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RECOMMANDATIONS
SUR LES RISQUES ASSOCIS
AUX PENTES POUR LES ROUTES
World Road
Association
BIBLIOGRAPHIE ......................................................................................................................................................................46
PUBLICATIONS .....................................................................................................................................................................46
LOGICIELS ............................................................................................................................................................................46
SITES WEB...........................................................................................................................................................................46
ISBN : 2-84060-166-4
AIPCR . 2 . 12.13.B - 2004
CONTENTS
I. BACKGROUND TO THE TOPIC......................................................................................................................................7
I.1. PREVIOUS WORK BY PIARC C12 ..............................................................................................................................7
I.2. DEFINE THE GEOTECHNICAL ASSET ...........................................................................................................................7
I.3. REACTIVE VERSUS PROACTIVE MANAGEMENT ...........................................................................................................9
I.4. SOIL SLOPE INSTABILITY CAUSES AND MECHANISMS .................................................................................................9
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS....................................................................................................................................................45
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................................................................47
PUBLICATIONS .....................................................................................................................................................................47
COMPUTER SOFTWARE .......................................................................................................................................................47
WEB SITES ...........................................................................................................................................................................47
This Report draws together experience of slope risk and the management and
consequences of slope hazards throughout the slopes life. In addition, a seminar has
been organised in the spring of 2003 by C12 and the Nepalese Organising Committee
to on Sustainable Slope Risk Management for Roads to disseminate the work of the
committee, exchange experience and better inform the planning of the next working
session.
Being largely natural materials, there is more inherent variability to their engineering
performance and sensitivity to long-term degradation or changes, than is exhibited by
other materials (largely manufactured) used to construct other elements of the highway
network. However, the consequences of their response can significantly influence
construction programme costs and programme and the safety, environment,
performance and whole life cost of the highway.
Also owners of assets have a duty of care to adjacent landowners and public at large in
respect of retention of support to land and control of run-off and groundwater. Predicting
performance is also difficult and not yet understood but the aim must be to develop a
concept of residual life for the geotechnical asset, which will enable effective evaluation
and allow worthwhile maintenance strategies to be formulated.
shallow failures less than 2m deep (banks, cuts and natural ground),
deep failures more than 2m deep (banks, cuts and natural ground),
Consquence de la survenance
de la menace / l'opportunit
probabilit Impact :
en termes de : cot, temps, sant & scurit, rputation,
environnement
Risque :
en termes de : cot, temps, sant & scurit,
rputation, environnement
Non
Valeur de prvoyance
si ncessaire
Valeur de prvoyance
Remarque : La valeur de prvoyance est la somme d'argent mise de ct dans un budget pour couvrir l'impact sur
le cot/temps multipli par sa probabilit
Consequence of threat /
opportunity occuring
Risk assessment
Likelihood Impact:
in terms of: cost, time, health and safety, reputation,
environment
Risk:
in terms of: cost, time, health and safety,
reputation, environment
No
Contingency value
if necessary
Contingency value
Note: Contingency value is the sum of money put aside in a budget to cover the cost/time impact times its
probability
Figure 1 - A risk management strategy
La premire phase de l'ERNS consiste identifier les objectifs de risques. Ils seront
gnralement identiques aux exigences de comportement des terrassements des
propritaires et clients. Les objectifs de risques lis la scurit doivent toutefois
prvaloir sur les objectifs de viabilit ou de maintenance. Une fois les objectifs de
risques identifis, il est alors possible d'identifier les dangers, parfois dsigns
vnements, pouvant empcher l'atteinte des objectifs de risques.
Les donnes collectes pendant l'inspection d'un actif seront utilises dans l'analyse
des risques uniquement si elles peuvent aider identifier la probabilit ou les
consquences d'un danger, ou les deux. Par exemple, la hauteur et l'angle de la pente
augmentent la probabilit du risque d'boulement de pente, tandis que les proprits ou
le matriel de signalisation adjacents au sein de la zone de risque d'boulement de
pente augmentent les consquences potentielles. Par consquent, la hauteur et l'angle
de la pente, ainsi que l'emplacement et la nature des structures ou panneaux adjacents,
feront partie des donnes enregistres pendant le processus d'inspection d'un actif. En
rsum, une connaissance historique et contemporaine des dangers, des facteurs
affectant la probabilit, et des consquences est ncessaire pour s'assurer que
l'inspection de l'actif fournit des informations utiles.
Le rsultat de l'inspection d'un actif de rseau est un registre d'actif, qui contient
normalement une quantit importante de donnes.
Plusieurs mthodes peuvent tre employes pour analyser les risques. Parmi ces
mthodes figurent l'valuation quantitative des risques (EQR), l'analyse semi-
quantitative et les jugements qualitatifs. Le choix de la mthode particulire dpendra
des donnes disponibles pour valuer les consquences ou la probabilit du danger, ou
les deux. L'analyse sera plus ou moins complexe selon que les consquences sont une
fonction d'un seul danger ou de plusieurs dangers combins. Dans les cas plus
complexes, un modle mathmatique des squences et consquences des
boulements pourrait tre utilis.
Pour les terrassements, il existe relativement peu d'informations disponibles sur les
taux de dtrioration d'tat pouvant tre utilises pour valuer la probabilit de
survenance des risques. Il est toutefois bien connu que la probabilit de risque
d'boulement de pente, par exemple, peut augmenter en cas de mauvais drainage de
la pente sur un terrassement raide et en hauteur. En consquence, la probabilit
d'boulement est gnralement tablie en recherchant un certain nombre de facteurs
sur un terrassement, et en examinant l'tat gnral et le niveau de maintenance. En
inspectant ces facteurs, une catgorie d'tat peut tre affecte, refltant la probabilit
d'un risque.
AIPCR . 14 . 12.13.B - 2004
II.2.3. Strategic level risk assessment (SLRA)
The first stage of the SLRA is to identify the risk objectives. These will typically be the
same as the earthwork performance requirements of owners and customers. However,
safety related risk objectives must take precedence over serviceability or maintenance
objectives. Once the risk objectives have been identified, it is then possible to identify
the hazards, sometimes termed events, that could prevent risk objectives from being
achieved.
Data collected during an asset inspection will only be of use in the risk analysis if it can
help identify either the probability or the consequences of a hazard, or both. For
example, slope height and angle increase the probability of a slope failure hazard,
whereas adjacent property or signalling equipment within the area of a slope failure
hazard increases the potential consequences. Therefore, slope height and angle and
the location and nature of adjacent structures or signals would be some of the data
recorded during the asset inspection process. In summary, both historical and
contemporary knowledge of hazards, factors affecting the probability and the
consequences are necessary to ensure that the asset inspection provides useful
information.
The outcome of the network asset inspection is an asset register, which normally
contains a significant amount of data.
There are a number of methods that can be used to analyse risk. These include
quantitative risk assessment (QRA), semi-quantitative analysis and qualitative
judgements. The particular method chosen will be dependent on the data available to
assess either the consequences or probability of the hazard, or both. The complexity of
the analysis will be dependent on the whether the consequences are a function of a
single hazard or several combined hazards. In more complex cases mathematical
modelling of fault sequences and consequences might be used.
