Sidebar:

Historically, iron was produced by the hot-blast method, or later, the anthracite furnace.
Either way, the fundamental activity in iron making involved a worker stirring small batches
of pig iron and cinder until the iron separated from the slag. Called "puddling," this was
highly skilled work, but was also hot, strenuous, and dangerous. It required a lot of
experience as well as a hearty constitution. Puddlers were proud, independent, and highly
paid.

Puddlers founded the first trade union in the iron and steel industry, the Sons of Vulcan, in
Pittsburgh in 1858. In 1876, this union merged with three other labor organizations to form
the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers. This was the union that Andrew
Carnegie defeated in the Homestead Strike of 1892, leaving the union in shambles and the
industry essentially unorganized until the 1930s.

William S. Pretzer
How is iron made?

Background

Iron is one of the most common elements on earth. Nearly every construction of man contains
at least a little iron. It is also one of the oldest metals and was first fashioned into useful and
ornamental objects at least 3,500 years ago.

Pure iron is a soft, grayish-white metal. Although iron is a common element, pure iron is
almost never found in nature. The only pure iron known to exist naturally comes from fallen
meteorites. Most iron is found in minerals formed by the combination of iron with other
elements. Iron oxides are the most common. Those minerals near the surface of the earth that
have the highest iron content are known as iron ores and are mined commercially.

Iron ore is converted into various types of iron through several processes. The most common
process is the use of a blast furnace to produce pig iron which is about 92-94% iron and 3-5%
carbon with smaller amounts of other elements. Pig iron has only limited uses, and most of
this iron goes on to a steel mill where it is converted into various steel alloys by further
reducing the carbon content and adding other elements such as manganese and nickel to give
the steel specific properties.

History

Historians believe that the Egyptians were the first people to work with small amounts of
iron, some five or six thousand years ago. The metal they used was apparently extracted from
meteorites. Evidence of what is believed to be the first example of iron mining and smelting
points to the ancient Hittite culture in what is now Turkey. Because iron was a far superior
material for the manufacture of weapons and tools than any other known metal, its production
was a closely guarded secret. However, the basic technique was simple, and the use of iron
gradually spread. As useful as it was compared to other materials, iron had disadvantages.
The quality of the tools made from it was highly variable, depending on the region from
which the iron ore was taken and the method used to extract the iron. The chemical nature of
the changes taking place during the extraction were not understood; in particular, the
importance of carbon to the metal's hardness. Practices varied widely in different parts of the
world. There is evidence, for example, that the Chinese were able to melt and cast iron
implements very early, and that the Japanese produced amazing results with steel in small
amounts, as evidenced by heirloom swords dating back centuries. Similar breakthroughs were
made in the Middle East and India, but the processes never emerged into the rest of the world.
For centuries the Europeans lacked methods for heating iron to the melting point at all. To
produce iron, they slowly burned iron ore with wood in a clay-lined oven. The iron separated
from the surrounding rock but never quite melted. Instead, it formed a crusty slag which was
removed by hammering. This repeated heating and hammering process mixed oxygen with
the iron oxide to produce iron, and removed the carbon from the metal. The result was nearly
pure iron, easily shaped with hammers and tongs but too soft to take and keep a good edge.
Because the metal was shaped, or wrought, by hammering, it came to be called wrought iron.

Tools and weapons brought back to Europe from the East were made of an iron that had been
melted and cast into shape. Retaining more carbon, cast iron is harder than wrought iron and
will hold a cutting edge. However, it is also more brittle than wrought iron. The European
iron workers knew the Easterners had better iron, but not the processes involved in fashioning
stronger iron products. Entire nations launched efforts to discover the process.

The first known European breakthrough in the production of cast iron, which led quickly to
the first practical steel, did not come until 1740. In that year, Benjamin Huntsman took out a
patent for the melting of material for the production of steel springs to be used in
clockmaking. Over the next 20 years or so, the procedure became more widely adopted.
Huntsman used a blast furnace to melt wrought iron in a clay crucible. He then added
carefully measured amounts of pure charcoal to the melted metal. The resulting alloy was
both strong and flexible when cast into springs. Since Huntsman was originally interested
only in making better clocks, his crucible steel led directly to the development of nautical
chronometers, which, in turn, made global navigation possible by allowing mariners to
precisely determine their east/west position. The fact that he had also invented modern
metallurgy was a side-effect which he apparently failed to notice.

