Introduction to Stylistics

Department of European,
American and Intercultural Studies
2016-2017

WEEK 4 - LECTURE 1
Dr. Margherita Dore
margherita.dore@uniroma1.it

Overview
Language Variation and Dialects
Accents
Dialects in Literature
Language Variation and Social Groups
Register
Medium
Domain
Tenor

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 But before starting
Something to cheer you up

But please do not agree with Homer

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Dialects
Dialects are semi-permanent language varieties of
language which vary mainly according to
geographical region and social class:

Yorkshire dialect, Lancashire dialect, London

Cockney, but also working class dialect, middle
class dialect

As for English, many people equate dialects with

accents, but accents only account for dialect
variation in relation to pronunciation (phonetics).
Dialects also vary in terms of other linguistic levels,
particularly lexis and grammar.
 Dialect

Dialect is defined through vocabulary:

sofa (North America), couch (UK), davenport (elder
person, the name of a company who used to make them),
chesterfield (UK in the 1900s) or divan (UK, Turkish origin)

Dialect is defined through grammar:

yall (South), youse (Bronx), yunz (Pittsburgh) for the
second person plural....

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Accent
When we hear someone using a different pronunciation
but saying the same words we would have used, we say
that person has an accent.

Accent is the phonological part and aspect of a dialect

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v-en-iDeZEE

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 Language Variation
Language defines us even if we think it does not!

We tend to think that the way we speak is perfectly normal

and natural while others talk funny!

Examples:
U.S. White male Bubba -> slang for a white, uneducated
and assertive man from the southern United States (Urban
Dictionary)

The Valley Girl of California

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=81IZDhXeJBk

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Dialect in literature 1
Way a wee screwed up protestant face an' a head of black hair a
was born, in a state of original sin. Me ma didn't like me, but
who's te blame the poor woman, sure a didn't look like a catholic
wain atall. The state of original sin didn't last long. That's wan
good thing about me ma, she maybe didn't like me but by god she
done hir duty by me an' didn't lave me lyin' there in the clutches of
the divil. That very day a was took te the chapel at the tap of the
town be me godmother, that me ma didn't like either, an' hir
husband who could have been me uncle if me ma hada married
hes brother who was handsome an' beautiful an' iverythin' me da
wasn't. But me ma, on a point of principle, jilted him, an' he went
te England way a broken heart an' married an oul' woman an'
made a lot of money.

(Frances Molloy, No Mate for the Magpie, p. 1)

 Dialect in literature - Key

With a small screwed up protestant face and I head of black

hair I was born, in a state of original sin. My mother didn't
like me, but who's to blame the poor woman, because I didn't
look like a catholic child at all. The state of original sin didn't last
long. That's one good thing about my mother, maybe she didn't
like me but by god she did her duty by me and didn't lave me
lying there in the clutches of the devil. That very day a was taken
to the chapel at the top of the town by my godmother, who my
mother didn't like either, and her husband who could have been
my uncle if my mother had married his brother who was
handsome and beautiful and everything my dad wasn't. (6) But
my mother, on a point of principle, jilted him, and he went to
England with a broken heart and married an old woman and
made a lot of money.

(Frances Molloy, No Mate for the Magpie, p. 1)

Questions and Comments

Frances Molloy, No Mate for the Magpie, p. 1

What dialect do you think is being represented?

The novel is set in Belfast and the dialect is
working class Catholic Northern Irish.

Why is Standard English not being used?

The novel is a first-person narration and the character is of a
woman who comes from a working class, Northern Irish
background. Therefore, the author probably felt it right she
needed to be narrated in this marked dialectal form.
 Dialect in literature 2
[Context: Nellie Dean is reading out a letter which Isabella Linton, who has
recently married Heathcliff, has written to her. In this part of the letter
Isabella reports part of a conversation she had with the servant Joseph]

The contents of the pan began to boil, and he turned to plunge his hand
into the bowl I conjectured that this preparation was probably for our
supper, and, being hungry, I resolved it should be eatable; so, crying out
sharply, "I'll make the porridge!" I removed the vessel out of his reach, and
proceeded to take off my hat and riding habit. "Mr. Earnshaw," I continued,
"directs me to wait on myself: I will. I'm not going to act the lady among
you, for fear I should starve."
"Gooid Lord!" he muttered, sitting down, and stroking his ribbed stockings
from the knee to the ankle. "If there's to be fresh ortherings - just when I
getten used to two maisters, if I mun hev a mistress set oe'r my heead, it's
like time to be flitting. I niver did think to see t' day that I mud lave th' owld
place - but I doubt it's nigh at hand!"

