Abstract

The experiment conducted was to determine the shear modulus of a

material. The specimen used in the experiment was a dumbbell like
specimen made out of mild steel. In the experiment, the fracture
properties of mild steel was determine when pure torque loading was
subjected to the specimen. The theoretical and experimental values are
also compared. The dumbbell specimen was twisted by a certain
increment of angle and reading was taken. By measuring the applied
torque with respect to the angle of twist, shear stress of the specimen can
be calculated. Fracture points and failure conditions can also be determine
when the specimen breaks into 2. By the experiment, we can conclude
that deformation is not only in the form of elongation or compressive. The
concept of stress and strain can be extended to inclined shearing or
distortional effects.

1
Table of Contents

Content Page

Abstract 1

Table of content 2

List of table 3

List of figures 4

Introduction 6

Theory 7

Apparatus 10

Procedure 10

Results 11

Sample of calculation 13

Discussion

Conclusions

References

2
List of table

Table 1 - Typical Material Properties

Table 2 - Average Mechanical Properties of Typical Engineering Materials

3
List of figures

Paddle

Paddle

Figure 1: Torsion test machine

Figure 2: Torque Meter

4
 Figure 3: Vernier calliper

Figure 4: Mild steel dumbbell specimen

5
Introduction

Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied force at either one

end or both ends. Torsion is expressed in newton per square meter (Pa) or
pound per square inch (psi) while torque is expressed in newton meters
(Nm) or foot-pound force (ftlbf).

In this experiment, stress and strain in circular shaft van be analyze and
calculated when subjected to torque or twisting couple. A mild steel
dumbbell specimen will be tested in a torsion test to determine its stress,
deformation until it reaches failure. From the results and data, we can
obtain:

Maximum Shear Stress ( max)

Modulus of rigidity (G)
Types of fracture surface
Relationship between torque and angle of twist ()
Strain energy per unit volume up to limit of proportionality

For shaft of uniform cross-section, torsion can be calculated by using this

formula:

T/J = /R = G /L

Where,

T = Torque in Nm

J = Polar moment of area in m4

= Shearing stress in Nm-2

R = Radius of specimen in m

= Angle of twist in radians

L = Specimen gauge length in m

6
Theory

Torsion occurs when an object, such as a bar with a cylindrical or square

cross section (as shown in the figure), is twisted. The twisting force acting
on the object is known as torque, and the resulting stress is known as
Shear stress. If the object undergoes deformation as a result of and in the
direction of the application of the force, the resulting deflection is known
as Strain. Twisting a simple piece of blackboard chalk between ones
fingers until it snaps is an example of a torsional force in action. A
common example of torsion in engineering is when a transmission drive
shaft (such as in an automobile) receives a turning force from its power
source (the engine).

In solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an

applied torque. It is expressed in newton meters (Nm). In sections,
perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress in this section
is perpendicular to the radius.

For shafts of uniform cross-section, the torsion is:

7
Where,
T = the applied torque or moment of torsion in Nm.
T = the maximum shear stress at the outer surface.
JT = the torsion constant for the section.
L = the length of the object the torque is being applied to or over.
= the angle of twist in radians.
G = modulus of rigidity and is usually given in gigapascals (GPa),The
product JT G is called the torsional rigidity wT.

The shear stress at a point within a shaft is:

Note that the highest shear stress occurs on the surface of the shaft,
where the radius is maximum. High stresses at the surface may be
compounded by stress concentration such as rough spots. Thus, shafts for
use in high torsion are polished to a fine surface finish to reduce the
maximum stress in the shaft and increase their service life.

The angle of twist can be found by using:

8
Consider a cylindrical bar subjected to a torsional moment at one end. The
twisting moment is resisted by shear stresses set up in the cross section
of the bar. zero at centre, max at surface

= shear stress, Pa
MT = torsional moment, Nm
r = radial distance measured from centre of bar, m
4
J = polar moment of inertia, m

For the shear stress

The maximum shear stress at the surface of the bar is

For a tubular specimen, the shear stress on the outer surface is

Where
D1 = Outside diameter of tube
D2 = Inside diameter of tube
Both equation of stress is applied only for a linear relationship.