Raw Materials

The raw materials used to produce pig iron in a blast furnace are iron ore, coke, sinter, and
limestone. Iron ores are mainly iron oxides and include magnetite, hematite, limonite, and
many other rocks. The iron content of these ores ranges from 70% down to 20% or less. Coke
is a substance made by heating coal until it becomes almost pure carbon. Sinter is made of
lesser grade, finely divided iron ore which, is roasted with coke and lime to remove a large
amount of the impurities in the ore. Limestone occurs naturally and is a source of calcium
carbonate.

Other metals are sometimes mixed with iron in the production of various forms of steel, such
as chromium, nickel, manganese, molybdenum, and tungsten.

The Ore Extraction and Refining Process

Before iron ore can be used in a blast furnace, it must be extracted from the ground and
partially refined to remove most of the impurities.

Extraction

Much of the world's iron ore is extracted through open pit mining in which the surface
of the ground is removed by heavy machines, often over a very large area, to expose
the ore beneath. In cases where it is not economical to remove the surface, shafts are
dug into the earth, with side tunnels to follow the layer of ore.

Refining

The mined ore is crushed and sorted. The best grades of ore contain over 60% iron.
Lesser grades are treated, or refined, to remove various contaminants before the ore is
shipped to the blast furnace. Collectively, these refining methods are called
beneficiation and include further crushing, washing with water to float sand and clay
away, magnetic separation, pelletizing, and sintering. As more of the world's known
supply of high iron content ore is depleted, these refining techniques have become
increasingly important.
The refined ore is then loaded on trains or ships and transported to the blast furnace
site.

The Manufacturing
Process

Charging the blast furnace

After processing, the ore is blended with other ore and goes to the blast furnace. A
blast furnace is a tower-shaped structure, made of steel, and lined with refractory, or
heat-resistant bricks. The mixture of raw material, or charge, enters at the top of the
blast furnace. At the bottom of the furnace, very hot air is blown, or blasted, in
through nozzles called tuye'res. The coke burns in the presence of the hot air. The
oxygen in the air reacts with the carbon in the coke to form carbon monoxide. The
carbon monoxide then reacts with the iron ore to form carbon dioxide and pure iron.

Separating the iron from the slag

The melted iron sinks to the bottom of the furnace. The limestone combines with the
rock and other impurities in the ore to form a slag which is lighter than the iron and
floats on top. As the volume of the charge is reduced, more is continually added at the
top of the furnace. The iron and slag are drawn off separately from the bottom of the
furnace. The melted iron might go to a further alloying process, or might be cast into
ingots called pigs. The slag is carried away for disposal.

Treating the gases

The hot gases produced in the chemical reactions are drawn off at the top and routed
to a gas cleaning plant where they are cleaned, or scrubbed, and sent back into the
 furnace; the remaining carbon monoxide, in particular, is useful to the chemical
reactions going on within the furnace.

A blast furnace normally runs day and night for several years. Eventually the brick
lining begins to crumble, and the furnace is then shut down for maintenance.

Quality Control

The blast furnace operation is highly instrumented and is monitored continuously. Times and
temperatures are checked and recorded. The chemical content of the iron ores received from
the various mines are checked, and the ore is blended with other iron ore to achieve the
desired charge. Samples are taken from each pour and checked for chemical content and
mechanical properties such as strength and hardness.

Byproducts/Waste

There are a great many possible environmental effects from the iron industry. The first and
most obvious is the process of open pit mining. Huge tracts of land are stripped to bare rock.
Today, depleted mining sites are commonly used as landfills, then covered over and
landscaped. Some of these landfills themselves become environmental problems, since in the
recent past, some were used for the disposal of highly toxic substances which leached into
soil and water.

The process of extracting iron from ore produces great quantities of poisonous and corrosive
gases. In practice, these gases are scrubbed and recycled. Inevitably, however, some small
amounts of toxic gases escape to the atmosphere.

A byproduct of iron purification is slag, which is produced in huge amounts. This material is
largely inert, but must still be disposed of in landfills.

