay there again.

b. Third Conditional

The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third
conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition in the past that did not happen.
That is why there is no possibility for this condition. The third conditional is also like a dream,
but with no possibility of the dream coming true.

Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win.

if condition result

Past Perfect would have + past participle

If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car.

Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You did not win the lottery. So
the condition was not true, and that particular condition can never be true because it is finished.
We use the Past Perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use would have +

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past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing about the third
conditional is that both the condition and result are impossible now.

Look at these example senteces:

if condition result

Past Perfect would have + past participle

If I had seen Mary, I would have told her.

If Tara had been free yesterday, I would have invited her.

If they had not passed their exam, their teacher would have been sad.

If it had rained yesterday, would you have stayed at home?

If it had rained yesterday, what would you have done?

result if condition

would have + past participle Past Perfect

I would have told Mary if I had seen her.

I would have invited Tara if she had been free yesterday.

Their teacher would have been sad if they had not passed their exam.

Would you have stayed at home if it had rained yesterday?

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result if condition

would have + past participle Past Perfect

What would you have done if it had rained yesterday?

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 CHAPTER 10
A. Direct And Indirect Speech

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

PRESENT TENSE
PRESENT SIMPLE changes into PAST SIMPLE
He said, I write a letter He said that he wrote a letter.

She said, he goes to school daily He said that she went to school daily.

They said, we love our country They said that they loved their country

He said, he does not like computer He said that he did not like computer.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST CONTINUOUS
He said, he is listening to the music He said that he was listening to the music.

She said, I am washing my clothes She said that she was washing her clothes.

They said, we are enjoying the weather They said that they were not enjoying the
weather.
I said, it is raining
She said, I am not laughing She said that she was not laughing.
PRESENT PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT
She said, he has finished his work She said that he had finished his work.

He said, I have started a job He said that he had started a job.

I said, she have eaten the meal I said that she had eaten the meal.

They said, we have not gone to New York. They said that they had not gone to New York.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
He said, I have been studying since 3 He said that he had been studying since 3
Oclock Oclock.

She said, It has been raining for three days. She said that it been raining for three days.

I said, She has been working in this office I said that she had been working in this office
since 2007 since 2007.
PAST TENSE
PAST SIMPLE changes into PAST PERFECT
He said to me, you answered correctly He said to me that I had answered correctly.

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John said, they went to cinema John said that they had gone to cinema.

He said, I made a table He said that he had made a table.

She said, I didnt buy a car
She said that she had not bought a car.
PAST CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
They said, we were enjoying the weather They said that they had been enjoying.

He said to me, I was waiting for you He said to me that he had been waiting for me.
I said that it had been raining.
I said, It was raining
She said, I was not laughing She said that she not been laughing.
PAST PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT (tense does not change)
She said, She had visited a doctor She said that she had visited a doctor.

He said, I had started a business He said that he had started a business.

I said, she had eaten the meal I said that she had eaten the meal.

They said, we had not gone to New York. They said they had not gone to New York.
FUTURE TENSE
FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE
WILL changes into WOULD
He said that he would study the book.
He said, I will study the book
She said that she would buy a computer.
She said, I will buy a computer
They said to me that they would send you
They said to me, we will send you gifts
gifts.
I said, I will not take the exam
I said that I would not take the exam.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
WILL BE changes into WOULD BE
I said to him that I would be waiting for him.
I said to him, I will be waiting for him
She said that she would be shifting to a new
She said, I will be shifting to new home home.

He said, I will be working hard He said that he would be working hard.

He said, he will not be flying kite She said that he would not be flying kites.

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 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
WILL HAVE changes into WOULD HAVE
He said, I will have finished the work He said that he would have finished the work.

She said, they will have passed the She said that they would have passed the
examination examination.

He said, I will have gone He said that he would have gone.

Note: The tense of reported speech may not change if reported speech is a universal truth though
its reporting verb belongs to past tense.

Examples.
Direct speech: He said, Mathematics is a science
Indirect Speech: He said that mathematics is a science.
Direct speech: He said, Sun rises in east
Indirect Speech: He said that sun rises in east. (Tense didnt change because
reported speech is a universal truth thought its reporting verb
belongs to past tense)

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