For earthworks, there is relatively little available information on rates of loss of condition
that can be used to assess the probability of hazards occurring. However, it is well
known that the probability of a slope failure hazard, for example, can increase if slope
drainage is poor on a steep and high earthwork. Consequently, the probability of failure
is usually established by looking for a number of factors on an earthwork, and the
general condition and level of maintenance. By inspection of these factors a condition
grade can be assigned that reflects the probability of a hazard.
TABLEAU 2
Exemple de matrice simple des risques au niveau stratgique
pour classer le niveau de risque et identifier les mesures prendre (Perry et autres, 2001)
Probabilit de risque
(exprime sous forme de catgorie d'tat)
accrue
Table 2 demonstrates how the risk associated with a particular earthwork within a
network or section of it, can be analysed by means of simple condition and
consequence categories. Also shown are the actions that might be taken dependent on
level of risk.
TABLE 2
Example of a simple strategic level risk matrix
to categorise level of risk and to identify actions to be taken (Perry et al, 2001)
Probability of hazard
(expressed as condition grade)
risk
(eg no risk to
Routine Increased
people or property)
Routine inspection inspection
inspection frequency
Consequence of hazard
Pour les pentes, une approche quantitative complte n'est pas encore ralisable. Des
approches semi-quantitatives et qualitatives sont dcrites ci-dessous.
La notation de l'impact est donne au Tableau 3 et est base sur cinq catgories : cot,
temps, rputation et relations commerciales, sant et scurit, et environnement.
L'impact s'chelonne de 1 ( savoir impact ngligeable) 5 ( savoir impact
catastrophique). Il est prvu que chaque menace et opportunit soit value pour
chaque catgorie. La notation de probabilit est donne au Tableau 4.
For slopes a full quantitative approach is not yet achievable. Semi-quantitative and
qualitative approaches are described below.
Likelihood: the chance (or probability) of the event occurring within a defined time
period. Here the risk event is defined as either the threat occurring or the
opportunity being lost
Impact: the effect of the risk event on one or more objectives if it occurs. The effect
could be measured in accident rates, financial value, project delay in weeks, etc.
The scoring for the impact is given based in Table 3 and is based on five categories:
cost; time; reputation and business relations; health and safety and environment. Impact
ranges from 1 (i.e. negligible impact) to 5 (i.e. catastrophic impact). It is intended that
each threat and opportunity will be assessed for every category. The likelihood scoring
is given in Table 4.
Combining the impact and likelihood scores giving a risk level from trivial to intolerable
derives the risk score.
Royaume-Uni : A Two Stage System for Highway Rock Slope Risk Assessment (Un
Systme Deux Phases d'Evaluation des Risques des Pentes Rocheuses des Routes)
P.McMillan & G.D. Matheson, TRL
UK: A Two Stage System for Highway Rock Slope Risk Assessment P.McMillan &
G.D. Matheson, TRL
Notation de limpact
TABLEAU 4
Notation de probabilit
PROBABILIT POURCENTAGE
1 Trs Faible Ngligeable/improbable <1%
2 Faible peu probable/vague >1%
3 Moyenne assez probable/possible >10%
4 Forte Probable >50%
5 Trs Forte trs probable/quasi-certaine >90%
Remarque : Probabilit qu'une menace survienne/une opportunit soit perdue
1 Very low Not significant Not significant Effect not significant on Not significant Not significant Not significant
the process
2 Low important > 1% of budget effect on the process Slight effect on the local Minor injuries Minor impact on
> 5% vision of the firm/trading environment
relations slightly affected
3 Medium serious > 5% of budget effect on the process > Local exposition to the Major injuries Environmental impact
10% media / trading relations necessiting a management
affected action
4 High Black spot for > 10% of budget effect on the process > National exposition to the Fatalities Environmental impact
future works 25% media / trading relations leading to complaint or legal
and client largely affected proceedings
relations
5 Very high Problem for > 50% of budget effect on the process > Permanent national effect Many fatalities Major environmental
the survival 50% on the image of the firm/ impacts with irreversible
and credibility major impact on trading effects and threatening
of the firm relations public health and protected
natural resources
TABLE 4
Likelihood scoring
LIKELIHOOD PROBABILITY
1 Very Low Negligible/improbable <1%
2 Low unlikely/remote >1%
3 Medium likely/possible >10%
4 High Probable >50%
5 Very High very likely/almost certain >90%
Des facteurs tels que l'ge, une charge de trafic accrue ou une maintenance
inadquate ou mdiocre rduisent les performances d'un ouvrage gotechnique et
peuvent compromettre la scurit oprationnelle. Le degr auquel la scurit
oprationnelle est compromise peut varier selon que l'ouvrage a atteint son tat de
limite de viabilit ou de limite absolue. Lorsqu'un ouvrage atteint son tat de limite de
viabilit, il est souvent ncessaire d'imposer des limitations de vitesse temporaires ou
de fermer des voies de circulation. Or, lorsque l'tat de limite absolue est atteint, la
scurit oprationnelle ne peut pas tre garantie, la scurit du public est compromise
et une fermeture complte du remblais ou de l'excavation peut tre ncessaire. Dans
de telles circonstances, le cot des retards et perturbations peut tre lev, et lorsque
les rglementations de scurit n'ont pas t respectes, les consquences des
poursuites judiciaires peuvent tre svres.
Factors such as age, increased traffic loading and inadequate or poor maintenance
reduce the performance of an earthwork and may compromise operational safety. The
degree to which operational safety is compromised can be related to whether the
earthwork has reached its serviceability or ultimate limit state. When an earthwork
reaches its serviceability limit state it is often necessary to impose temporary speed
restrictions or close traffic lanes. However, when the ultimate limit state is reached the
operational safety cannot be guaranteed, public safety is jeopardised and complete
closure of the embankment or cutting may be necessary. In such circumstances the
cost of delays and disruption can be high, and where safety regulations have been
breached, the consequences of prosecution by the courts may be severe.
Where loss of condition leads to traffic disruption, speed restriction, delay, closure or
deterioration of ride quality, customers will inevitably express dissatisfaction. This is
particularly so with unplanned closures. While it is impossible to eliminate unplanned
closures completely planned earthwork maintenance and renewal strategies
significantly contribute to reducing them.
IV.2. Ultimate and Serviceability Limit States of the road and associated
structures
Ultimate Limit State failures of highway infrastructure embankments, cuttings and
natural ground are costly and unsafe. They can:
ensure the safety of those using, maintaining and eventually decommissioning the
asset
satisfy the statutory and regulatory obligations of the owner and to ensure the
owners operational requirements are met
maintain the design dimensions, line and level of the earthwork within specified
tolerances (and those of the assets supported by them)
support their own weight and current and reasonably foreseeable loads, forces and
pressures associated with traffic, highway furniture and accident impact
achieve the above for their design lives if specified, subject to routine specified
maintenance
whenever possible enhance the local environment and avoid negative impact on it.
TABLE 5
Costs of geotechnical repairs in different countries
In Hong Kong, the average frequency of landslides is very high although fairly
consistent. Table 6 is taken from (Kong, 2002).
Table 6
Hong Kong slope failure frequencies
Il est de plus en plus fait appel aux services d'ingnieurs environnementalistes dans le
cadre de l'inspection dtaille d'un site lors de la phase d'valuation dans l'optique
suivante :
dveloppement durable,
protection des eaux contrles,
maximisation de la rutilisation des matriaux,
vgtation,
sites faisant partie du patrimoine et protgs sur le plan environnemental,
prservation de la valeur environnementale.