Ironmaking uses up huge amounts of coal. The coal is not used directly, but is first reduced to
coke which consists of almost pure carbon. The many chemical byproducts of coking are
almost all toxic, but they are also commercially useful. These products include ammonia,
which is used in a vast number of products; phenol, which is used to make plastics, cutting
oils, and antiseptics; cresols, which go into herbicides, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and
photographic chemicals; and toluene, which is an ingredient in many complex chemical
products such as solvents and explosives.

Scrap iron and steelin the form of old cars, appliances and even entire steel-girdered
buildingsare also an environmental concern. Most of this material is recycled, however,
since steel scrap is an essential resource in steelmaking. Scrap which isn't recycled eventually
turns into iron oxide, or rust, and returns to the ground.

The Future
On the surface, the future of iron productionespecially in the United Statesappears
troubled. Reserves of high-quality ore have become considerably depleted in areas where it
can be economically extracted. Many long-time steel mills have closed.

However, these appearances are deceiving. New ore-enrichment techniques have made the
use of lower-grade ore much more attractive, and there is a vast supply of that ore. Many steel
plants have closed in recent decades, but this is largely because fewer are needed. The
efficiency of blast furnaces alone has improved remarkably. At the beginning of this century,
the largest blast furnace in the United States produced 644 tons of pig iron a day. It is
believed that soon the possible production of a single furnace will reach 4,000 tons per day.
Since many of these more modern plants have been built overseas, it has actually become
more economical in some cases to ship steel across the ocean than to produce it in older U.S.
plants.
Applications
Iron is the most used of all the metals, comprising 95% of all the metal tonnage produced
worldwide. Its combination of low cost and high strength make it indispensable, especially in
applications like automobiles, the hulls of large ships, and structural components for
buildings. Steel is the best known alloy of iron, and some of the forms that iron can take
include:

Pig iron has 4% 5% carbon and contains varying amounts of contaminants such as
sulfur, silicon and phosphorus. Its only significance is that of an intermediate step on
the way from iron ore to cast iron and steel.
Cast iron contains 2% 4.0% carbon , 1% 6% silicon , and small amounts of
manganese. Contaminants present in pig iron that negatively affect the material
properties, such as sulfur and phosphorus, have been reduced to an acceptable level. It
has a melting point in the range of 14201470 K, which is lower than either of its two
main components, and makes it the first product to be melted when carbon and iron
are heated together. Its mechanical properties vary greatly, dependent upon the form
carbon takes in the alloy. 'White' cast irons contain their carbon in the form of
cementite, or iron carbide. This hard, brittle compound dominates the mechanical
properties of white cast irons, rendering them hard, but unresistant to shock. The
broken surface of a white cast iron is full of fine facets of the broken carbide, a very
pale, silvery, shiny material, hence the appellation. In grey iron the carbon exists free
as fine flakes of graphite, and also renders the material brittle due to the stress-raising
nature of the sharp edged flakes of graphite. A newer variant of grey iron, referred to
as ductile iron is specially treated with trace amounts of magnesium to alter the shape
of graphite to spheroids, or nodules, vastly increasing the toughness and strength of
the material.
Carbon steel contains between 0.4% and 1.5% carbon, with small amounts of
manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon.
Wrought iron contains less than 0.2% carbon. It is a tough, malleable product, not as
fusible as pig iron. It has a very small amount of carbon, a few tenths of a percent. If
honed to an edge, it loses it quickly. Wrought iron is characterised, especially in old
samples, by the presence of fine 'stringers' or filaments of slag entrapped in the metal.
Wrought iron does not rust particularly quickly when used outdoors. It has largely
been replaced by mild steel for "wrought iron" gates and blacksmithing. Mild steel
does not have the same corrosion resistance but is cheaper and more widely available.
Alloy steels contain varying amounts of carbon as well as other metals, such as
chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, etc. They are used for structural
purposes, as their alloy content raises their cost and necessitates justification of their
use. Recent developments in ferrous metallurgy have produced a growing range of
microalloyed steels, also termed 'HSLA' or high-strength, low alloy steels, containing
tiny additions to produce high strengths and often spectacular toughness at minimal
cost.
 Iron(III) oxides are used in the production of magnetic storage media in computers.
They are often mixed with other compounds, and retain their magnetic properties in
solution.

The main drawback to iron and steel is that pure iron, and most of its alloys, suffer badly
from rust if not protected in some way. Painting, galvanization, plastic coating and bluing are
some techniques used to protect iron from rust by excluding water and oxygen or by
sacrificial protection.