Apparatus

9
Torsion test machine, Torque Meter, Vernier calliper, Mild steel dumbbell
specimen

Experimental procedure
1. The dumbbell specimens length and diameter is measured using
Vernier calliper as in figure 4.
2. The specimen is fixed at the end of the machine chunk. Torque
meter is then set to zero.
3. Paddle B as shown in figure 1 is rotated a little in order for the
torque meter to obtain a small reading as an indicator for us to
know that the specimen is fully held by the machine.
4. The torque meter and the gauge is then set again to zero.
5. The paddle B is rotated at an angle of 90, then paddle A is
rotated anticlockwise so that the gauge reading is zero. Only then
the torque meter reading is recorded.
6. Step 5 is repeated until one full rotation (360) is completed.
7. For the second and third rotation, paddle B is rotated with an
increment of 180. For the forth rotation and beyond, paddle B is
rotated with a full rotation (360) until the specimen is broken.
8. All the data is recorded and tabulated.

Result

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INCREME ACTUAL ACTUAL
ANGLE OF SHEAR
NT TWIST TWIST TORQUE ENERGY
ROTATION STRESS
ANGLE ANGLE ( ANGLE (N.m) (J)
( ) (Mpa)
( ) ) (rad)

11
 90 90 1.1389 0.0199 2.25 58.148 0.022
90 180 2.3032 0.0402 4.55 117.589 0.091
90 270 3.5433 0.0618 7 180.906 0.216
90 360 4.7076 0.0822 9.3 240.346 0.382
180 540 6.5552 0.1144 12.95 334.676 0.741
180 720 7.6182 0.1330 15.05 435.466 1.001
180 900 8.2256 0.1436 16.25 419.960 1.166
180 1080 8.5293 0.1489 16.85 435.466 1.254
360 1440 8.9596 0.1564 17.7 457.433 1.384
360 1800 9.1368 0.1595 18.05 466.479 1.439
360 2160 9.2380 0.1612 18.25 471.647 1.471
360 2520 9.2633 0.1617 18.3 472.940 1.479
360 2880 9.2886 0.1621 18.35 474.232 1.487
360 3240 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 3600 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 3960 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 4320 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 4680 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 5040 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 5400 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 5760 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 6120 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 6480 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 6840 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 7200 9.3139 0.1626 18.4 475.524 1.496
360 7560 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 7920 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 8280 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 8640 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 9000 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 9360 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 9720 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 10080 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 10440 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 10800 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 11160 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 11520 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 11880 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 12240 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 12600 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 12960 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 13320 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 13680 9.2127 0.1608 18.2 470.355 1.463
360 14040 9.1621 0.1599 18.1 467.771 1.447
360 14400 9.1621 0.1599 18.1 467.771 1.447
360 14760 9.1621 0.1599 18.1 467.771 1.447

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 360 15120 9.1621 0.1599 18.1 467.771 1.447
360 15480 9.1621 0.1599 18.1 467.771 1.447
360 15840 9.1621 0.1599 18.1 467.771 1.447
360 16200 9.1621 0.1599 18.1 467.771 1.447
360 16560 9.1621 0.1599 18.1 467.771 1.447
360 16920 9.1368 0.1595 18.05 466.479 1.439
360 17280 9.1115 0.1590 18 465.187 1.431

Percentage
Gtheoretical Gexperimental Max Shear
difference Energy (J)
(GPa) (GPa) Stress (MPa)
(%)
80.58 78.63 2.42 475.524 1.496

TORQUE (N.m) versus Actual Twist angle (rad)

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
Torque (N.m)
4
2
0

Actual Twist Angle (rad)

Sample of Calculation

1. Polar Moment of Inertia, J

r4
J= ; where r is the radius of specimen.
2

13
 4
(0.00291)
J=
2

J =1.12 1010

2. Modulus of Rigidity, G (theoretical value)

E
G=
2 (1+ v )

Where,

E is the Modulus of Elasticity and v is Poissons ratio.

Reference theoretical value is used

Emild steel = 210GPa vmild steel = 0.303

210 G
G=
2 (1+0.303 )

G=80.58 GPa

3. Angle of twist,
TL
=
JG

Where,

T is torque and L is length of the specimen,

2.25 0.08016
=
1.12 1010 80.58 G

=0.0199rad

Conversion of rad to degree,

180
=0.0199rad

=1.1389 o

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4. Maximum Shear Stress,
Tc
=
J

2.25 0.00291
=
1.12 1010

=58.148 MPA

5. Strain Energy/ Energy, U

T
U=
2

2.25 0.0199
U=
2

U=0.022 Joule

6. Modulus of Rigidity, G (experimental)

Obtain by calculating the gradient of the slope in the graph of Torque

against Angle of twist.
17.715.05
G=
0.14890.1152

G=78.63 GPa

7. Percentage of error
theroreticalexperimental
Error= 100
theoretical

80.5878.63
Error= 100
80.58

Error= 2.42%

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