The main environmental issues affecting the maintenance and renewal of infrastructure
earthworks are:
sustainable development
protection of controlled waters
maximising the reuse of materials
vegetation
heritage and environmentally protected sites
maintaining environmental value.
Les terrassements bien entretenus offrent des habitats varis pour la faune et la flore,
et des passages pour la migration de la faune. Les travaux de remise en tat conus et
excuts en respectant l'environnement peuvent amliorer la valeur environnementale
des terrassements.
La rutilisation des matriaux existants, dans la mesure du possible, dans le cadre des
travaux de remise en tat minimise l'utilisation des ressources naturelles. La
maximisation de l'utilisation des terrassements existants vite galement les nouvelles
constructions, prservant ainsi davantage les ressources naturelles.
La qualit des eaux de drainage des terrassements routiers peut tre extrmement
variable et peut contenir une partie ou la totalit des catgories suivantes de polluants :
Les dispositions statutaires concernant le dversement des eaux dans les cours d'eau
et les eaux souterraines peuvent tre complexes.
Well-maintained earthworks provide varied habitats for vegetation and wildlife, and
corridors for their migration. Renewal works designed and carried out in sympathy with
the environment can enhance the environmental value of earthworks.
Reuse of existing materials wherever possible in renewal works minimises the use of
natural resources. Maximising the use of existing earthworks also avoids the need for
new construction, thus further conserving natural resources.
With increasing environmental awareness in the general public and greater pressure on
infrastructure owners to minimise the impact on the environment, environmental
considerations will become even more important in the future. Much of this pressure is
reflected in legislation.
The quality of drainage water from road earthworks can be highly variable and is liable
to contain some or all of the following classes of contaminants:
IV.5.4. Vgtation
Le rle de la vgtation comme lment de l'environnement prend de plus en plus
d'importance pour tous les types d'infrastructure. Par consquent, l'utilisation de la
vgtation pour le bien de l'environnement exige que l'ingnieur environnementaliste
connaisse les consquences gotechniques.
The desire to reuse materials has to be balanced against other factors such as the
geotechnical requirements of the remedial works, ease of access to the site, and
constraints on disruption of the infrastructure.
Minimising the use of raw materials and increasing the reuse of existing materials is a
major aspect of sustainability.
IV.5.4. Vegetation
The role of vegetation as a part of the environment is becoming increasingly important
for all types of infrastructure. Therefore, the use of vegetation for environmental benefit
requires the environmental engineer to be aware of the geotechnical consequences.
The desire to retain vegetation for environmental reasons may conflict with the need to
carry out repairs to a slope to keep the infrastructure operating. In the event of a slope
failure, it will be necessary to remove the vegetation from the failed area, and possibly
from adjacent areas to enable access to the site. If the earthwork fill consists of clay,
this may lead to significant swell due to the increased infiltration of rainwater, which in
turn could trigger further instability. In these conditions, access routes should be
designed to avoid disturbance of the vegetation. This may cause practical difficulties,
requiring access by means of the transport corridor only, or across land belonging to
third parties.
With increasing environmental awareness, it is likely that there will be greater pressure
to preserve and enhance vegetation on infrastructure earthworks in the future and to
use green methods of remediation wherever possible.
IV.6.1. Logistique
Le terrain est probablement la premire proccupation en matire d'accs aux sites et
de complexit de transport du matriel jusqu' un chantier de terrassement ou une
pente naturelle. Les terrains montagneux et les sols meubles doivent tre pris en
compte dans la planification des meilleurs moyens d'accs. De plus, il est gnralement
prfrable d'amnager l'accs le long de la route mme avant de bifurquer sur un
terrain adjacent. Les dpts de maintenance doivent tre positionns stratgiquement
pour permettre un usage efficace des matriaux et des ressources.
IV.6.1. Logistics
Terrain is probably the first order concern for access to sites and the difficulties of
getting equipment onto an earthwork or natural slope. Mountainous and soft ground
terrain needs to be considered in planning the best means of access. Also access is
usually best along the highway itself before branching off onto adjacent ground.
Maintenance depots need to be strategically positioned to allow efficient use of
materials and resources.
Le cot total sur le cycle de vie d'un actif est une mesure du cot total de conception,
construction, exploitation, entretien et rparation de cet actif sur un certain nombre
d'annes. Il fournit une base rationnelle pour le processus de prise de dcisions et est
par consquent recommand en tant qu'outil. Le cot de construction est gnralement
une combinaison du cot de financement, d'acquisition du terrain et du cot effectif de
construction. Les cots d'exploitation, d'entretien et de rparation dpendront des
spcifications d'origine, de la frquence et l'envergure d'entretien, ainsi que des travaux
de remise en tat et de rparation rsultant de dgts accidentels. Les cots survenant
diffrentes phases du cycle de vie de l'actif, il est courant de les rattacher un point
fixe dans le temps en les actualisant pour dterminer un cot total du cycle de vie. Le
principal avantage de l'utilisation d'un modle de cot total sur le cycle de vie est qu'il
permet au propritaire de l'actif de comparer diffrents programmes et de choisir celui
qui convient le mieux la situation financire courante ou prvue.
Les taux d'actualisation fixs par les propritaires d'infrastructure peuvent tre utiliss
dans les calculs du bnfice actualis fournissant une base financire visant faciliter
ce type de dcision. Les calculs du bnfice actualis utilisant le taux d'actualisation
donnent une valeur totale au prix du jour, offrant ainsi un moyen quitable de comparer
les dpenses futures.
Alors que l'utilisation du cot total du cycle de vie comporte des avantages, il est difficile
d'tablir un modle parce que les exigences d'entretien long terme, la frquence
probable des dpenses et un taux d'actualisation appropri sont difficiles estimer. Des
facteurs tels que le cot des retards ou perturbations peuvent galement tre intgrs
un modle du cot total sur le cycle de vie, mais le modle risque de devenir trop
complexe.
TABLEAU 7
Valeur de l'actif gotechnique dans diffrents pays
The whole life cost of an asset is a measure of the total cost of designing, constructing,
operating, maintaining and repairing it over a number of years. It provides a rational
basis for the decision making process and is therefore recommended as a tool. The
cost of construction is usually a combination of the financing, land acquisition and the
actual cost of construction. The operation, maintenance and repair costs will be a
function of the original design specification, the frequency and scope of maintenance,
and renewal and repair resulting from accidental damage. Because the costs occur at
different times throughout the whole life of the asset it is usual to relate them to a fixed
point in time by discounting them to determine a whole life cost. The main benefit of
using a whole life cost model is that it allows the owner of the asset to compare a
variety of schemes and to choose the one that is most appropriate to the current or
expected financial position.
Discount rates set by infrastructure owners can be used in net present value
calculations that provide a financial basis for assisting in this type of decision. Net
present value calculations using the discount rate, give a total value at todays price and
hence provide an equitable means of comparing future expenditure.
While the use of whole life costing has benefits it is difficult to set up a model because
the long term maintenance requirements, the likely frequency of expenditure and an
appropriate discount rate are difficult to estimate. Factors such as the cost of delays or
disruption could also be included in a whole life cost model, but there is a risk that the
model will become overcomplicated.