Iron is believed to be the critical missing nutrient in the ocean that limits the growth of
plankton. Experimental iron fertilization of areas of the ocean using iron(II) sulfate has
proven successful in increasing plankton growth[1][2][3]. Larger scaled efforts are being
attempted with the hope that iron seeding and ocean plankton growth can remove carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere, thereby counteracting the greenhouse effect that causes global
warming[4].
Level 1
Index

Earth
Aims & Objectives, Level 1
Sciences
Home Earth Science 1.Y: Applied Geology
6 Lectures

LECTURER: Dr C.J.R. Braithwaite (Room 422a)

c.braithwaite@earthsci.gla.ac.uk

Mineral Deposits

Mining Methods

Petroleum Geology

Water Supply

Geology, Cities and Population

Mineral Deposits

AIMS:
To explain the nature of ore deposits and the general conditions which
determine their accumulation

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this course component, students should be able to:

1. Define ores as mineral deposits in which a desired element occurs

in sufficient abundance to make it economic to extract.

2. Define the grade, the level of concentration of an element in an ore,

noting that the lowest grade which can be economically exploited at a
particular time is the cut off grade. The level of the cut off for a
particular element varies by the day and is determined by market
conditions.

3. Recall that there are different values of cut-off grade for different
elements depending upon scarcity. As a rough guide list a few
minimum exploitable grades.

Iron, about 25%

Zinc 2.5%
Copper 0.5%
Tin 0.2%
Gold 0.0008%

4. Recall that cut-off values reflect the balance between average

abundances of these elements in the Earth's crust and their
commercial value.

5. Recall that average abundances are not "economic", and elements

have to be concentrated before they can be economically extracted.
Note levels of concentration: the average abundance of iron is 5.8%,
demand for it is relatively low but it requires a concentration about 5
times to be economic, copper averages 0.0058% and needs to be
concentrated 100 times before it can be recovered. Gold is normally
0.0000004% of crustal rocks and needs a concentration factor of 2000!
It is important to note that these concentrations only bring the mineral
to the cut-off grade.

6. Recall the contrast between high volume low grade and low volume
high grade deposits.

7. Recall that processes of concentration of "ore" formation, fall into

two broad categories: "internal" processes and "surface" processes.

8. Recall that the most important internal processes are those which
occur during the cooling of magmas and the formation of igneous
rocks.

9. Describe magmatic segregation. As magmas cool crystallization

occurs over a range of temperatures. In basic and ultrabasic magmas
at about 1000 deg C, crystals of Chromite (Fe2CrO4), Magnetite
(Fe2O3) and Ilmenite (FeTiO3) may form first. These sink to the
bottom of the magma chamber and form workable concentrations.
Crystals can be swept through the magma chamber by slow moving
currents and behave as a sediment, giving rise to layering, grading,
and current bedding. Accumulations of this kind are seen in magnetite,
chromite and platinum-rich ultrabasic bodies such as the Bushveldt
intrusion in South Africa.

10. Describe also the formation of immiscible droplets of Fe, Ni, and
Cu sulphides early in the cooling history of the magma. Since these
are relatively heavy (pentlandite, the nickel-iron sulphide has a density
of 5.0 as against the average for basic magmas of 2.9) they also sink,
to accumulate at the base of the intrusion. Important deposits occur at
the base of the Bushveldt intrusion as well as in Norway and Canada
(Sudbury).

11. Recall how elements which are unable to fit easily into the atomic
structure of common silicate minerals crystallizing from a magma,
perhaps because of differences in ionic radius or charge, may
concentrate in the later derived fluids, along with volatile gases. These
may be injected into fractures within the margins of the igneous body
and also into its surrounding envelope. Temperatures may be relatively
low and crystals may grow to large size to form pegmatites. Such
rocks may be a source of micas and minerals such as cassiterite (tin
ore).

12. Recall how residual watery fluids may also bring about substantial
alteration of the rock envelope surrounding an intrusion, penetrating
fractures and other pores. These give rise to hydrothermal ores
which may include deposits of Cu, Pb, Zn, Hg, Ag and many Au and W
ores. The mining districts of Leadhills in Scotland, the Pennines, and
Cornwall are all of this type. Veins are thin sheets which occur, filling
joints, faults, or other fractures. Most are "barren" and contain only
calcite or quartz, but these minerals also occur as gangue in fissures
where they are associated with pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, or wolfram.