(Emily Bront, Wuthering Heights, ch. 13, p. 128)

Questions and Comments

Emily Bront, Wuthering Heights, ch. 13, p. 128

What dialect does Isabella write in and what

dialect is Joseph represented as speaking?
Isabella appears to use a fairly formal Standard English,
which is appropriate for her social status: she is an
educated woman and at that time many women would not
have been able to write.
Joseph is an uneducated Yorkshire man, and so
is given a dialect representation. The variation
between the Standard English of the novel's narration
and the dialect indicating devices for Joseph help us to
imagine him as rough, uneducated, dressed in working
clothes, and so on.
 Dialect in literature 2
Emily Bront, Wuthering Heights, ch. 13, p. 128

Markers of Josephs dialect:

Gooid Lord!" he muttered, sitting down, and stroking his

ribbed stockings from the knee to the ankle. "If there's to be
fresh ortherings - just when I getten used to two maisters, if
I mun hev a mistress set oe'r my heead, it's like time to be
flitting. I niver did think to see t' day that I mud lave th' owld
place - but I doubt it's nigh at hand!"

(Emily Bront, Wuthering Heights, ch. 13, p. 128)

Language Variation and Social Groups

Language use is affected by the social group a
person belongs to (we all belong to at least one
social group)

Linguistics choices are driven by many factors.

Here we will look at:

Register

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 Register
Register is a variation of language and it is
determined by the subject matter. It is defined as a set
of choices among linguistic features, which have to be
recognised (and opposed to another register)
Examples of different registers can be:
Baby talk, also called motherese or parentese, or child-
directed speech
itsy-bisty (small); boo-boo (small cut or bruise),
jammies (pyjama), passy (pacifier),
nana (grandmother) pee-pee (urination or penis),
scrummy (tasty)

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Register
Examples of different registers can be:
Newspaper English, also called Block Language used in headlines
and it features:
1. dropping of the articles
2. dropping of the verb to be (especially with present the
continuous)
3. Special tense-system. It is unusual to find complex forms like
is coming or has produced; generally the simple present
form (comes, produces) is used, whether the headline is
about something that has happened, something that is
happened, or something that has happened repeatedly; the
infinitive is used to refer to future and the participle (with no auxiliary
verb) is used to in passive sentences

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 Register Tabloid vs. Broadsheet

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Register

Formality or appropriateness of the Register

depend on situation.

Register can vary according to:

Medium
Domain
Tenor
 Medium
Medium: (sometimes called 'mode') The
precise method and/or materials used to
convey discourse.

For example: written language may use the

medium of books, email, graffiti etc; spoken
language may use the medium of the
telephone, or public announcement etc.

Domain
Domain: (sometimes called 'field) it is scope or
field of influence. Language changes according
to the domain that the language is related to.

This includes (a) the subject matter being

spoken or written about (cf. 'the language of
science', 'the language of law') and (b) the
function that the language is being used for (cf.
'the language of advertising', 'the language of
government').
 Tenor
Tenor: the relationship between participants in situation -
roles and status - informal/formal everyday/scientific.

The tenor of language (e.g. how politely or formally

people speak) changes according to (a) who you are
talking or writing to (cf. the language we use when
talking to close friends compared with that used
when talking to strangers or people who are socially
distant from us) and (b) the social situation you find
yourself in (e.g. a child whose mother is a teacher
will talk to her in different ways, depending on
whether they are at home or at school).

Exercise 1 - Medium
(a) Identify which medium you think is involved
(b) how you know (i.e. what linguistic features are
associated with the medium you identified)
Monday, 11 November
Dear Mary,
I'm writing to you in reference to the Call for Papers I received last
Monday via our Mailing List Newsletter. I would be very happy to
contribute to your book, but I was wondering what is the
timeframe for submitting an abstract and, upon acceptance, the
paper. I am extremely busy these days and I'm afraid I might not
meet a tight deadline. I would be grateful if you could let me know
tomorrow (Tuesday) at the latest. You can e-mail me or call.
Best wishes,
Margherita
 Exercise 1 Medium - key

This is clearly a letter and so it is an example of

writing. The graphological layout, and formulaic
opening and closing, is typical of a letter. The
sentences are well-constructed and some of
them (sentences 2) are quite complex
grammatically. This is typical of writing.

Exercise 1 Domain
(a) Identify which domain they come from
(b) how you know (i.e. what linguistic features are associated with
each medium)
Text 1
The following provisions of this clause are a Statement of the
general aims of the Charity to which the Trustees are (subject to
the following) to have regard at all times but no part of or
provision in such Statement is to qualify derogate from add to or
otherwise affect the Objects set out in clause 3.1
Text 2
The exact way in which information is 'coded' in the auditory
nerve is not clear. However, we know that any single neurone is
activated only by vibration on a limited part of the basilar
membrane. Each neuron is 'tuned' and responds to only a limited
range of frequencies.
 Exercise 1 Domain - Key
Text 1: the Domain is Law, since this is an extract from a legal
document setting up a charitable trust. The term derogate can be
found mainly in the law, and clause, provisions here have special
meanings compared with their more normal uses. The lexis is
somewhat arcane, the grammar is complex, and also involves list
constructions with frequent use of 'and' and 'or. The grammatical
and punctuation characteristics are typical of legal documents
because they need to be worded in such a way that there are no
misunderstandings or ambiguities about what is said.