TABLE 7
Geotechnical asset value in different countries
A l'issue de la construction, l'actif doit tre son tat de Service Maximum. Une
dtrioration se produira partir de ce stade, le taux et la variabilit de cette
dtrioration relevant de nombreux facteurs. Il est manifestement important qu'un tat
de Service Minimum soit toujours maintenu tout au long du cycle de vie de la route dans
le but d'offrir un temps de trajet, une fiabilit, une scurit et une qualit de conduite
garantis.
Dveloppement du rseau
Dtrioration initiale Cycles de dtrioration / Entretien
Etat de
service
maximum
ur
Etat de
service
f minimum
En cas d'boulement
Priode
gende: Remarque:
Gradient, une fonction des lments suivants: L'tat de l'actif peut se dtriorer
- type de matriau (sol de fondation et corps de la chausse) sur la dure mais sa valeur
- compactage peut augmenter avec l'intensification de l'usage
- drainage
- tat des eaux souterraines
- gomtrie de la pente
condition information,
an understanding of long term engineering behaviour of the materials and water,
At the core of the managed approach described above is effective Operational Data
Management from which the condition can be assessed, performance monitored and
analyses undertaken.
Maximum
Servicability
Fixed Asset Value State
Minimum
Servicability
State
If failure
Time
Key: Note:
Gradient a function of: Asset may depreciate in condition
- material type (subgrade and foundation) with time but its value may
- compaction increase with increased utilisation
Figure 2 - Model of fixed asset value in geotechnics
- drainage
- groundwater condition
- slope geometry
Time of optimal maintenance action
(eg. during other maintenance works)
L'Annexe B prsente des tudes de cas produites par des membres du Comit C12. Le
cadre fournit pour la collation/prsentation des informations cls diffrencie les trois
phases cls du cycle de vie d'une route : conception, construction et exploitation.
DEVELOPPEMENTS FUTURS
Ci-dessous figurent les conclusions et dcisions cls qui ont t examines l'occasion
du Sminaire sur La Gestion Durable des Risques Associs aux Pentes en
Construction Routire tenu au Npal au printemps 2003 :
L'chelle des problmes va de l'un des go-dangers les plus dvastateurs menaant
vie et conomies, un problme de nuisance ncessitant uniquement une
augmentation des cots de maintenance ;
Les termes et la mthodologie employs pour dterminer les risques (le produit de
l'impact et la probabilit) sont aujourd'hui bien dvelopps. La connaissance des
risques doit englober la dure de vie d'une pente, de la conception l'exploitation,
en passant par la construction ;
Le dveloppement des connaissances du comportement des pentes tend se
concentrer sur les aspects mcaniques actuels ou passs et non sur la prvision de
l'instabilit future ;
La gestion des pentes sur la totalit d'un itinraire de transport est relativement
nouvelle, non pas du point de vue technique, mais du point de vue de l'exploitation,
de la planification et conomique. La valeur de l'actif gotechnique dans son
ensemble est aujourd'hui quantifie et sa contribution en tant que structure
reconnue.
une tude plus approfondie est ncessaire sur l'effet des changements climatiques
de la plante, ainsi que la frquence et la superficie des zones d'instabilit des
pentes ;
les techniques analytiques de prvision de l'instabilit doivent tre values et
dveloppes ;
pour grer un rseau routier comme une entreprise et pour fournir des donnes de
prvision des performances, les meilleures pratiques doivent tre identifies ;
des mthodes sont ncessaires pour promouvoir l'importance de l'actif gotechnique
sur le comportement des autres actifs routiers.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
Below are given the key conclusions and decisions that need to be considered at the
Nepal Seminar Sustainable Slope Risk Management for Roads to be held in Spring
2003 in preparation for the next work session:
The scale of the problem ranges from one of the most devastating geo-hazards with
threats to life and economies, to one of nuisance requiring increased maintenance
costs only;
The terms and methodology for determining risk (the product of impact and
likelihood) are now well developed. The understanding of risk must cover the life of
a slope from conception, through construction to operation;
more study is required on the effect of global climate change and the frequency and
size of areas of slope instability,
Logiciels
LYNX Geosystems Inc (Canada)
RocFall Rocscience Inc (Canada)
@Risk Palisadi Corporation (Australie, Etats-Unis & Europe)
Sites Web
http ://www.ggsd.com Annuaire des Logiciels Gotechniques & Goenvironnementaux
http ://rru.worldbank.org/Toolkits/highways
Kane A R (1999). Why asset management is more critically important than ever before
(Les raisons pour lesquelles la gestion des actifs n'a jamais t aussi cruciale
qu'aujourd'hui). http ://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/marapr00/kane.htm. Discours prononc
l'occasion de l'Asset Management Peer Exchange, parrain par l'AASHTO et la FHA.
AIPCR . 46 . 12.13.B - 2004
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Publications
Clayton C R I (2001). Managing geotechnical risk. Telford, London.
McMillan P and Matheson G D (1997). A two stage system for highway rock slope risk
assessment. Int. J. Rock Mech. And Min. Sci. 34. Elsevier Science Ltd.
Computer Software
LYNX Geosystems Inc (Canada)
RocFall Rocscience Inc (Canada)
@Risk Palisadi Corporation (Australia, USA & Europe)
Web sites
http://www.ggsd.com Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Software Directory
http://rru.worldbank.org/Toolkits/highways
Kane A R (1999). Why asset management is more critically important than ever before.
http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/marapr00/kane.htm. Speech to the Asset Management
Peer exchnage, sponsored by AASHTO and FHA.