13. Recall how ores originating from hydrothermal fluids may also
occur disseminated within igneous bodies. The porphyry copper
deposits of the Andes, which characteristically occur in porphyritic
granodiorites, are of this type. There is commonly a broad zonation
with minerals such as magnetite, wolfram and cassiterite occurring at
higher temperatures and pressures, chalcopyrite and galena under
intermediate conditions, and pyrite with antimony and silver sulphides
at low temperatures and shallow depths.

14. Explain that the cross-cutting nature of the veins and the
appearance of identical sequences of minerals in widely differing
country rocks shows that the fluids have an independent origin but
note that there are two theories of derivation.
a) Implies a magmatic source, noting that hydrothermal deposits are
often associated with acid or intermediate igneous rocks. This places
the source of both fluids and heat within the intrusions.

b) Suggests that waters may have originated within sediments and

been buried at the time of deposition, or have been expelled from
rocks undergoing compaction or metamorphism, or indeed may be
surface waters circulating within the crust. The circulation of these is
driven by heat which may be related to igneous activity or to other
thermal gradients. The elements of value are thought to be derived
from the rocks through which the waters pass and to be precipitated
either within the sediment pile (as in the Mississippi Valley lead-zinc-
barite deposits) or as the fluids emerge on the sea floor as hot springs
(Black Smokers).

15. Recall that some valuable materials such as salt deposits form
simply by the evaporation of seawater, gypsum appears when the
water volume is reduced to about 20%, halite at about 10% and potash
salts at about 4%. Evaporite deposits are major sources of Mg, Na, Br
and Cl.

16. Recall that chemically precipitated iron oxides account for most of
the world production of iron. The most important are Banded
Ironstones. These are laminated sequences of haematite and silica
and a variety of sedimentary structures suggest deposition in very
shallow water. One of the largest deposits is in the Lake Superior
region of Canada where banded ores 600m thick can be traced over
hundreds of kilometres. Similar deposits are seen in South America,
South Africa and Australia. They are typically Precambrian (32,000-
1700ma).

17. Recall that younger iron ores occur on a smaller scale. In Britain
the Northampton Sand Ironstones are oolitic deposits consisting of the
iron silicate chamosite together with mud consisting of the iron
carbonate siderite. Since the iron in these ores is ferrous they probably
formed under slightly reducing conditions, but they contain current
bedding and ripple marks and associated limestones contain fossils
which suggest deposition in shallow water.

18. Recall that in Zambia and Germany important sedimentary

deposits contain copper, lead and zinc. The Kupferschiefer in Germany
forms a layer of about 60cm thick extending over 3,200km 2. The
sediment is a black organic rich shale containing minute granules of
sulphides in which copper can average 3%. The minerals seem to
have been deposited in a shallow anoxic sea but the source of the
metals is not known.

19. Recall that further concentrations may be made by surface

processes. If rocks containing disseminated ores are subject to
weathering, valuable components may be concentrated. This may
occur in two ways:

a) Worthless components may be leached to leave a residual

concentrate of, for example, aluminium oxide (bauxite) as in Jamaica
and Australia. In Cuba deep tropical weathering of ultrabasic rocks has
lead to the formation of iron oxides (laterites) rich in nickel.

b) Elements which are leached may be reprecipitated within the soil

profile as a zone of secondary enrichment. A number of important
deposits of copper minerals have been formed in this way.

20. Recall that mineral grains released by weathering may be

transported with other sediments and concentrated by hydrodynamic
processes. Because grains of gold, diamonds, etc. are very much
heavier than those of other minerals of comparable size they are
sorted out by current action and concentrated in areas where there are
rapid changes in velocity, such as on point-bars or below waterfalls.
These enriched deposits are called placers. Deposits of rubies and
sapphires in Sri Lanka formed in this way and in Namibia beach sands
contain diamonds.