Text 2: it is taken from a book on the nervous system written for

students of psychology, biology and medicine. It has obvious
biological technical terms (e.g. 'auditory nerve', 'neurone') is written
so that complex material can be understood clearly. The language
of science is fairy formal as shown by the prevalent use of the of
passive constructions.

Exercise 1 Tenor
(a) Identify which of the extracts is from the tabloid, and which from the
broadsheet
(b) how you know (i.e. what linguistic features are associated with the
tenor of each medium)

PENSION AXE VOW

UNIONS yesterday threatened a wave of
strikes to stop bosses axing workers
pension schemes.
*************************************************************************************

TUC warns of strikes over pensions crisis BRITAIN'S

EMPLOYERS were put on alert yesterday that
employees were increasingly prepared to take
industrial action to defend their pensions, now the
single most important issue at work.
 Exercise 1 Tenor - key
Text 1: This extract is from a tabloid, The Sun; the
typical relationship between the paper and its relatively
uneducated typical readership is that most of them are
unlikely to read the whole article so they write the headline in
big capital letters. simple straightforward lexical items are
used ('bosses', 'workers'), emotionally loaded lexis -
'threatened', 'wave', 'axing' - aimed at portraying the issue is
as extreme terms as possible.

Text 2: This extract is from a broadsheet, The Independent;

The graphological style of the headline is less striking; the
lexis is considerably less emotive, even though 'strike' and
'crisis' occur along with more formal nouns: 'employers' and
'employees; sentence are more complex and formal.

Introduction to Stylistics
Department of European,
American and Intercultural Studies
2016-2017

WEEK 4 - LECTURE 2
Dr. Margherita Dore
margherita.dore@uniroma1.it
 Overview
What is Style
Graphology and Style
Authorial and Text Style
Lexical Analysis
Semantic Deviation
Grammatical Parallelism
Grammatical Analysis (The Tree Diagram)

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What is style?
Different soccer players have different, recognisable styles of
running, passing and shooting,
 What is style?
Different singers have different styles of singing

What is style?
In literary studies, style is most often
associated with individual authors.

Two different novelists might, for example,

write a description of the same event in very
different ways (cf. Wright, J. Hope 1996, Stylistics,
Section 3.9).

Essentially, in order to have style you need to

have alternative ways of doing the same
thing
 Exercise 1
Look at the four sentences below. What level of language is being used
to create the variations in style here? What style label do you think
characterises the different sequences and how is each style being
created?

1) The door opened. A large man appeared. He was

wearing a floppy hat. He was eating a sandwich.
(answer: simple style, sentences with one clause each)
2) The door opened, a large man appeared, wearing a
floppy hat, eating a sandwich.
3) The door opened and a large man appeared. And he
was wearing a floppy hat and eating a sandwich.
4) Door open. Large man. Floppy hat. Eating sandwich.

Exercise 1 - key
Example 1: simple style; simple sentences, consisting of just
one clause each.
Example 2: example of parataxis, or a listing structure. There is
one sentence, containing four clauses (the equivalent of the
four simple sentences in 1), each of which is juxtaposed, or
listed together (cf. the commas).
Example 3: 'coordinating' or 'additive' style. Each of the two
sentences has two clauses coordinated together by 'and', and
the second sentences is also 'joined' to the first by 'and'.
Example 4: 'elliptical' style; four sentences, but (a) the
grammatical words, (b) some word-internal grammatical
markers and (c) some of the lexical words which carry less
information (cf. 'appeared') are omitted. Elliptical sentences are
often used to create 'impressionistic' styles of description.
 Graphology and Style

Look at the example below. In Our Mutual Friend by

Charles Dickens, the character Mr Podsnap talks to
foreigners:
'How Do You Like London?'

Every word begins with a capital letter, thus suggesting that they
have to be pronounced in a way that gives them high, and equal
importance. This leads us to imagine someone speaking (a) more
slowly than usual, (b) louder than usual, (c) using a primary stress
for each word, no matter what its lexical/grammatical status, and
(d) with lengthened pronunciation of the words or even slight
pauses between the words (cf. Leech and Short 2007:105-106)

Authorial and Text Style

We talk about authorial and textual style when we can
associate a typical style of writing with a single novelist, e.g.
James Joyes, Virginia Wolf, John Steinbeck, Jane Austen
and D. H. Lawrence, and so on

So, when we talk about authorial style we also talk about text
style.