TABLEAU A.1
Rsum des techniques de traitement correctif et prventives relatives aux remblais
Technique C P1 D M U P2 Remarques
Remplacement granulaire Populaire par le pass pour rparer
les glissements superficiels sur les
routes
Remblai trait la chaux et au Relativement nouveau pour stabiliser
ciment les remblais
Terre arme Les mthodes de terre arme sont
aujourd'hui largement acceptes
Travaux de dblai et remblai et Une solution simple, mais qui peut
bermes de pied tre onreuse et exige plus de
terrain ou un mur de pied/des
gabions
Murs de soutnement en bton de Gabions moins chers que des murs
masse et gabions de masse in situ couls; convient
aux rparations d'urgence
Murs de soutnement fors et Souvent utiliss prs de
minipieux l'paulement d'un remblai
Murs pieux rticuls Souvent utiliss prs de
l'paulement d'un remblai ou sur un
terrain de ct
Rideaux de palplanches Convient des fins d'affouillement
ou murs de soutnement
Tirants et pieux Utiliss en association avec un mur
de soutnement
Murs de liaison Ncessite deux murs parallles
Drainage des routes Raccords tanches ncessaires pour
viter une rosion
Drainage des pentes Caractristique importante des
remblais
Drainage interne L'installation peut tre difficile
Goujons de cisaillement La stabilisation peut prendre
plusieurs annes
Tranches de cisaillement Simple mais efficace
Clous de sol Peut donner une finition verdtre
Clous et pieux la chaux La chaux doit tre manipule avec
prcaution
Pntration Autrefois populaire pour les travaux
ferroviaires mais ne convient pas
aux remblais routiers modernes
Mthodes de malaxage en place Fonctionne bien dans les bonnes
conditions notamment comme piles
Vgtation L'utilisation d'une solution cologique
est de plus en plus importante
Membranes Peuvent tre utilises pour viter la
pntration d'eau
Lgende :
C Correctif P1 Prventif D Sol dur M Sol meuble U Mesure d'urgence P2 Mesure permanente
TABLE A.1
Summary of remedial treatment and preventative techniques for embankments
Technique R P1 H S E P2 Comments
Granular replacement Historically popular for repair of
shallow slips on highways
Mass concrete and gabion retaining Gabions less costly than cast in situ
walls mass walls; suitable for emergency
repairs
Bored and minipile retaining walls Often used near the shoulder of an
embankment
Reticulated pile walls Often used near the shoulder of an
embankment or on sidelong ground
Technique R S C P1 D M U P2 Remarque
Travaux de dblai et remblai Solution simple, peut exiger une structure
et bermes de pied bermes de pied pour rester dans les limites
du terrain existant
Remblais renforcs & Mthodes de terre arme largement
stabiliss utilises. Mthodes la chaux et au ciment-
chaux de plus en plus utilises
Remplacement granulaire Populaire par le pass pour rparer les
glissements superficiels sur les routes
Murs gravitaires & gabions Normalement utiliss au pied d'excavations
avec travaux de dblai et remblai. Des
gabions peuvent tre utiliss pour les
travaux d'urgence
Murs pieux Comprend murs fors et minipieux, pieux-
racines et rideaux de palplanches. Des pieux
peuvent tre utiliss comme support de
fondation des murs
Tirants et mini pieux pour Offre un soutien latral des murs
soutenir le mur
Clous de sol Mthode populaire mais peut ncessiter des
droits de passage si l'excavation est la
frontire
Tirants, boulons & goujons Peuvent tre utiliss pour offrir un soutien
de roche d'excavation local ou gnral
pis & tayage Mthode efficace pour amliorer la stabilit
locale
Pieux goujons L'accs et le matriel d'installation peuvent
tre complexes
Filets & grillages Utiliss pour contrler plutt que prvenir les
chutes de pierres
Cltures d'arrt Rduit l'impact des chutes de pierres.
Maintenance requise
Risbermes, fosss et piges Leur adquation dpend de l'angle de la
pierres pente et de l'espace au pied de l'excavation
Abris chute de pierres Offre une protection de haut niveau contre
les chutes de pierres
Systmes d'alarme et conomiques mais peuvent ne pas
d'avertissement empcher la fermeture de l'infrastructure
Drainage interne L'installation peut tre difficile mais
avantages majeurs pour une stabilisation
conomique des pentes naturelles
Drainage des pentes Caractristique importante des excavations
et pentes naturelles pour prvenir l'rosion
Drainage de pied Vrifier que la construction n'amoindrira pas
la stabilit de l'excavation
Membranes ex. btonnage Peuvent tre utilises pour viter la
par pandage pntration d'eau/le dsenrobage des
surfaces lches
Vgtation L'utilisation d'une solution cologique est de
plus en plus importante pour les excavations
et pentes naturelles. Rduit l'impact
esthtique ngatif de l'excavation
Lgende :
R Mthode roche S Mthode sol meuble C Correctif P1 Prventif D Sol dur M Sol meuble
U Mesure d'urgence P2 Mesure permanente
Technique R1 S1 R2 P1 H S2 E P2 Comments
Regrading and toe berms Simple solution, may require to berm
structure to keep within existing land
Ground anchors and mini piles for Provide lateral support to walls
wall support
Soil nails Popular method but may require
wayleaves if cutting is boundary line
Ground anchors, rock bolts & dowels Can be used to provide local or
overall cutting support
Dentition & buttressing Effective method for enhancing local
stability
Dowel piles Access and equipment for
installation may be significant
Netting & meshing Used to control rather than prevent
rockfall
Catch fences Reduces impact of rockfall.
Maintenance required
Benching, ditches and rock traps Suitability depends on slope angle
and space at toe of cutting
Rockfall shelters Provides high level of protection from
rockfall
Alarm and warning systems Low cost but may not prevent
closure of infrastructure
Internal drainage Installation can be difficult but major
benefits for cost effective
stabilisation of natural slopes
Slope drainage Important feature of cuttings and
natural slopes to prevent erosion
Toe drainage Check that construction will not
undermine cutting stability
Membranes e.g. sprayed concrete Can be used to prevent water
ingress/ ravelling of loose surfaces
Lime and cement stabilised Allows reuse of in Specialist knowledge Generally recommended in clays
fill situ materials required. Requires with organic content <2% (some
considerable excavation exceptions). Temporary works
beyond shallow rupture stability needs to be considered.
surface
Reinforced soil Steep slopes can Not always possible to Can be used for the repair of
be achieved. No reuse in situ soils for steep shallow or deep slip failures.
importation slopes. Requires Temporary works stability needs
required if slope considerable excavation to be considered.
angle maintained beyond shallow rupture
surface
Regrading and toe berms Simple and Sometimes difficult to All soil conditions
effective measure achieve within site
and immediate boundaries
effect
Mass concrete and gabion Highly effective Cost of mass walls can be All soil conditions
retaining walls stabilisation method high
Bored and minipile Generally a cost Access platforms normally All soil conditions, but headroom
retaining walls effective repair required for installation required.
method
Reticulated pile walls Result in formation Access platforms normally Requires strong subsoil if used
of in situ mass wall required for installation to stabilise sidelong ground.
Headroom required.
Sheetpiles Well proven Cannot penetrate stiff or Where piles can be driven.
technology dense ground Headroom required
Ground anchors and piles Can provide high Require specialist Soils where high friction forces
lateral support installation methods possible
forces
Tied walls Anchor method Estimation of in service tie Use not dependent on ground
does not depend on force difficult conditions
ground conditions
Road drainage Removes potential Requires maintenance Suitable for all soil conditions
erosive action of and road pavements
stormwater
Slope drainage Simple to install Difficult to inspect All embankments
Internal drainage Controls piping or Requires maintenance. Where ponding or risk of piping
ponding Difficult to install exists
Shear trenches Simple skills Concrete costs high Shallow and deep failures
necessary
Soil nails Relatively cheap to Access platforms required Most effective in granular soils
install for installation of drill and and low plasticity clays
grouted nails
Lime nails and piles Provide shear Long-term performance not Best in overconsolidated clays,
increase and proven eg London Clay/Gault
improve ground
conditions
Mix in place methods Provides overall Specialist plant and skills Cement methods for granular
increase in shear necessary soils and lime for clay soils
resistance
Strengthened & Steep slopes can be Often requires excavation of Soil reinforcement must be
stabilised fills achieved. May be possible failed soils so cutting stability chosen to suit fill type.