Mining Methods

AIMS:
Having previously examined the nature of ore deposits and the idea of
a cut-off grade, contrasting high volume/low value and high value/low
volume deposits, the aim here is to consider how these characteristics
determine the methods by which deposits can be worked.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this course component, students should be able to:

1. Define quarrying, noting that it is typical of high volume-low value

extraction and is most commonly used for the recovery of building
stones and crushed rock aggregate. Note that there are important
differences between these.
2. Recall that aggregate production from igneous or sedimentary
rocks, requires that the bulk material is reduced to particles of a size
suitable for the manufacture of concrete or road surfacing. The
production of limestone for cement has a similar need. Carefully
positioned rows of drill holes charged with explosives are used to bring
down a screen of rock which can be cleared by mechanical shovels for
crushing and processing. In modern practice blasting may only occur
once a week or less and is capable of bringing down large volumes of
suitable material. Upstanding hills or outcrops on gentle slopes can be
worked laterally, as a series of terraces whose height is determined by
the stability of the rock slope. Because materials worked in this way
are typically of low value it is important that transport costs are also
kept low and therefore quarries must either be positioned near to
markets or close to cheap transport (rail or ships).

3. Contrast, the extraction of building stones which in general avoids

the use of high impact explosives and seeks to exploit the occurrence
of naturally occurring joints, bedding in sedimentary rocks or stress-
release joints in igneous rocks. Easily worked sedimentary rocks such
as the Jurassic Limestones of the Cotswolds are "freestones". Large
blocks are removed for sawing or may be cut in place by the use of
wire ropes or, with more friable rocks, chainsaws. Whereas in the past
the blocks themselves became load-bearing, it is now common to use
concrete construction and to reserve the more attractive and
expensive decorative stones simply for cladding.

4. Recall that high volume ores such as porphyry copper deposits may
also be worked by open pit methods, as in Chuquicamata in Chile and
Bingham Canyon in the USA. These excavations may become so
deep that they must be pumped to draw down the water table. Open
pit methods may also be used for the extraction of bedded iron ores
and coal, especially in the latter where large numbers of thin seams
occur near the surface. Drilling and blasting are the principal means of
freeing the coal or ore which is then separated from the waste rock.
Waste can be used to backfill the excavation and ultimately to reclaim
the land since working of this kind has important environmental
impacts both during exploitation and subsequently.

5. Recall that strip-mining is usually applied to horizontally bedded

sedimentary ores and is seen in some coal mining and oil-shale
working in the USA and formerly in the exploitation of the Northampton
Sand Ironstones in Britain.

6. Describe the process of strip-mining. The thickness of the

overburden (the material covering the valuable material. is critical.
Parallel trenches are cut. The first trench removes the overburden
which is taken and placed on the margins of the proposed working
area. Overburden from a second trench, parallel to the first, can then
be displaced to fill the first trench and expose workable ore.
Successive strips are now removed to displace overburden to the
worked out strips, leaving new ore exposed and the worked out area
ready for grading and reclamation. The working as a whole advances
as a single long wall, usually by the use of power shovels and walking
draglines. it is only since the 1940's that planning regulations in Britain
have demanded that land be properly reinstated. The main
disadvantage of the method is the drop in the land surface, equivalent
to the thickness of the worked deposit. However, the advantages are
low cost, high productivity with very little lead time, all the ore is
produced and the strips can be rapidly returned to farming or any other
activity. There may be further benefits in improved gradients and
drainage. There are, however, large areas in the USA where the land
has not been properly restored and in Britain there is still a legacy of
workings which took place before legislation came into effect.

7. Describe the special techniques which can be applied to the working

of soft or poorly consolidated materials.

8. Recall that in Britain hydraulic working is applied almost exclusively

to workings in the China Clay (kaolinite) deposits associated with the
Cornish granites. High pressure water jets are played on the surface of
the weathered granite (clay), washing down loose material to the floor
of the pit. From here it is pumped to a series of tanks in which quartz
and mica are separated before the clay itself is ultimately allowed to
settle and dry. The clay is dug out and removed to mechanical dryers
for processing. Pits obviously work downwards, following the alteration
zones, but cannot be filled since this would preclude any further
working. Thus, these methods generate very large holes and large
volumes of waste are usually dumped on the surface. Although this is
not toxic it leads to considerable environmental problems on the
margins of good farmland and of the Dartmoor National Park where
there are conflicts with conservation and tourist use of the land and
local high levels of unemployment.