An interesting way to examine style is by looking at how a

novelist describes a character
 Example 2

(1)His eyes were very dark brown and there was a

hint of brown pigment in his eyeballs. (2)His cheek-bones
were high and wide, and strong deep lines cut down his
cheeks, in curves beside his mouth. (3)His lower lip was long,
and since his teeth protruded, the lips stretched to cover
them, for this man kept his lips closed. (4)His hands were
hard, with broad fingers and nails as thick and ridged as little
clam shells. (5)The space between thumb and forefinger and
the hams of his hands were shiny with callus.

(John Steinbeck , The Grapes of Wrath, Ch. 1)

Example 2 key (1/2)

Steinbecks writing style HERE seems very simple, external
and objective. It is about as near as you could get to a
neutral description of a photograph of a person. The
sentences are short and exhibit a repeated use of the linking x
be y structure. There is a marked absence of morphologically
complex and abstract nouns and adjectives, and there are no
verbs of perception.
(note the cut metaphor in (2) and the simile in (4))

The reality which Steinbeck sees seems to be transcribed so

that we can perceive it directly; the character is perceived as s
simple and straightforward.

(for an extensive discussion cf. Leech and Short 2007: 154)

 Example 2 key (2/2)
Statistical analysis:
Category Steinbeck

Words 92
Sentences 5
S-Length average 18.4

Sentence length average 'norm' for prose writing was calculated in

the 1970s by a Swedish linguist called Ellegrd. His "norm" (set at
17.8) was based on a 1 million words corpus of 20th century
American English writing called the Brown Corpus (the corpus was
collected at Brown University in 1964). As you can see Steinbecks
style is very close to the norm, thus confirming it is a simple and
straightforward.
(cf. Leech and Short 2007: 37-55)

Lexical Analysis
Here we consider the qualitative aspects of writing, which reveal
text style (meaning and effect).
In the extract from John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath

1) most of the words are from our basic vocabulary (e.g. 'eyes',
'brown', 'little'). Arguably the only exception is 'protruded',
though ''pigment' might also be included.
2) the lexis refers almost entirely to body parts and their physical
qualities; few repetitions of lexically full words, all referring to
physical attributes of the man and his physical appearance
('brown', 'lips', 'hands' and the morpheme 'eye' in 'eyes' and
'eyeballs'). This also indicates how much the focus of the
description is restricted to just one individual.
3) Words are very simple in structural terms. We can show this
by looking at the syllable structure: 79 are 1-syllable words, 12
are 2-syllable words and only 2 are 3-syllable words.
 Semantic Deviation
Semantic deviation in the extract from John Steinbeck's The
Grapes of Wrath

Steinbecks passage is more or less devoid of

semantic deviation, and this is another way in which
the writing seems simple, objective and
photographic. Nonetheless, some deviation can be
found: metaphor in S2. The lines do not literally cut
down the man's cheeks. Yet, this metaphor is so
common that you may not even notice it. In other
words, these semantic deviations may not seem
very deviant at all because they are not unusual.

Grammatical Parallelism
Can you analyse the extract from John Steinbeck's The Grapes of
Wrath in terms of grammatical parallelism?

The first clause of each of sentences 1-4 begin with 'his X',
where X is some part of the man. This 'his X' noun phrase is
the subject of the predicator 'were', and the complement of
the predicator in each case is an adjective-head phrase,
sometimes consisting of just one word (e.g. 'hard') and
sometimes a slightly more complex phrase (e.g. 'very dark
brown'). So all 4 clauses have the structure SPC, referring
to a part of the man and specifying some quality of that part.
There is also some elementary parallelism at a phrase
level, usually involving the simple coordination of adjectives,
nouns or simple noun phrases (e.g. 'high and wide', 'the
space between thumb and forefinger and the hams of his
hands').
 Grammar
Can you work on the grammatical analysis of S2 in the
extract from John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath

(2)His cheek-bones were high and wide, and strong deep

lines cut down his cheeks, in curves beside his mouth.

Grammar - Key
Grammatical analysis of S2 in the extract from John
Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath

n
 Bibliography

What we covered so far:

L. Wright, J. Hope, Stylistics, 1996 (Study Ch. 1, 2,

3)
C. Gregoriou, English Literary Stylistics, 2009
(Study Ch. 1, 2 and practice your understanding
with Ch.3 )
Simpson, P. (2004) Stylistics: A Resource Book for
Students. London: Routledge. (Study Sections A1-
A6 and B1-B4)
Leech, G. N. and Short, M. H. (2007) Style In
Fiction, 2nd edition. London: Longman (Study Ch.
1, 2, 3)