to reuse failed soils can be undermined. Consider Lime & lime cement for
environmental issues with lime & generally for clays with
cement dust organic content <2% (some
exceptions)
Granular Well proven technique for Cost of importing suitable fill All soil conditions although
replacement shallow and deeper soil may be high. Disposal of typically used in high
failures. Simple to design excavated material required. plasticity clays. Temporary
and supervise. Requires considerable works stability needs to be
excavation beyond shallow considered
rupture surface
Gravity walls & Positive structural solutions Costs can be high for gravity All ground types
gabions and can provide long term walls and plant required may
solution require closure of infrastructure
Piled walls Positive structural solution. Requires mechanical equipment Most soils and softer rock
Can provide local or overall and temporary works slopes
stability solution. Scope for requirements can be extensive
creating additional space at
toe of cutting
Ground anchors Can provide high lateral Require specialist installation Soils where high friction
and mini piles for support forces to walls methods forces possible
wall support
Soil nails Cost effective solution Access platforms required for Most effective in granular
becoming more popular steep cuttings as mechanical soils and low plasticity
equipment required clays/soft rocks
Ground anchors, Proven technology Access can be difficult and must All rock cuttings
rock bolts & dowels providing positive support be considered when developing
schemes
Dentition & Simple and cost effect in Access must be considered. Hard rock cuttings
buttressing providing local support to Provides local support only
unstable rock masses
Dowel piles Can provide stability to High installation cost. Applied to deep soil slope
slope problems Stabilisation not immediate failures
Catch fences Helps minimise risk to Does not prevent rockfall and Rock cuttings where
infrastructure users limit on size of rocks that can be rockfall failure prevention
restrained. Maintenance and methods not possible
damage repair expected
Benching, ditches Simple and effective Requires maintenance and Rock cuttings where slope
and rock traps method of regular cleaning. Excavation angle permits benching
containing/reducing speed may be difficult and expensive
of rockfall
Rock fall shelters Positive structural solution High cost and must be designed Heavily trafficked
providing high level of for high impact loadings infrastructure cuttings
protection where prevention methods
are not possible
Alarm and warning Low cost providing early Will not prevent failures but only All cutting types
systems warning provide warning. Possible
disruption to infrastructure
Internal drainage Reduces and controls Requires maintenance. Can be Slopes where water has a
groundwater levels and difficult to install significant influence on
flow through face stability
Slope drainage Simple to install On steep slopes can have All cutting types
negative visual impact
Toe drainage Simple to install and Installation may have an effect All cutting types
reduces risk of erosion at on cutting stability in soil slopes
cutting toe
Membranes e.g. Used for erosion control or Can mask underlying problems Most soil & rock conditions
sprayed concrete as a part of structural and may have unacceptable
solution visual appearance
Vegetation Aesthetically pleasing and Not suitable in all environments Success dependent on
enhancement of soil and can mask underlying plant selection, soil type,
stability near surface of problems. Can present a safety orientation and
slope and maintenance liability. maintenance
Consider root damage in rock
slopes
Maintenance Prolong life of cuttings Can have significant effect on All cuttings
methods whole life costs. Consider safety
risks to maintenance personnel
A Conception
A Conception
A1. Background to the knowledge of the Risk - outline the areas of both certainty and
uncertainty.
A2. Identify the nature of the hazard - we have previously identified that these may be
caused by problems with the Geology, Hydrogeology, Material
Characteristics/Performance, Engineering Understanding, Influence by Man,
Climate or Natural Disasters.
A3. Imminence of risk - has there been the need to react very quickly or has there
been opportunity to review and design or even to include the work in programmed
activities (over month or years).
A4. Probability and Consequences of Risk - which influences the response to the
event. Include details of any Probabilistic analysis used and link with Item 6
below.
A5. Confidence Level - the quality of the knowledge (or expertise) applied at this
stage.
A6. Assess Vulnerability - against the following categories:
Health and Safety to people - road users or people living/working nearby.
Assign a 'value' to injury or loss of life where possible.
C. Exploitation
C. Operation
C1. Logistical/Residual Risk review - update on any probabilistic or risk model that
may have been used and issues agreed with the Road Manager (influence/change
to Items B1, B4 & B5).
C2. Observation issues monitoring systems or observations and 'triggers' that might
prompt actions in the future (for example, in an observational approach).
C3. Knowledge transfer into planned//managed activities - how (and if) the information
gained is used to better manage the geotechnical 'asset'.
Background: This east-west trending section of the London Orbital Motorway (M25)
was constructed on a gentle (8-10 degree) south-facing slope. This is within the
outcrop of the Gault Clay Formation (Lower Cretaceous), below the chalk escarpment of
the North Downs, in Southeast England. The Gault Clay is heavily over consolidated
and highly plastic, and often mantled by Head Deposits from the overlying Upper
Greensand and Chalk. In places, there are landslips (comprising lobes of solifluction
material, rotational features and mudslides) and the M25 crosses one such lobe in the
vicinity of this site.
Les tudes de faisabilit initiales pour cette autoroute ont t entreprises dans les
annes 60 et 70, paralllement une consultation publique. La construction de cette
portion n'a pas dbut avant 1975 environ. Cette partie A est par consquent un
examen subjectif des risques bas sur des informations documentes datant de
cette priode de pr-construction.
A1. Les tudes prliminaires ont identifi trois zones d'instabilit de pente naturelle
antrieure le long de l'affleurement d'argile du Gault, immdiatement sous l'affleurement
de sables verts suprieurs. Ces donnes sont bases sur une inspection pied, des
photographies ariennes, une cartographie et des investigations intrusives. Le choix de
l'itinraire ne semblerait pas avoir t limit par des questions gotechniques.
A3. Les concepteurs ont clairement reconnu que les dangers identifis pouvaient
provoquer des boulements soudains et catastrophiques pendant la construction (et
peu aprs) moins qu'ils ne soient grs efficacement en les prenant en compte dans
la conception du programme (mesures de drainage comprises). Aucune valuation des
risques long terme n'est consigne.
A5. Les connaissances et expertises alors appliques auront sans doute t de niveau
acceptable et conformes aux exigences de la Highways Agency. Le niveau des
reconnaissances de terrain et des essais de laboratoire aurait galement t
comparable celui alors exig. Pendant cette priode, le comportement de l'argile du
Gault tait probablement bien connu en tant que matriau de gnie civil, notamment
dans l'valuation des risques de stabilit des pentes d'aprs les vnements primaires
et les surfaces de cisaillement rsiduelles dcoulant des perturbations/mouvements
priglaciaires du Head et de la solifluxion du manteau. L'application de ces
connaissances peut toutefois avoir t entrave par le nombre important de
constructions routires cette poque (ressources disponibles utilises au maximum).
Initial feasibility studies for this motorway were undertaken in the 1960's and 1970's in
conjunction with public consultation. Construction of this section did not commence
until about 1975. Section A is therefore a subjective risk review based on
documented information from this pre-construction period.
A1. Preliminary studies recognised three areas of past natural slope instability along the
Gault Clay outcrop, immediately below the outcrop of the Upper Greensand. This was
based on walkover inspection, aerial photographs, mapping and intrusive investigations.
The route selection would not appear to have been restrained by geotechnical issues.
A2. The marginal stability of the mantle of Head deposits was identified as the key
hazard for construction in this area as it would have been evident that they were of
marginal stability and the design called for the slopes to be locally steepened. Added to
this were the known construction and long-term drainage problems associated with the
Gault clays, as a result of softening and the generation of excess pore pressures in
fissures.
A3. The designers clearly recognised that identified hazards could give rise to sudden
and catastrophic failures during construction (and shortly thereafter) unless effectively
managed through care in the design of the scheme (including drainage measures). No
assessment of long-term risk is recorded.