9. Recall that dredging is another wet method which can be applied to

processing any loose material where the water table is close to the
surface. In Britain it is applied to the local recovery of sands and
gravels but in Malaysia it is used on a large scale for tin-bearing
gravels and in SW Africa it is used to recover diamonds. Although
some dredges are land-based and simply work below the water table
the bulk are ships, relying on draglines, buckets, or suction to pick up
the valuable deposits. Some processing may occur on board, to
concentrate valuable materials, but products can be off-loaded into
barges or pumped along pipelines. Pipelines can also be used to divert
waste away from working areas and, indeed, to begin reclamation.
Note the general use of pipelines in pumping materials and transport of
chalk 90km from Dunstable to Rugby. Where sands and gravels are
exploited numerous water-filled holes are produced. West of London
these have become important areas for wildlife conservation and for
recreation.

10. Recall that high value low volume ores found at depth can only be
recovered by mining. Because of the high cost of removal of the host
rock methods are geared to exploiting only the valuable material.

11. Describe coal as a good example of a bedded material worked by

deep mining. It was worked by the Romans but exploitation was small-
scale up to the 16th century. Initially workings relied on surface outcrop
with shallow adits following horizontal or gently dipping seams into the
hillside. Later, bell-pits consisted of a vertical shaft which expanded
outwards within the coal. These were usually worked until the
overhang became so large that they collapsed and then a new pit was
started alongside. Although such structures were shallow they can be
a serious engineering problem since they are often numerous and
unrecorded. Around Glasgow it is common to find them in foundation
excavations.

12. Recall that even in the Stone Age men were sinking deeper shafts
and galleries in the search for valuable materials (flints. and as the
demand for coal grew methods became more sophisticated.

13. Define Room-and-Pillar, (also known as Post-and-Stall), noting

that it was used extensively in an attempt to work long distances from
relatively expensive shafts. It is most easily applied to near-horizontal
seams. Rooms are excavated to leave substantial pillars which may
provide long-term stability. Locally, however, these were robbed or
even removed before abandonment and surface subsidence followed.
Depending upon the size of the pillars necessary to achieve stability
this can be a very wasteful method. Once again, around Glasgow,
unrecorded workings provide an engineering hazard.

14. Define Longwall working, noting that it was developed partly to

allow more men to the working face but has proved to have clear
advantages for mechanization. Working faces with automated cutters
can be more than 100m long. Parallel roads are driven to the working
face from the shaft or a trunk road. These are well supported and the
face is cut to link the ends of the two roads. Two distinct methods may
be adopted. The primary roads may be cut to their expected limit and
the face then retreats towards the shaft, or the face may advance. In
either event the face is propped hydraulically over a very narrow zone
and as it moves the resulting space is packed with waste and allowed
to collapse. A retreating longwall is initially expensive as long roads
must be driven in advance and little coal is produced until these are
complete, but is generally safer since it retreats into sound rock.
Advancing faces are economically attractive since coal is produced
almost immediately, but leave the volume between the roads in a
collapsed state between the workings.

15. Describe how, until recently, mining generated substantial waste,

giving unsightly and sometimes dangerous tips. Modern pits produce
little waste, most being packed underground, saving the cost of
bringing it to the surface and reducing subsidence. However, some
subsidence or "draw" is almost inevitable.. It spreads outwards from
the worked area and the "angle of draw" between the face and the
extent of the subsidence is a measure of the thickness of the layer
which has been removed, and the depth. Buildings are damaged in the
zone of draw as the wave of subsidence passes. They are first
compressed at the foot of the wave and then subjected to tension as
they pass over the crest. Combined, these can result in severe
structural damage.

16. Describe how, although longwall methods can be applied to a

variety of bedded deposits, the majority of metal mines are in high-
angle bodies such as veins or pipes. Ores are normally removed from
these by a variety of stoping methods with shafts and feeders being
driven which are then supplied with ore broken from above, extending
upwards (stoping). Sometimes pillars are left as supports, but
successive levels are abandoned and new levels opened below by
adits, producing what may eventually be a very elaborate system,
including ventilation shafts and underground crushing and storage
facilities.

17. Describe the principles of salt dissolution, noting that in Britain salt
represents a special case. In Teeside it was worked by large-scale
room and pillar methods. Obviously, with thick deposits, this is cost
effective and waste is not a consideration. In Cheshire it has been
exploited by pumping down water which dissolves the salt and can
then be brought back to the surface and evaporated. This is very
efficient because removal of the salt is complete and there is no waste,
but the result can be severe subsidence.