A4. The probability of a slope failure occurring was considered low, providing the design
and construction specification took into account the foreseen hazards (the measures
taken are outlined in A8). If care had not been taken to manage this risk effectively the
consequences of any failure during construction could have been significant for the
programme/cost of the scheme and potentially to the Health and Safety of operatives
(see A6 for more detail).
A5. The knowledge and expertise applied at the time would no doubt have been to an
acceptable standard and in accordance with Highways Agency requirements. The
standard of Ground Investigations and laboratory testing should also have been
comparable with those currently expected. During this period, there would also be
expected to be good knowledge of the behaviour of Gault Clay as an engineering
material, particularly in assessing slope stability risk based on first time events and
residual shear surfaces as a consequence of periglacial disturbance/movement in the
Head and soliflucted mantle. Application of this knowledge may, however, have been
hampered by the high level of road construction at this time (stretching the available
resources).
A8. Les mesures prises dans la phase de conception pour attnuer les risques majeurs
identifis comportaient principalement :
A. Health and Safety to people, particularly to site operatives (especially those working
on, or close to, the excavated slope). However, the vulnerability would be no
different to many other road construction contracts where (with effective Healthy &
Safety training and precautions) the risk is considered low.
A7. This is the most strategic road in the UK in terms of disruption and political
awareness. Traffic volumes today typically average 30,000 vehicles in each direction
on weekdays (with up to 12% being heavy goods vehicles) and this route is a key link to
the London airports and the principal continental crossings (shipping and Channel
Tunnel).
A8.The measures included in the design to mitigate against the perceived significant
risks consisted primarily of:
Minimising the scope of slope re-profiling (cut slope batters not exceeding 15
degrees);
Drainage works (to control spring water and direct infiltration);
Earthwork controls on the selection, handling, control and use of site won materials.
A9. Residual risk (on completion of construction) does not appear to have been
considered at this stage.
C. Exploitation
De l'achvement de la construction (1979) nos jours.
This is the stage of original Construction, undertaken between about 1975 and 1979.
B1. Observations: There are no records of an observational nature available from this
site. The lack of any reports from this period suggest that perceived hazards did not
present significant problems during construction or they were effectively managed within
the contract.
B2. Construction/Contract risk factors No information
B3. The construction contract allowed further drainage to be installed where considered
necessary by the Designer. This was undertaken in a limited manner on the slope
although the collection of specific watercourses/springs was well controlled where
identified.
B4. Logistical review: no changes during this period would be foreseen.
B5. Effectiveness/residual risk review - none recorded. Monitoring (piezometers) was
installed on the slope during construction (and may have been read during this period),
but there are no records of monitoring from this period, or during Operation. (Note:
While current Highways Agency requirements include the need for the reporting of
Construction Feedback, including design/specification review and residual risk issues, it
was not standard at this time i.e. in 1979.)
C. Operation
From completion of construction (1979) to the current time.
C1. In the period of Operation since 1979, this section of highway has been subject to
'standard' condition inspections, which focus on the condition of the area within the
Highway boundary. No particular inspection or monitoring requirements were identified
for this area. (Note: almost the entire slope was returned to agricultural use and was
therefore considered to lie outside this area of direct interest.) However, there have
been indications that this area has been of marginal stability during the Operational
period, including:
the repair of a substantial failure on adjacent farmland with similar geometry and
geology to this site,
the hummocky nature of the ground surface,
movement and damage to field boundary fences in the area.
On the night of 19 December 2000 a major slope failure occurred within the original
motorway cutting, which threatened to close the highway and would have led to
immediate widespread transport disruption in the southeast of England. The failure was
approximately 200m in length, located beneath and adjacent to an overbridge on the
north face of a major cutting and extended from the hard shoulder 80m up the slope.
The failure had already begun to raise the hard shoulder of the M25 at the base of the
slope by 150mm. (The cutting has a maximum height of approximately 25m, standing at
slope angles of between 11 and 15).
Alors que le mouvement dans les dpts de Head pouvait tre prvus d'aprs les
tudes antrieures, l'importance du mcanisme d'boulement plus profond et plus
grave n'avait pas t value. Les dernires investigations ont toutefois identifi un
important glissement de terrain au moyen de photographies ariennes prises avant la
construction de la route, un glissement qui traversait la route cet endroit. De plus, des
tudes dtailles ont rvl un certain nombre de sites dans le sud de l'Angleterre o
des surfaces de cisaillement d'angle faible similaires ont t identifies dans des
gologies et cadres similaires; ces exemples sont des archives datant de 1988, 1995 et
2000 (Rfrence cl : Hutchinson, JN. The Fourth Glossop Lecture 'Reading the
Ground : Morphology and Geology in Site Appraisal, Quaterly Journal of Engineering
Geology and Hydrogeology, 34, pp. 7-50). La tension et le cisaillement gnrs par les
mouvements tectoniques au cours des orogenses Varisque (il y a environ 300-280
millions d'annes) et Alpine (il y a principalement 40-25 millions d'annes) seraient
l'origine de ces cisaillements. Les schmas de discontinuit rsultants sont souvent
masqus par des processus gologiques plus rcents.
This prompted an urgent re-assessment of the hazards, the vulnerability issues for the
site and hence an assessment of risk in order to prioritise and manage activities on site
and within the region.
Geology: The investigations and monitoring undertaken after this failure have revealed
that the failure occurred on two levels. The first level is at the base of the remaining
Head Deposits, but the principal movement was of a large soil wedge formed by the
intersection of a steep back scarp and a near horizontal shear surface, which is up to
10m below current ground level. This failure is within relatively unweathered (but
fissured) Gault Clay (see Schematic diagram of main failure area).
Whilst movement within the Head Deposits could be foreseen from the earlier studies,
the importance of the deeper and more significant failure mechanism had not been
appreciated. However, the recent investigations did identify a large landslide from aerial
photographs taken before highway construction and this crossed the route at this point.
In addition detailed studies have revealed a number of sites in southern England where
similar low angle shear surfaces have been identified in similar geologies and settings;
these examples are records dating from 1988, 1995 and in 2000 (Key Reference
Hutchinson, JN. The Fourth Glossop Lecture 'Reading the Ground: Morphology and
Geology in Site Appraisal, Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology,
34, pp. 7-50). The origin of these shears is believed to be through tension and shear
induced by tectonic movements in the Variscan (approx. 300-280 Ma ago) and the
Alpine (principally 40-25 Ma ago) orogenic episodes. The resultant discontinuity
patterns are often masked by more recent geological processes.
Climat ou Catastrophes Naturelles : Cet boulement s'est produit au cours d'un hiver
o le pays a enregistr des prcipitations exceptionnellement importantes. Les niveaux
des eaux souterraines de l'aquifre calcaire voisin avaient dpass le plus haut niveau
enregistr depuis 1935. Les prcipitations annuelles pour l'anne 2000 ont dpass de
prs de 150% la moyenne sur les dix dernires annes. Tout porte aujourd'hui croire
que ce type d'intempries exceptionnelles est une consquence du rchauffement de la
plante, un phnomne inconnu il y a encore peu de temps. Les tudes suggrent une
tendance de l'Europe du Nord enregistrer de plus en plus de prcipitations, ces
dernires ayant augment de 10 40 pour-cent au cours du sicle dernier (Rfrence
Cl : The European Acacia Project Report : Assessment of Potential Effects and
Adaptations for Climate Change in Europe, 2000, University of East Anglia).
Sant et Scurit des usagers de l'autoroute et des routes locales vulnrabilit accrue
en raison de la perte de la bande d'arrt d'urgence et de la ncessit de rtrcir les
voies de circulation et limiter la vitesse jusqu' l'achvement des travaux de rparation.
Il existait galement un risque de coule de boue pouvant se rpandre sur la chausse
pendant cette priode.
Influence by Man: the construction of this motorway cutting, and its return to
agricultural use, was clearly the principle influence by man. Since that time, the land
has been used for grazing; the only known change is that only a few months before this
failure occurred the farmer ploughed the land in preparation for re-seeding. This
operation was never completed (delayed because of the wet and soft conditions) and it
is clear that the bare and uneven ground would have allowed increased rainfall
infiltration.
Climate or Natural Disasters: This failure occurred during a winter when the country
experienced exceptionally heavy rainfall. Groundwater levels in the nearby chalk
aquifer were seen exceed the maximum level of records begun in 1935. The annual
rainfall for the year 2000 was approximately 150% above the average for the last ten
years. There are now indications that exceptional weather events such as this are as a
consequence of Global Warming, a phenomena unknown until very recently. Studies
suggest a trend of Northern Europe getting wetter, with precipitation increases of
between 10 and 40 percent in this century (Key Reference: The European Acacia
Project Report: Assessment of Potential Effects and Adaptations for Climate Change in
Europe, 2000, University of East Anglia).
Health and Safety to the public using the motorway and local roads - increased
vulnerability due to loss of hard shoulder and the need for narrow running lanes and
speed restrictions until the remedial works were completed. Also, the risk of a mudflow
developing and spreading across the carriageway during this period.
Cots - y compris l'effet des cots 'directs' (compensations, cots des travaux de
rparation, frais et gestion du trafic pour un total approximatif de 3,5 millions ) sur les
budgets et le programme (ce projet avait un impact important sur la programmation et la
budgtisation des activits de maintenance dans la rgion) ainsi que l'effet des 'cots
indirects' sur l'conomie de la rgion sont jugs levs en cas d'boulement pendant la
construction ou peu aprs l'ouverture.
L'analyse et l'observation du site ayant montr que la pente tait trs peu stable et
hautement sensible aux niveaux des eaux souterraines, les travaux de rparation ont
t minutieusement programms pour minimiser le risque de nouveau mouvement de
terrain important.
Delays/disruption to traffic and influence on the 'Service Level' - with restricted lane
widths and speed restrictions until the completion of remedial works significant traffic
congestion was a frequent occurrence during peak periods.
Costs, including the effect of the 'direct' costs (compensation events, remedial works
costs, fees and traffic management totalled approximately 3.5M) on budgets and
programme (this project had a serious impact on programming and budgeting of
maintenance activities in the area) as well as the 'indirect costs' to the economy of the
region is considered high if a failure had occurred during construction or shortly after
opening.
Environment and Sustainability: once the remedial works are completed, the land will be
returned to agriculture, but its uses will be compromised by the residual infrastructure
(i.e. drainage inspection chambers, the presence of piles buried in the slope and
monitoring installations).
In the period shortly after the failure occurred, there was a high probability that the
failure could (with continuing high rainfall) develop into a large mudflow, with significant
risk to the road and road users down slope, as well as to land and property owned by
others upslope. Given the vulnerabilities at this location the consequential risk was
considered to be sufficiently high that the works took maximum priority for all parties
involved. The measures used to mitigate against this risk included the following:
Alarms and monitoring instrumentation were immediately installed when the failure
occurred and a detailed contingency plan was quickly developed to control the situation
and, if necessary, to divert traffic. Monitoring systems were also installed in case the
failure became more extensive.
Fast track the investigation, design and remedial works as a partnership (between the
Highways Agency, the Maintaining Agent and a specialist Contractor) so that they would
be completed by December 2001 when further wet weather would inevitably lead to
further movements.
As both the analysis and on site observation showed that the slope was marginally
stable and highly sensitive to groundwater levels, the remedial works were carefully
programmed to minimise the risk of further significant ground movement.
Full consultation with landowners and all statutory bodies whose land/property or
activities may be influenced by the works (including emergency services).
16m long, 1050mm diameter piles installed at 2500mm centres through the main
slope
9m long, 310mm diameter piles installed at 750mm centres beneath Flower Lane
Bridge
Installation of a deep cut-off drainage trench upslope of the back scarp
Installation of drainage at the slope toe and deep counter fort drains in the lower
slope.
What stands out from this example, is the importance of a long term and pro-active
approach to the management of this important 'Geotechnical Asset' linked with:
Effective transfer of knowledge between each stage in the whole life of a highway
Rsum de l'incident
Le 13 aot 1995, aux alentours de minuit, une soudaine coule de roches dtritiques
s'est produite dans le ruisseau Pissot, suite de trs violentes prcipitations dans ce
bassin hydrographique montagneux trs abrupt. Le matriau fluide (environ 50 000 m3)
a coul de la rigole suspendue construite pour traverser l'autoroute et s'est dvers sur
la chausse. Plusieurs voitures sont entres en collision avec la masse de roches
dtritiques. Par chance, aucune victime n'a t dplore. L'autoroute a t coupe
pendant 2 jours, dtournant l'ensemble de la circulation de l'axe du Simplon travers la
ville de Montreux.
A. Conception
A3 : Ce type d'incident est trs soudain et il est difficile d'installer un systme d'alarme
lorsque la probabilit de survenance est faible. Dans le cas de Pissot, rien n'a t fait
parce qu'un tel incident n'tait pas prvu.
On August 13th 1995, at about midnight, a sudden debris flow occurred in the Pissot
creek, due to a very intense rainfall into the very steep mountainous catchment. The
fluid material (about 50'000 m3) left the perched channel built to cross the highway and
invaded the road. Some cars collisionned the debris mass. By chance there was no
fatality. The highway was cut during 2 days, diverting all the traffic of the Simplon axis
through the city of Montreux.
At the time of conception of this highway (end of the years sixties), the debris flow
hazard was not at all considered. Only a peak discharge of water was taken into
account for the dimensioning of the channel. After the event, a very large basin was
excavated in order to retain sediments upwards the highway.
A. Conception
A1 : At this time, the debris flow phenomenon was known by geologists but the
conscience of them was not very important in the field of road engineers. The designers
did not think to this problem as they prepared the project. They approach was a
classical one which is the assessment of peak water discharge for the dimensioning of
the section of the channel. In this case, the road crosses the creek with a deep trench in
the alluvial cone and the channel is perched over the motorway. The conscience of the
vulnerability of civil works improved very efficiently after the flood events of 1987 which
devastated many regions of the Alps. The event of October 2000 recalled recently the
strong effects of these natural hazards.
A3 :This type of hazard is very sudden and it is difficult to install an alert system in the
cases where the probability occurrence is low. In the case of Pissot, nothing was done
because such an event was not considered.
A4 : Probability analysis was made only for flow of water (flood discharge analysis).
About debris flow, the historical study made after the event show that a more or less
similar flow occurred one time each century. Smaller events occurred every 10 to 20
years. The geological cartography of the debris in the catchment and the slope of the
fan show that this kind of sediment transport is the principal one at this site.
A7 : Cette au